document_title: Gastropod shell

question_text: the opening to the snail shell is known as the

text: Gastropod shell

text: Formation of the shell[edit]

text: The gastropod shell has three major layers secreted by the mantle. The calcareous central layer, tracum, is typically made of calcium carbonate precipitated into an organic matrix known as conchiolin. The outermost layer is the periostracum which is resistant to abrasion and provides most shell coloration. The body of the snail contacts the innermost smooth layer that may be composed of mother-of-pearl or shell nacre, a dense horizontally packed form of conchiolin, which is layered upon the periostracum as the snail grows.

text: Morphology[edit]

text:
|

Morphology of typical spirally coiled shell. The shell of Zonitoides nitidus, a land snail, has dextral coiling.
Upper image: Dorsal view, showing whorls and apex
Central image: Lateral view showing the profile of the shell
Lower image: Basal view showing umbilicus in the centre.

Photo of the shell of Zonitoides nitidus with an
apical view, an apertural view and a basal view

text: Gastropod shell morphology is usually quite constant among individuals of a species. Controlling variables are:

text:
The rate of growth per revolution around the coiling axis. High rates give wide-mouthed forms such as the abalone, low rates give highly coiled forms such as Turritella or some of the Planorbidae.
The shape of the generating curve, roughly equivalent to the shape of the aperture. It may be round, for instance in the turban shell, elongate as in the cone shell or have an irregular shape with a siphonal canal extension, as in the Murex.
The rate of translation of the generating curve along the axis of coiling, controlling how high-spired the resulting shell becomes. This may range from zero, a flat planispiral shell, to nearly the diameter of the aperture.
Irregularities or "sculpturing" such as ribs, spines, knobs, and varices made by the snail regularly changing the shape of the generating curve during the course of growth, for instance in the many species of Murex.
Ontologic growth changes as the animal reaches adulthood. Good examples are the flaring lip of the adult conch and the inward-coiled lip of the cowry.

text: Some of these factors can be modelled mathematically and programs exist to generate extremely realistic images. Early work by David Raup on the analog computer also revealed many possible combinations that were never adopted by any actual gastropod.

text: Some shell shapes are found more often in certain environments, though there are many exceptions. Wave-washed high-energy environments, such as the rocky intertidal zone, are usually inhabited by snails whose shells have a wide aperture, a relatively low surface area, and a high growth rate per revolution. High-spired and highly sculptured forms become more common in quiet water environments. The shell of burrowing forms, such as the olive and Terebra, are smooth, elongated, and lack elaborate sculpture, in order to decrease resistance when moving through sand. On land, high-spired forms are often associated with vertical surfaces, whereas flat-shelled snails tend to live on the ground.

text: A few gastropods, for instance the Vermetidae, cement the shell to, and grow along, solid surfaces such as rocks, or other shells.

text: Chirality[edit]

text: Most gastropod shells are spirally coiled. The majority (over 90%)[2] of gastropod species have dextral (right-handed) shells, but a small minority of species and genera are virtually always sinistral (left-handed), and a very few species (for example Amphidromus perversus[3]) show a mixture of dextral and sinistral individuals. There occur also aberrantly sinistral forms of dextral species and some of these are highly sought by shell collectors.

text: If a coiled gastropod shell is held with the spire pointing upwards and the aperture more or less facing the observer, a dextral shell will have the aperture on the right-hand side, and a sinistral shell will have the aperture on the left-hand side. This chirality of gastropods is sometimes overlooked when photographs of coiled gastropods are "flipped" by a non-expert prior to being used in a publication. This image "flipping" results in a normal dextral gastropod appearing to be a rare or abnormal sinistral one.

text: Sinistrality arose independently 19 times among marine gastropods since the start of the Cenozoic.[4] This left-handedness seems to be more common in freshwater and land pulmonates. But still the dextral living species in gastropods seem to account for 99% of the total number.[5]

text: The chirality in gastropods appears in early cleavage (spiral cleavage) and the gene NODAL is involved.[6] A more recent study (2013) correlates the asymmetric coiling of the shell by the left-right asymmetric expression of the decapentaplegic gene in the mantle.[7]

text: Mixed coiling populations[edit]

text: In a few cases, both left- and right-handed coiling are found in the same population.[8] Sinistral mutants of normally dextral species and dextral mutants of normally sinistral species are rare but well documented occurrences among land snails in general.[8] Populations or species with normally mixed coiling are much rarer, and, so far as is known, are confined, with one exception, to a few genera of arboreal tropical snails.[8] Besides Amphidromus, the Cuban Liguus vittatus (Swainson), Haitian Liguus virgineus (Linnaeus) (family Orthalicidae), some Hawaiian Partulina and many Hawaiian Achatinella (family Achatinellidae), as well as several species of Pacific islands Partula (family Partulidae), are known to have mixed dextral-sinistral populations.[8]

text: A possible exception may concern some of the European clausiliids of the subfamily Alopiinae.[8] They are obligatory calciphiles living in isolated colonies on limestone outcrops.[8] Several sets of species differ only in the direction of coiling, but the evidence is inconclusive as to whether left- and right-handed shells live together.[8] Soos (1928, pp. 372–385)[full citation needed] summarized previous discussions of the problem and concluded that the right- and left-handed populations were distinct species.[8] Others have stated that these populations were not distinct, and the question is far from settled.[8] The Peruvian clausiliid, Nenia callistoglypta Pilsbry (1949, pp. 216–217),[full citation needed] also has been described as being an amphidromine species.[8]

text: The genetics of reverse coiling in a rare dextral mutant of another clausiliid, Alinda biplicata (Montagu), has been studied by Degner (1952).[8] The mechanism is the same as in Radix peregra (Müller), with the direction of coiling determined by a simple Mendelian recessive.[8]

text: Standard ways of viewing a shell[edit]

text:
Apertural view of shell of Valvata sincera

Abapertural view of shell of Valvata sincera

Basal or umbilical view of shell of Valvata sincera

This dorsal view of the living animal Calliostoma bairdii also shows the dorsal view of its shell

text: In photographs or illustrations, a gastropod shell can be shown oriented in a number of standard ways:

text:
apertural view: this is the most common viewing angle. The shell is shown in its entirety, with its aperture facing the viewer, and the apex at the top. If the aperture is on the right side when viewed like this, then the shell-coiling is "right-handed" or dextral; if the aperture is on the left side when viewed like this, the shell has "left-handed" or sinistral shell-coiling.
abapertural view: the shell is shown with its aperture 180° away from the viewer, and with the apex at the top.
basal view (or umbilical view): the shell is shown viewed directly from below. In most cases where there is an umbilicus, this is in clear view.
apical view (or dorsal view): the shell is shown looking down directly onto the apex.

text: Description[edit]

text: The shell begins with the larval shell, the (usually) minute embryonic whorls known as the protoconch, which is often quite distinct from the rest of the shell and has no growth lines. From the protoconch, which forms the apex of the spire, the coils or whorls of the shell gradually increase in size. Normally the whorls are circular or elliptical in section. The spire can be high or low, broad or slender, according to the way the coils of the shell are arranged, and the apical angle of the shell varies accordingly. The whorls sometimes rest loosely upon one another (as in Epitonium scalare). They also can overlap the earlier whorls such that the earlier whorls may be largely or wholly covered by the later ones. When an angulation occurs, the space between it and the suture above it constitutes the area known as the "shoulder" of the shell. The shoulder angle may be smooth or keeled, and may sometimes have nodes or spines.

text: The most simple form of sculpture of the gastropod shell consists of longitudinal ridges, and/or transverse ridges. Primary spirals may appear in regular succession on either side of the first primary, which generally becomes the shoulder angle if angulation occurs. Secondary spirals may appear by intercalation between the primary ones, and generally are absent in the young shell, except in some highly accelerated types. Tertiary spirals are intercalated between the preceding groups in more specialized species. Ribs are regular transverse foldings of the shell, which generally extend from the suture to suture. They are usually spaced uniformly and crossed by the spirals. In specialized types, when a shoulder angle is formed, they become concentrated as nodes upon this angle, disappearing from the shoulder above and the body below. Spines may replace the nodes in later stages. They form as notches in the margin of the shell and are subsequently abandoned, often remaining open in front. Irregular spines may also arise on various parts of the surface of the shell (see Platyceras).

text: When a row of spines is formed at the edge or outer lip of the shell during a resting period, this feature sometimes remains behind as a varix as in (Murex) and many of the Ranellidae. Varices may also be formed by simple expansion of the outer lip, and a subsequent resumption of growth from the base of the expansion.

text: The aperture or peristome of the shell may be simple or variously modified. An outer and an inner (columellar) lip are generally recognized. These may be continuous with each other, or may be divided by an anterior notch. This, in some types (Fusinus, etc.) it is drawn out into an anterior siphonal canal, of greater or lesser length.

text: An upper or posterior notch is present in certain taxa, and this may result in the formation of a ridge or shelf next to the suture (Clavilithes). An outer (lateral) emargination or notch, sometimes prolonged into a slit occurs in certain types (Pleurotomidae, Pleurotomaridae, Bellerophontidae, etc.), and the progressive closing of this slit may give rise to a definitely marked slit band. In some cases the slit is abandoned and left as a hole (Fissurellidae), or by periodic renewal as a succession of holes (Haliotis). The outer emargination is often only indicated by the reflected course of the lines of growth on the shell.

text: On the inside of the outer lip, various ridges or plications called lirae are sometimes found, and these occasionally may be strong and tooth-like (Nerinea). Similar ridges or columellar plicae or folds are more often found on the inner lip, next to the columella or central spiral twist. These may be oblique or normal to the axis of coiling (horizontal), few or numerous, readily seen, or far within the shell so as to be invisible except in broken shells. When the axis of coiling is hollow (perforate spire) the opening at the base constitutes the umbilicus. The umbilicus varies greatly in size, and may be wholly or in part covered by an expansion or callus of the inner lip (Natica).

text: Many Recent shells, when the animal is alive or the shell is freshly empty, have an uppermost shell layer of horny, smooth, or hairy epidermis or periostracum, a proteinaceous layer which sometimes is thick enough to hide the color markings of the surface of the shell. The periostracum, as well as the coloration, is only rarely preserved in fossil shells.

text: The apertural end of the gastropod shell is the anterior end, nearest to the head of the animal; the apex of the spire is often the posterior end or at least is the dorsal side. Most authors figure the shells with the apex of the spire uppermost. In life, when the soft parts of these snail are retracted, in some groups the aperture of the shell is closed by using a horny or calcareous operculum, a door-like structure which is secreted by, and attached to, the upper surface of the posterior part of the foot. The operculum is of very variable form in the different groups of snails that possess one.[9]

text: Parts of the shell[edit]

text: The terminology used to describe the shells of gastropods includes:

text:
Aperture: the opening of the shell
Lip = peristome: the margin of the aperture
Apex: the smallest few whorls of the shell
Body whorl (or last whorl): the largest whorl in which the main part of the visceral mass of the mollusk is found
Columella: the "little column" at the axis of revolution of the shell
Operculum: the "trapdoor" of the shell
Parietal callus: a ridge on the inner lip of the aperture in certain gastropods
Periostracum: a thin layer of organic "skin" which forms the outer layer of the shell of many species
Peristome: the part of the shell that is right around the aperture, also known as the lip
Plait: folds on the columella.
Protoconch: the nuclear or embryonic whorl; the larval shell, often remains in position even on an adult shell
Sculpture: ornamentation on the outer surface of a shell

Lira: raised lines or ridges on the surface of the shell

Siphonal canal: an extension of the aperture in certain gastropods
Spire: the part of the shell above the body whorl.
Suture: The junction between whorls of most gastropods
Teleoconch : the entire shell without the protoconch; the postnuclear whorls.
Umbilicus: in shells where the whorls move apart as they grow, on the underside of the shell there is a deep depression reaching up towards the spire; this is the umbilicus
Varix: on some mollusk shells, spaced raised and thickened vertical ribs mark the end of a period of rapid growth; these are varices
Whorl: each one of the complete rotations of the shell spiral

text: Shape of the shell[edit]

text: The overall shape of the shell varies. For example, three groups can be distinguished based on the height – width ratio:[10]

text:
oblong – the height is much bigger than the width
globose or conical shell – the height and the width of the shell are approximately the same
depressed – the width is much bigger than the height

text: The following are the principal modifications of form in the gastropod shell.[11]

text:
Regularly spiral:

Bulloid : bubble-shaped Bulla
Coeloconoid : a slightly concave conical shell in which the incremental angle increases steadily during growth (see: Calliostoma)
Cone-shaped, obconic. Conus
Contabulate, short, with shouldered whorls
Convolute ; aperture as long as the shell, nearly or quite concealing the spire. Cypraea
Cylindrical, pupiform. Lioplax, Pupa
Cyrtoconoid: approaching a conical shape but with convex sides (see: Gibbula)
Depressed, lenticular. Ethalia carneolata
Discoidal. Elachorbis
Ear-shaped. Haliotis
Elongated, subulate, elevated. Terebra
Few-whorled. Helix pomatia.
Fusiform, spindle-shaped. Fusinus
Gibbous. Whorls swelled beyond the normal contour of increase (usually on the aperture side ). Streptaxis.
Globular. Natica
Many-whorled. Millerelix peregrina.
Short, bucciniform. Buccinum
Trochiform, pyramidal, conical with a flat base. Trochus
Turbinated ; conical, with rounded base. Turbo
Turrited, turriculated, babylonic ; an elongated shell with the whorls angulated or shouldered on their upper part. Turritella
Scalariform, whorls not impinging. Epitonium scalare

Irregularly spiral, evolute. Siliquaria, Vermetus
Tubular. Dentalium
Shield-shaped. Umbraculum
Boat-shaped, slipper-shaped. Crepidula
Conical or limpet-shaped. Patella
Biconic: shaped like two conical shapes that are touching their bases, and tapering at both ends: Fasciolaria tulipa
Pear-shaped: a combination of two shapes: ovate-conic and conic. Ficus
Multivalve and imbricated. Chiton

text:
oblong shell of Bulgarica denticulata

globose shell of Sphincterochila candidissima

depressed shell of Escargot de Quimper

text: Detailed distinction of the shape can be:[12][13]

text:
cap shape

ear shape

neritiform

planispiral

depressed trochiform or valvatiform

trochiform

ovate-conic

conic

elongate-conic or turriform or cockscrew shape

top shape

spindle shape – the sea snail Syrinx aruanus has the largest shell of any living gastropod.

club shape

egg shape

irregular shape

text: Dimensions[edit]

text: The most frequently used measurements of a gastropod shell are: the height of the shell, the width of the shell, the height of the aperture and the width of the aperture. The number of whorls is also often used.

text: In this context, the height (or the length) of a shell is its maximum measurement along the central axis. The width (or breadth, or diameter) is the maximum measurement of the shell at right angles to the central axis. Both terms are only related to the description of the shell and not to the orientation of the shell on the living animal.

text: The largest height of any shell is found in the marine snail species Syrinx aruanus, which can be up to 91 cm.[14]

text: The central axis is an imaginary axis along the length of a shell, around which, in a coiled shell, the whorls spiral. The central axis passes through the columella, the central pillar of the shell.

text: Evolutionary changes[edit]

text: Among proposed roles invoked for the variability of shells during evolution include mechanical stability,[15] defense against predators[16] and climatic selection.[17][18]

text: The shells of some gastropods have been reduced or partly reduced during their evolution. This reduction can be seen in all slugs, in semi-slugs and in various other marine and non-marine gastropods. Sometimes the reduction of the shell is associated with a predatory way of feeding.

text: Some taxa lost the coiling of their shell during evolution.[19] According to Dollo's law, it is not possible to regain the coiling of the shell after it is lost. Despite that, there are few genera in the family Calyptraeidae that changed their developmental timing (heterochrony) and gained back (re-evolution) a coiled shell from the previous condition of an uncoiled limpet-like shell.[19]

text: Taphonomic implications[edit]

text: In large enough quantities, gastropod shells can have enough of an impact on environmental conditions to affect the ability of organic remains in the local environment to fossilize.[20] For example, in the Dinosaur Park Formation, fossil hadrosaur eggshell is rare.[20] This is because the breakdown of tannins from local coniferous vegetation would have caused the ancient waters to become acidic.[20] Eggshell fragments are present in only two microfossil sites, both of which are predominated by the preserved shells of invertebrate life, including gastropods.[20] It was the slow dissolution of these shells releasing calcium carbonate into the water that raised the water's pH high enough to prevent the eggshell fragments from dissolving before they could be fossilized.[20]

text: Variety of forms[edit]

text:
Turritella communis, many-whorled shell of tower snail

X-ray image of Turritella

Shell of marine cowry snail – Cypraea nebrites

Helix pomatia

Epitonium scalare spiral shell

text:
X-ray image of Cypraea

X-ray image of the shell of Tonna galea

Charonia

Murex pecten

Thin section in plane-polarized light of microscopic gastropod shell, from Holocene lagoonal sediment of Rice Bay, San Salvador Island, Bahamas. Scale bar 500 µm.


document_title: Minnesota Twin Family Study

question_text: the minnesota twins study found which surprising result

root

text: Minnesota Twin Family Study

text: Registry[edit]

text: The Minnesota Twin Registry was established in 1983.[2] Its original goal was to establish a registry of all twins born in Minnesota from 1936 to 1955 to be used for psychological research. Recently, it has added twins born between 1961 and 1964. It primarily conducts personality and interests tests with its 8,000+ twin pairs and family members via mail. From this project, it was able to confirm that twins and their families are representative of the population and that a poll of their opinions would be more accurate than polls in the newspaper.

tag: p

text: Study[edit]

text: MTFS was established in June 1989 using same-gendered twin pairs age 11 or 17.[1] All twins born in MN at that time were invited to participate using birth registry data. 500 additional 11-year-old twin-pairs were added in 2000. Twin studies are valuable to researchers because identical twins share 100% of their genes and fraternal twins share, on average, 50% of their genes. Both identical and fraternal twins share certain aspects of their environment (e.g. religious practices in the home). This allows researchers to estimate the heritability of certain traits. Participants are asked about academic ability, personality, and interests; family and social relationships; mental and physical health; physiological measurements. Of interest to researchers are prevalence of psychopathology, substance abuse, divorce, leadership, and other traits and behaviors related to mental and physical health, relationships, and religiosity.

text: Twins reared apart[edit]

text: In 1979, Thomas J. Bouchard began to study twins who were separated at birth and reared in different families. He found that an identical twin reared away from his or her co-twin seems to have about an equal chance of being similar to the co-twin in terms of personality, interests, and attitudes as one who has been reared with his or her co-twin.[3] This leads to the conclusion that the similarities between twins are due to genes, not environment, since the differences between twins reared apart must be due totally to the environment. Psychologist now refer to studies such as this as an Adoption Strategy.[4][5]


document_title: Greyout

question_text: why do my eyes go black on roller coasters

text: Greyout

text: A greyout (US English grayout) is a transient loss of vision characterized by a perceived dimming of light and color, sometimes accompanied by a loss of peripheral vision.[1] It is a precursor to fainting or a blackout and is caused by hypoxia (low brain oxygen level), often due to a loss of blood pressure.

text: Greyouts have a variety of possible causes:

text:
Shock, such as hypovolemia, even in mild form such as when drawing blood.
Suddenly standing up (see orthostatic hypotension), especially if sick, hungover, or suffering from low blood pressure.
Fatigue
Positive g-forces as experienced by pilots or roller coaster riders.
Paradoxically, hyperventilation: self-induced hypocapnia such as in the fainting game or in shallow water blackout.
Overexertion
Panic attack

tag: ul

text: Usually recovery is rapid and a greyout can be readily reversed by lying down. This way, the cardiovascular system does not need to work against gravity for blood to reach the brain.

text: A grey-out may be experienced by aircraft pilots pulling high positive g-forces as when pulling up into a loop or a tight turn forcing blood to the lower extremities of the body and lowering blood pressure in the brain.[2] This is the reverse of a redout, or a reddening of the vision, which is the result of negative g-forces caused by performing an outside loop, that is by pushing the nose of the aircraft down. Redouts are potentially dangerous and can cause retinal damage and hemorrhagic stroke. Pilots of high performance aircraft can increase their resistance to greyout by using a g-suit, which controls the pooling of blood in the lower limbs but there is no suit yet capable of controlling a redout. In both cases symptoms may be remedied immediately by easing pressure on the flight controls. Continued, or heavy g-force will rapidly progress to g-LOC (g-force induced Loss of Consciousness).

text: Surprisingly, even during a heavy grey-out, where the visual system is severely impaired, pilots can still hear, feel, and speak.[3] In other words, complete grey-out and loss of consciousness are separate events.

text: Another common occurrence of greyouts is in roller coaster riders. Many roller coasters put riders through positive g-forces,[4] particularly in vertical loops and helixes. Roller coasters rarely have high enough negative g-forces to induce redouts, as most low-g elements are designed to simulate weightlessness.


document_title: List of U.S. state abbreviations

question_text: when did state abbreviations change to two letters

text: List of U.S. state abbreviations

text: Table[edit]

text: This table includes abbreviations for three independent nations related to the United States through Compacts of Free Association, and other comparable postal abbreviations, including those now obsolete.

text:
Codes and abbreviations for U.S. states, territories, and other regions

Codes:

    ISO
ISO 3166 codes (2-letter, 3-letter, and 3-digit codes from ISO 3166-1; 2+2-letter codes from ISO 3166-2)

    ANSI
2-letter and 2-digit codes from the ANSI standard INCITS 38:2009

    USPS
2-letter codes used by the United States Postal Service

    USCG
2-letter codes used by the United States Coast Guard (red text shows differences between ANSI and USCG)

Abbreviations:

    GPO
Older variable-length official US Government Printing Office abbreviations

    AP
Abbreviations from the AP Stylebook (red text shows differences between GPO and AP)

Name and status of region
ISO
ANSI
USPS
USCG
GPO
AP
Other
abbreviations

 United States of America
Federal state
US
USA
840
US
00

U.S.
U.S.
U.S.A.

 Alabama
State
US-AL
AL
01
AL
AL
Ala.
Ala.

 Alaska
State
US-AK
AK
02
AK
AK
Alaska
Alaska
Alas.

 Arizona
State
US-AZ
AZ
04
AZ
AZ
Ariz.
Ariz.
Az.

 Arkansas
State
US-AR
AR
05
AR
AR
Ark.
Ark.

 California
State
US-CA
CA
06
CA
CF
Calif.
Calif.
Ca., Cal.

 Colorado
State
US-CO
CO
08
CO
CL
Colo.
Colo.
Col.

 Connecticut
State
US-CT
CT
09
CT
CT
Conn.
Conn.
Ct.

 Delaware
State
US-DE
DE
10
DE
DL
Del.
Del.
De.

 District of Columbia
Federal district
US-DC
DC
11
DC
DC
D.C.
D.C.
Wash. D.C.

 Florida
State
US-FL
FL
12
FL
FL
Fla.
Fla.
Fl., Flor.

 Georgia
State
US-GA
GA
13
GA
GA
Ga.
Ga.

 Hawaii
State
US-HI
HI
15
HI
HA
Hawaii
Hawaii
H.I.

 Idaho
State
US-ID
ID
16
ID
ID
Idaho
Idaho
Id., Ida.

 Illinois
State
US-IL
IL
17
IL
IL
Ill.
Ill.
Il., Ills., Ill's

 Indiana
State
US-IN
IN
18
IN
IN
Ind.
Ind.
In.

 Iowa
State
US-IA
IA
19
IA
IA
Iowa
Iowa
Ia., Ioa.[1]

 Kansas
State
US-KS
KS
20
KS
KA
Kans.
Kan.
Ks., Ka.

 Kentucky
State (Commonwealth)
US-KY
KY
21
KY
KY
Ky.
Ky.
Ken., Kent.

 Louisiana
State
US-LA
LA
22
LA
LA
La.
La.

 Maine
State
US-ME
ME
23
ME
ME
Maine
Maine
Me.

 Maryland
State
US-MD
MD
24
MD
MD
Md.
Md.

 Massachusetts
State (Commonwealth)
US-MA
MA
25
MA
MS
Mass.
Mass.

 Michigan
State
US-MI
MI
26
MI
MC
Mich.
Mich.

 Minnesota
State
US-MN
MN
27
MN
MN
Minn.
Minn.
Mn.

 Mississippi
State
US-MS
MS
28
MS
MI
Miss.
Miss.

 Missouri
State
US-MO
MO
29
MO
MO
Mo.
Mo.

 Montana
State
US-MT
MT
30
MT
MT
Mont.
Mont.

 Nebraska
State
US-NE
NE
31
NE
NB
Nebr.
Neb.

 Nevada
State
US-NV
NV
32
NV
NV
Nev.
Nev.
Nv.

 New Hampshire
State
US-NH
NH
33
NH
NH
N.H.
N.H.

 New Jersey
State
US-NJ
NJ
34
NJ
NJ
N.J.
N.J.
N.Jersey

 New Mexico
State
US-NM
NM
35
NM
NM
N. Mex.
N.M.
New M.

 New York
State
US-NY
NY
36
NY
NY
N.Y.
N.Y.
N. York

 North Carolina
State
US-NC
NC
37
NC
NC
N.C.
N.C.
N. Car.

  North Dakota
State
US-ND
ND
38
ND
ND
N. Dak.
N.D.
NoDak

 Ohio
State
US-OH
OH
39
OH
OH
Ohio
Ohio
O., Oh.

 Oklahoma
State
US-OK
OK
40
OK
OK
Okla.
Okla.
Ok.

 Oregon
State
US-OR
OR
41
OR
OR
Oreg.
Ore.
Or.

 Pennsylvania
State (Commonwealth)
US-PA
PA
42
PA
PA
Pa.
Pa.
Penn., Penna.

 Rhode Island
State
US-RI
RI
44
RI
RI
R.I.
R.I.
R.I. & P.P., R. Isl.

 South Carolina
State
US-SC
SC
45
SC
SC
S.C.
S.C.
S. Car.

 South Dakota
State
US-SD
SD
46
SD
SD
S. Dak.
S.D.
SoDak

 Tennessee
State
US-TN
TN
47
TN
TN
Tenn.
Tenn.

 Texas
State
US-TX
TX
48
TX
TX
Tex.
Texas
Tx.

 Utah
State
US-UT
UT
49
UT
UT
Utah
Utah
Ut.

 Vermont
State
US-VT
VT
50
VT
VT
Vt.
Vt.

 Virginia
State (Commonwealth)
US-VA
VA
51
VA
VA
Va.
Va.
Virg.

 Washington
State
US-WA
WA
53
WA
WN
Wash.
Wash.
Wa., Wn.[2]

 West Virginia
State
US-WV
WV
54
WV
WV
W. Va.
W.Va.
W.V., W. Virg.

 Wisconsin
State
US-WI
WI
55
WI
WS
Wis.
Wis.
Wi., Wisc.

 Wyoming
State
US-WY
WY
56
WY
WY
Wyo.
Wyo.
Wy.

 American Samoa
Insular area (Territory)
AS
ASM
016
US-AS
AS
60
AS
AS
A.S.

 Guam
Insular area (Territory)
GU
GUM
316
US-GU
GU
66
GU
GU
Guam

 Northern Mariana Islands
Insular area (Commonwealth)
MP
MNP
580
US-MP
MP
69
MP
CM
M.P.

CNMI[3]

 Puerto Rico
Insular area (Territory)
PR
PRI
630
US-PR
PR
72
PR
PR
P.R.

 U.S. Virgin Islands
Insular area (Territory)
VI
VIR
850
US-VI
VI
78
VI
VI
V.I.

U.S.V.I.

U.S. Minor Outlying Islands
Insular areas
UM
UMI
581
US-UM
UM
74

   Baker Island
   island
UM-81

81

XB[4]

   Howland Island
   island
UM-84

84

XH[4]

   Jarvis Island
   island
UM-86

86

XQ[4]

   Johnston Atoll
   atoll
UM-67

67

XU[4]

   Kingman Reef
   atoll
UM-89

89

XM[4]

   Midway Islands
   atoll
UM-71

71

QM[4]

   Navassa Island
   island
UM-76

76

XV[4]

   Palmyra Atoll[5]
   atoll[5]
UM-95

95

XL[4]

   Wake Island
   atoll
UM-79

79

QW[4]

 Micronesia
Freely associated state
FM
FSM
583
FM
64
FM

 Marshall Islands
Freely associated state
MH
MHL
584
MH
68
MH

 Palau
Freely associated state
PW
PLW
585
PW
70
PW

U.S. Armed Forces – Americas[6]
US military mail code

AA

U.S. Armed Forces – Europe[7]
US military mail code

AE

U.S. Armed Forces – Pacific[8]
US military mail code

AP

 Northern Mariana Islands
Obsolete postal code[9]

CM

Panama Canal Zone
Obsolete postal code
PZ
PCZ
594

CZ

 Nebraska
Obsolete postal code[10]

NB

Philippine Islands
Obsolete postal code
PH
PHL
608[11]

PI

Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands
Obsolete postal code
PC
PCI
582

TT

tag: table

text: History[edit]

text: As early as October 1831, the United States Post Office recognized common abbreviations for states and territories. However, they only accepted these abbreviations because of their popularity, preferring that patrons spell names out in full to avoid confusion.[12]

text: The traditional abbreviations for U.S. states and territories, widely used in mailing addresses prior to the introduction of two-letter U.S. postal abbreviations, are still commonly used for other purposes (such as legal citation), and are still recognized (though discouraged) by the Postal Service.[13]

text: Modern two-letter abbreviated codes for the states and territories originated in October 1963, with the issuance of Publication 59: Abbreviations for Use with ZIP Code, three months after the Post Office introduced ZIP codes in July 1963. The purpose, rather than to standardize state abbreviations per se, was to make room in a line of no more than 23 characters for the city, the state, and the ZIP code.[12]

text: Since 1963, only one state abbreviation has changed. Originally Nebraska was "NB"; but, in November 1969, the Post Office changed it to "NE" to avoid confusion with New Brunswick in Canada.[12]

text: The two-letter postal abbreviation system is complicated by the fact that several state names begin with the same letter (e.g., eight state names begin with M and eight begin with N, four "New" and two "North"). To avoid duplications, some abbreviations are not intuitive.

text: Prior to 1987, when the U.S. Secretary of Commerce approved the two-letter codes for use in government documents,[14] the United States Government Printing Office (GPO) suggested its own set of abbreviations, with some states left unabbreviated. Today, the GPO supports United States Postal Service standard.[15]

text: Current use of traditional abbreviations[edit]

text: The Associated Press Stylebook, the usage guide for most United States newspapers, counsels the use of abbreviations for most state names, when appended to a city name (for example, "Santa Ana, Calif."). AP suggests spelling out the names of Alaska, Hawaii, and all states with five or fewer letters; and, unlike the old GPO recommendations, AP suggests spelling out the names of all non-state territories, with the exception of the District of Columbia (D.C.). Legal citation manuals, such as The Bluebook and The ALWD Citation Manual, typically use these "traditional abbreviations" or variants thereof.

text: Codes for states and territories[edit]

text: ISO standard 3166[edit]

text: ANSI standard INCITS 38:2009[edit]

text: The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) established alphabetic and numeric codes for each state and outlying areas in ANSI standard INCITS 38:2009. ANSI standard INCITS 38:2009 replaced the Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) standards FIPS 5-2, FIPS 6-4, and FIPS 10-4. The ANSI alphabetic state code is the same as the USPS state code except for U.S. Minor Outlying Islands, which have an ANSI code "UM" but no USPS code—and U.S. Military Mail locations, which have USPS codes ("AA", "AE", "AP") but no ANSI code.

text: Postal codes[edit]

text: The United States Postal Service has established a set of uppercase abbreviations to help process mail with optical character recognition and other automated equipment.[16] There are also official USPS abbreviations for other parts of the address, such as street designators (street, avenue, road, etc.).

text: These postal abbreviations are distinguished from traditional abbreviations such as Calif., Fla., or Tex. The Associated Press Stylebook states that in contexts other than mailing addresses, the traditional state abbreviations should be used.[17] However, the Chicago Manual of Style now recommends use of the uppercase two-letter abbreviations, with the traditional forms as an option.[18]

text: The postal abbreviation is the same as the ISO 3166-2 subdivision code for each of the fifty states.

text: These codes do not overlap with the 13 Canadian subnational postal abbreviations. The code for Nebraska changed from NB to NE in November 1969 to avoid a conflict with New Brunswick.[12] Canada likewise chose MB for Manitoba to prevent conflict with various U.S. states.

text: Coast Guard vessel prefixes[edit]

text: The U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) uses a set of two-letter prefixes for vessel numbers;[19] 39 states and the District of Columbia have the same USPS and USCG abbreviations. USCG prefixes have also been established for five outlying territories; all are the same as the USPS abbreviations except the Mariana Islands. The twelve cases where USPS and USCG abbreviations differ are listed below and marked in red in the table above.

text:
Mis-matches between USPS and USCG codes

California
Colorado
Delaware
Hawaii
Kansas
Michigan
Mississippi
Massachusetts
Nebraska
Washington
Wisconsin
Mariana Islands

USPS
CA
CO
DE
HI
KS
MI
MS
MA
NE
WA
WI
MP

USCG
CF
CL
DL
HA
KA
MC
MI
MS
NB
WN
WS
CM


document_title: Eligibility for the NBA draft

question_text: when did the nba make players go to college

text: Eligibility for the NBA draft

text: Early history[edit]

text: In the earliest days of the NBA, three players entered the NBA without having played in college (although one of them did not enter the league until he was 39 years old). However, the league eventually established a rule that "a player could not make himself available" for the draft until two years after his high school graduation.[2]

text: Haywood v. NBA[edit]

text: The first major challenge to the NBA's eligibility rules came from Spencer Haywood. He graduated from high school in 1968, at a time when college Freshmen were not allowed to play varsity sports for NCAA member schools. He played 3 years at a Colorado junior college, followed by a season at the University of Detroit. After the 1970–71 season, he left college for the NBA's rival at the time, the ABA, which had no rule restricting college underclassmen from entering the league, and had a spectacularly successful rookie season with the Denver Rockets (the predecessor to today's Denver Nuggets), being named the ABA's Rookie of the Year and MVP. Near the end of the season, he turned 21; shortly after its end, he repudiated his contract with the Rockets, claiming he had been defrauded. Haywood then signed a contract with the Seattle SuperSonics, which put him and the Sonics on a collision course with the NBA, as he was only three years removed from his high school graduation.

text: The NBA threatened to disallow the contract and impose sanctions against the Sonics. Haywood responded by filing an antitrust suit against the league, seeking an injunction to prevent the NBA from disallowing the contract or punishing the Sonics. The case eventually reached the U.S. Supreme Court, which issued a 7–2 decision in Haywood's favor in 1971.

text: After the decision, the NBA allowed players to leave college early as "hardship cases", which essentially meant that the player had to prove financial hardship. This rule quickly developed into one that was observed in the breach, with Sport magazine writer Jackie Lapin commenting in the 1970s that "Almost anyone who has been any good at the game in the past decade would qualify [as a hardship case] — with the probable exception of Bill Bradley, the banker's son."[3]

text: Later history[edit]

text: As a consequence of the aforementioned Haywood decision, and following soon after, three high schoolers chose to enter the professional ranks without ever enrolling in a college. The first was Moses Malone, who went to the ABA upon his high school graduation in 1974, almost immediately establishing himself as a star of the future. After the ABA–NBA merger in 1976, his career continued on its upward trajectory, ultimately earning him three NBA MVP awards, four appearances on the All-NBA First Team, 12 consecutive NBA All-Star Game appearances, an NBA title, a place among the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History, and enshrinement in the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame. In 1975, Darryl Dawkins and Bill Willoughby both went to the NBA from high school. Dawkins had a solid 14-year career in the NBA, while Willoughby was no more than a journeyman in eight NBA seasons.

text: These players were greatly outnumbered by college underclassmen who chose to leave early for the NBA. While underclass draftees are too numerous to list, it can be noted that among the aforementioned 50 Greatest Players, 10 (not including Malone) left college early for the NBA.[4]

text: After Dawkins and Willoughby, no high school player went directly to the NBA for 20 years, although Lloyd Daniels and Shawn Kemp went to the NBA without having played college basketball (both had enrolled in college, but never played). That would change in 1995 with the arrival of future NBA MVP Kevin Garnett, who was selected fifth overall. The following year, another future MVP in Kobe Bryant and a future All-Star in Jermaine O'Neal were first-round picks out of high school. Most years after that saw at least one, and often more, high-schoolers drafted, most notably Tracy McGrady (1997), Kwame Brown (the first high-schooler to be the #1 overall pick, in 2001), Amar'e Stoudemire (2002), LeBron James (#1 in 2003), and Dwight Howard (#1 in 2004).

text: However, the influx of high-schoolers caused considerable controversy. When the NBA and its players union negotiated a new Collective Bargaining Agreement (CBA) in 2005, NBA Commissioner David Stern publicly called for a higher age limit of 20, stating that he wanted the league's scouts and general managers out of high school gyms and that too many young urban Americans incorrectly saw the NBA as a sure path to fame and financial security.[5] Most of the players were opposed to an age limit;[6] Jermaine O'Neal was perhaps the most strident critic, accusing the NBA of racism.[7] Ultimately, the union reluctantly agreed to an age limit of 19, accepting it in exchange for tweaks to salary cap rules that were favorable to the players' interests.[6]

text: The current eligibility rules were established under the NBA's 2005 collective bargaining agreement (CBA), which expired in 2011, resulting in a lockout. The new CBA, approved in December 2011, made no changes to the draft rules, but called for the NBA and its players union to form a committee to discuss draft-related issues.[8][9] The basic rules that started in the 2006 draft are:

text:
All drafted players must be at least 19 years old during the calendar year of the draft.[10] To determine whether a player is eligible for a given year's draft, subtract 19 from the year of the draft. If the player was born during or before that year, he is eligible.
Any player who is not an "international player", as defined in the CBA, must be at least one year removed from the graduation of his high school class.[10]

text: The "one year out of high school" requirement is in addition to the age requirement. For example, although O. J. Mayo turned 19 in November 2006, six months before his high school graduation, he was not eligible until the 2008 draft, a year after his high school class graduated. Stern stated the rules were business-related and not a "social program", citing the need to see players perform against higher competition before they are evaluated for valuable draft picks.[9] The rule effectively mandated that players spend at least one year in college.[11] High school players who would otherwise have jumped directly into the NBA were instead playing in college for the required year before leaving and entering the draft—a phenomenon known as one and done.[12] Some colleges have embraced this rule to their advantage, notably the University of Kentucky, among others. Many of their players have played the one mandatory year, leaving after their freshman season to enter the draft. The NBA Development League is one alternative to college. Players can earn five-figure salaries, but the level of competition is possibly lower than in the Division I level in college. Some players, most notably Brandon Jennings, have also played overseas in lieu of college.[11][13]

text: Automatic eligibility[edit]

text: Players whose 19th birthday falls during or before the calendar year of the draft, are at least one year removed from the graduation of their high school class, and who do not meet the criteria for "international" players are automatically eligible if they meet any of the following criteria:[14]

text:
They have completed 4 years of their college eligibility.
If they graduated from high school in the U.S., but did not enroll in a U.S. college or university, four years have passed since their high school class graduated.
They have signed a contract with a professional basketball team outside of the NBA, anywhere in the world, and have played under that contract. They also must be released from their contract before they can leave college to go to the NBA

text: Those who have reached the minimum eligibility age of 19 and meet the criteria for "international" players are automatically eligible if they meet any of the following criteria:

text:
They are least 22 during the calendar year of the draft.[15]
They have signed a contract with a professional basketball team outside of the NBA within the United States, and have played under that contract.[16]

text: "Early entry" player[edit]

text: Players who are not automatically eligible but wish to be drafted must declare their eligibility no later than 60 days before the draft.[17] After this date, "early entry" players may attend NBA pre-draft camps and individual team workouts to show off their skills and obtain feedback regarding their draft positions. Under the CBA, a player may withdraw his name from consideration from the draft at any time before the final declaration date, which is 10 days before the draft.[18] However, the NCAA adopted a rule that took effect in August 2009 that requires players at its member institutions to withdraw no later than May 8 to retain their college eligibility; the first draft affected by this rule was the 2010 draft.[19] In 2011, the NCAA shortened its timeline for players to withdraw and retain eligibility to one day before the start of the spring signing period for men's basketball, which occurs in April.[20] The NCAA changed its withdrawal rule again in 2016, effective with that year's draft; its withdrawal deadline is now in late May, specifically 10 days after the final day of the annual NBA Draft Combine.[21]

text: A player who declares for the draft will lose his college eligibility, even if he is not drafted, if he signs with any agent.[22] Before 2016, the NCAA only allowed a player to enter the draft once without losing eligibility,[20] but current NCAA rules now allow players to declare for and withdraw from multiple drafts while retaining college eligibility.[21] The CBA allows a player to withdraw twice.[18]

text: Definition of international players[edit]

text: The CBA defines "international players" for draft purposes as those who meet all of the following criteria:[23]

text:
Permanently reside outside of the U.S. for at least three years before the draft while playing basketball outside of the U.S.
Have never enrolled in a U.S. college or university.
Did not complete high school in the U.S.

text: Note that this definition is very different from what the NBA uses in listing "international players" on its team rosters. For that purpose, the league defines an "international player" specifically as one born outside the 50 United States or the District of Columbia.

text: Reaction of high school players[edit]

text: In the third annual High School Hoops magazine,[24] the players weighed in on the subject of the new rules regarding draft eligibility. Many of them felt that it was unfair. Kansas State freshman Bill Walker, said (as a junior in high school), "I'm against it. I don't see why you have to be 19 to play a game of basketball when you can be 18 and go to war for our country and die. It's ridiculous." Jerryd Bayless said "It's not fair at all. If a tennis player can go pro at 13, I don't understand why a basketball player can't go pro at 18." A possible number one pick out of high school, had the rule not been put in place, was Greg Oden (though he was still picked first in 2007). When asked about the agreement he said "It's unfair, but it's over with now, so there's no reason to complain." In spite of the claims that the rule is unfair, Wayne Ellington of North Carolina, said that "…I also think it's going to help the league a little bit. Some guys who come in, like from this year's draft, it will help." Brandan Wright said that "It may hurt guys who need money, but it will help people grow and develop."

text: On the specific topic of Oden entering the draft, Jack Keefer, Oden's high school coach at Lawrence North, Indiana, said, "I really think he thought he was going to college. He seems to be more at ease with himself right now. I think the stress came with worrying about the NBA."[25]

text: While a lot of high school players just accept that this is just how it is, some object to this rule. They say that it puts excess stress on them because they start being recruited in their junior year of high school. If they have a bad season it could ruin their chances to get into college and therefore into the NBA. It can also be stressful picking a college to play at, which can be unneeded stress if a player decides to leave after only one year.

text: Changes for college underclassmen in 2016[edit]

text: In March 2015, following a series of meetings that began at the 2014 men's Final Four, the NBA, NCAA, and the trade association for college men's coaches, the National Association of Basketball Coaches (NABC), announced a plan that would give college underclassmen a better opportunity to make an informed decision about their NBA status than the then-current system. Under this plan:[26]

text:
The NCAA would no longer automatically treat entry into the draft as forfeiture of remaining college eligibility. Instead, it would allow underclassmen to withdraw from the draft in late May, about five weeks after the then-current deadline, and retain their remaining eligibility (as long as they do not sign with an agent or a professional basketball team in the meantime). The NBA's early-entry and withdrawal deadlines, respectively 60 days and 10 days before the draft, would not change because they are written into the league's collective bargaining agreement.
The NBA would expand its invitation-only draft combine, currently held in Chicago, to include players with remaining college eligibility (who would also have to be invited in order to attend). The stated purpose of this expansion was to allow underclassmen to receive feedback from NBA teams on their draft prospects. According to one NCAA executive, the expanded combine would involve from 20 to 30% more players than the approximately 70 who participated at that time.

text: The NCAA rule change was formally presented by the NCAA men's basketball oversight committee on June 24, 2015, and was approved by the NCAA Division I council on January 13, 2016. The new rule, which took effect with the 2016 draft, specifically sets the new withdrawal date at 10 days after the end of the NBA draft combine. Additionally, players may declare for the draft multiple times without losing college eligibility, as long as they withdraw before the new deadline without hiring an agent or signing a professional basketball contract, and are now allowed to attend the draft combine and one tryout per year for each NBA team without losing college eligibility.[21]


document_title: Camelot (musical)

question_text: who sung if ever i would leave you

question_tokens: who sung if ever i would leave you

text: Camelot (musical)

text: Background[edit]

text: In 1959, Alan Jay Lerner and Moss Hart decided to adapt T. H. White's The Once and Future King as their next project. As discussed in Lerner's 1978 book, The Street Where I Live, Frederick Loewe, who initially had no interest in the project, agreed to write music, with the understanding that if things went badly, it would be his last score.[2] After the tremendous success of My Fair Lady, expectations were high for a new Lerner and Loewe musical. However, the show's production met several obstacles. Lerner's wife left him during the writing process,[3] causing him to seek medical attention and delaying the production. When Camelot began rehearsals, it still needed considerable work. However, the producers were able to secure a strong cast, including Julie Andrews, Richard Burton, and Roddy McDowall, as well as Robert Goulet in his first Broadway role. John Cullum also made his Broadway debut as Sir Dinadan; Bruce Yarnell was Sir Lionel. Cullum later replaced McDowall, and William Squire replaced Burton. Other replacements included Patricia Bredin, Kathryn Grayson and Janet Pavek for Andrews.[citation needed]

text: Tryouts and promotion[edit]

text: The show premiered in Toronto, at the O'Keefe Centre on October 1, 1960. It overran drastically – it was supposed to last two hours forty minutes, and instead clocked in at four and a half hours. The curtain came down at twenty to one in the morning; Lerner later noted that "Only Tristan and Isolde equaled it as a bladder endurance contest."[4] Noël Coward was supposed to have remarked that the show was "longer than the 'Götterdämmerung'...and not nearly as funny!" In spite of this, the morning papers gave generally positive reviews, but hinted that the show needed much work, i.e. drastic editing, in order to succeed. Soon afterwards, Lerner was hospitalised for three weeks with a bleeding ulcer. Soon after he was discharged, Hart suffered his second heart attack, and Lerner stepped in as temporary director for the rest of the out-of-town run. Camelot then moved to Boston, edited, but still running well over the intended length. The production team tried to find another director, even phoning Jose Ferrer, who could not undertake the job.[5] Lerner and Loewe disagreed on how to proceed with the show, as Loewe did not want to make any major changes without Hart's guidance. Lerner wrote: "God knows what would have happened had it not been for Richard Burton." Accepting cuts and changes, he radiated a "faith and geniality" and calmed the fears of the cast.[6] Guenevere's song "Before I Gaze at You Again" was given to Andrews at the last minute before the first New York preview, which provoked her famous quote, "Of course, darling, but do try to get it to me the night before."[7] After the show opened on Broadway, Hart was released from the hospital, and he and Lerner began cutting the play even further. Two songs, "Then You May Take Me To the Fair" and "Fie on Goodness," were cut a few months into the run (though they remain on the cast album, and the former featured in the 1967 film).

text: The New York critics' reviews of the original production were mixed.[8] Fortunately for the show, Ed Sullivan approached Lerner and Loewe to create a segment for his television variety program, celebrating the fifth anniversary of My Fair Lady. They decided to do very little from their previous hit and instead to perform four highlights from Camelot. The show stimulated ticket sales, and Camelot achieved an unprecedented advance sale of three and a half million dollars.[9][10] Robert Goulet received favorable reviews, most notably for his rendition of the show-stopping romantic ballad "If Ever I Would Leave You", which became his signature song.[11]

text: Aftermath[edit]

text: After Camelot's run, Goulet appeared on The Danny Thomas Show and The Ed Sullivan Show, which made him a household name among American audiences.[12]

text: The show's original cast recording was favorite bedtime listening for President John F. Kennedy, who was Lerner's classmate at Harvard.[13] Kennedy's favorite lines were in the final number (in which Arthur knights a young boy and tells him to pass on the story of Camelot to future generations):

text:
Don't let it be forgot
That once there was a spot,
For one brief, shining moment
That was known as Camelot.[14]

text: Since then, Camelot has been associated with the Kennedy Administration.[10][15]

text: The obstacles encountered in producing Camelot were hard on the creative partnership of Lerner and Loewe, and the show turned out to be one of their last collaborations (although they did work together to adapt their 1958 movie Gigi to the stage in 1973, and collaborated again the following year on the movie musical The Little Prince). Camelot was Hart's last Broadway show. He died of a heart attack in Palm Springs, California, on December 20, 1961.[16]

text: DangerMouse and rapper Jemini on their 2003 debut album Ghetto Pop Life, sampled part of Then You May Take Me To The Fair on the track Don't Do Drugs.

text: Productions[edit]

text: Camelot opened on Broadway at the Majestic Theatre on December 3, 1960 and closed on January 5, 1963 after 873 performances and 2 previews.[17] Directed by Moss Hart, the choreography was by Hanya Holm, scenic design by Oliver Smith, costume design by Adrian (who worked on the designs prior to his death in September 1959) and Tony Duquette, and lighting design by Abe Feder. It won four Tony Awards. The original cast album was America's top-selling LP for 60 weeks.[1]

text: A two-year U.S. tour followed the Broadway closing, starring Kathryn Grayson and William Squire, who was succeeded by Louis Hayward. There was also a 1963–64 bus-and-truck tour starring Biff McGuire as Arthur, Jeannie Carson as Guenevere, and Sean Garrison as Lancelot. Yet another company toured with the show in 1964, starring Howard Keel as Arthur, Constance Towers as Guenevere, and Bob Holiday as Lancelot. An Australian production opened in Adelaide in October 1963 produced by the J. C. Williamson company and ran for two years.[1]

text: The London production opened in August 1964 at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane and featured Laurence Harvey as Arthur, Elizabeth Larner as Guenevere and Barry Kent as Lancelot. It played for 518 performances. The film version was made in 1967 starring Richard Harris as Arthur Vanessa Redgrave as Guenivere, Franco Nero as Lancelot and David Hemmings as Mordred.

text: Richard Burton reprised his role as Arthur in a revival that ran from July 8, 1980 to August 23, 1980 at the New York State Theater at Lincoln Center. Christine Ebersole played Guenevere, and Richard Muenz was Lancelot.

text: The show was revived on Broadway at the Winter Garden Theater from November 15, 1981 to January 2, 1982, and broadcast on HBO a year later, starring Richard Harris as Arthur, Meg Bussert as Guenevere, Muenz as Lancelot and Thor Fields as Tom of Warwick. Harris, who had starred in the film, and Muenz also took the show on tour nationwide. Another Broadway revival ran from June 21, 1993 to August 7, 1993 for 56 performances at the George Gershwin Theatre, with Goulet now cast in the role of Arthur. Goulet reprised this role at Toronto's O'Keefe Centre in 1993.[10]

text: An 18-month U.S. tour, starring Michael York as Arthur, Rachel York (no relation) as Guenevere, and James Barbour as Lancelot, began on January 9, 2007 and ended in April 2008. Alan Jay Lerner's son, Michael Lerner, contributed changes to the libretto, and Glenn Casale directed.[18] From June 27–30, 2007, the tour played at Toronto's Hummingbird Centre, where the musical had premiered in 1960.[19][20] While the 2007 Michael York tour was performing across the U.S., Candlewood International ran a separate, largely non-equity national tour that played to cities not visited by the union tour. The Morgan Le Fey character was removed as it had been in all previous productions since 1964. Jeff Buchsbaum directed and Paula Sloan choreographed a cast headed by Robert Brown as Arthur, Matthew Posner as Lancelot, Mollie Vogt-Welch as Guenevere, Gregory Van Acker as Sir Sagramore, Geoff Lutz as Mordred, and Heather Faith Stricker as Lady Catherine.

text: From May 7 to May 10, 2008, the New York Philharmonic presented five semi-staged concerts of Camelot directed by Lonny Price and produced by Thomas Z. Shepard and starring Gabriel Byrne as King Arthur, Marin Mazzie as Guenevere, and Nathan Gunn as Lancelot. It featured Christopher Lloyd as Pellinore, Stacy Keach as Merlin, Marc Kudisch as Lionel, Bobby Steggert as Mordred, Will Swenson as Sagramore, Christopher Sieber as Dinadan, Fran Drescher as Morgan le Fey and Rishi Mutalik as Tom of Warwick. The May 8 performance was broadcast nationally on Live from Lincoln Center on PBS.[21]

text: Camelot was produced in San Francisco at San Francisco Playhouse in July 2013.[22]

text: Roles and original cast[edit]

text:
King Arthur – Richard Burton
Queen Guinevere – Julie Andrews
Sir Lancelot – Robert Goulet
Merlin – David Hurst
Pellinore – Robert Coote
Mordred – Roddy McDowall
Sir Dinadan – John Cullum
Morgan Le Fey – M'el Dowd*
Tom of Warwick – Robin Stewart
Lady Catherine – Virginia Allen
Nimue – Marjorie Smith
Sir Lionel – Bruce Yarnell
Sir Ozanna – Michael Kermoyan
Sir Sagramore - James E. Gannon

text: * In subsequent productions Alan Jay Lerner removed the "Morgan Le Fey" role to make the second act less comical, replacing the scene between her and Mordred with a Mordred/Arthur scene.

text: 1982 HBO revival cast[edit]

text:
King Arthur - Richard Harris
Guinevere - Meg Bussert
Lancelot - Richard Muenz
Merlyn - James Valentine
Pellinore - Barrie Ingham
Mordred - Richard Backus

text: Synopsis[edit]

text: Act I[edit]

text: King Arthur is nervous about his upcoming arranged marriage and is hiding in a tree. Merlyn the Magician, his wise tutor, calls Arthur down to warn the young king that he must learn to think for himself. Merlyn, who lives backwards in time and remembers the future as well as the past, knows he will soon be separated from Arthur. Merlyn persuades Arthur to climb down and chides him for his unkingly behavior. Arthur then left alone, ponders both his subjects and his own feelings about the intended nuptials ("I Wonder What the King is Doing Tonight?"). Arthur hears someone coming and scampers up the tree again. Guinevere, Arthur's intended bride, comes to the woods. She does not like the idea of being Queen, preferring to live an ordinary life, ("Simple Joys of Maidenhood"). She stumbles into Arthur, who initially calls himself "Wart" (his childhood nickname) and then, hearing of her reluctance to marry, tells her of the joys of life in Camelot ("Camelot"). It is love at first sight, and they almost kiss, but are interrupted when Arthur's attendants come upon the two of them. He is revealed as the King. He tells Guinevere the story of how he pulled the sword from the stone and became king, and she finally agrees to marry him. The wizard Merlyn is amused by this development, but his joy turns to sorrow as his memories of the future begin to fade. He realizes that Nimue, a beautiful water nymph, has come to draw him into her cave for an eternal sleep ("Follow Me"). He begs Nimue for answers, as he has forgotten if he has warned Arthur about two important individuals, Lancelot and Mordred. His memories fade permanently, though, and he is led away.

text: Five years later, Arthur sits with Guinevere in his study, debating about what to do. He explains that he wishes to create a new kind of knight—one that does not pillage and fight, but tries to uphold honor and justice. He is eventually inspired, with Guinevere's help, to establish the Round Table with the motto "might for right." Five years later, Arthur's idea has led to the Knights of the Round Table being renowned all over the country, and their fame has even spread to France. A young, pretentious and over-religious Frenchman from Joyous Garde named Lancelot du Lac has heard of the Round Table, and is determined to come to Camelot and join Arthur's knights, confident that he is perfect for the post, ("C'est Moi"). King Pellinore, an elderly man who was a friend of Arthur's family, also comes to Camelot to witness Arthur's greatness for himself, and it later seems that he has become part of the family. Guinevere organizes a May Day festival on the castle grounds ("The Lusty Month of May"), where Arthur introduces his wife to Lancelot. Guinevere takes an instant dislike to Lancelot. Time passes, and he makes an enemy of most of the knights. Guinevere incites three of them; Sir Dinadan, Sir Sagramore and the burly Sir Lionel, to challenge him to a joust, ("Then You May Take Me to the Fair"). Arthur (who, unlike everybody else, is friendly with Lancelot), is dismayed by this, and is at a loss to understand a woman's way- though he cannot be angry with Guinevere, ("How to Handle a Woman").

text: In the jousting match Lancelot easily defeats all three knights. He wounds Sir Lionel, who fights him last, so badly that the crowd thinks he is dead. But the dismay of the crowd turns to awe as Lancelot's distraught cries for Sir Lionel to live seemingly resurrect a dead man. Reflecting the adoration of the crowd, Guinevere finds herself falling in love with Lancelot. She does not wish to violate her marriage vows, however, and wishes Lancelot would leave Camelot ("Before I Gaze at You Again"). By some unfortunate twist of fate, Lancelot, in spite of his boasts that he is immune to pleasures of the flesh, is also madly in love with Guinevere, and is similarly torn by the conflict between this love and his devotion to Arthur. Arthur makes Lancelot a Knight of the Round Table. As it happens, the shrewd King Arthur guesses that Lancelot and Guinevere have feelings for each other, but hopes it will blow over, as he does not wish to upset the tranquility of Camelot. He soliloquizes to his sword Excalibur, that they will rise to the challenges they will all face, together.

text: Act II[edit]

text: Many years later, Guinevere and Lancelot are still tormented by their unfulfilled love. She tries to get rid of him, but Lancelot will not leave her, ("If Ever I Would Leave You"). They both believe that Arthur is not aware of it. Nevertheless, she remains faithful to Arthur, and helps him in carrying out the affairs of State.

text: Mordred, Arthur's illegitimate son, comes to Camelot to dishonor the King and tries to gain the throne for himself. Arthur puts him in charge of the knights’ training program, not knowing that Mordred is there to destroy the Round Table in revenge against Arthur for abandoning him, and detests the idea of being a Knight ("The Seven Deadly Virtues"). Arthur begins to feel the strain of ruling England, and both he and Guinevere wonder what commoners do without any such responsibilities ("What Do The Simple Folk Do?"). Mordred, meanwhile, has devised a plan to ruin Arthur and his kingdom permanently. He enters an enchanted glade where his aunt, the sorceress Morgan le Fay, dwells in an invisible castle. Morgan has a sweet tooth, and though she likes Arthur, Mordred manages to bribe her with a large supply of sweetmeats, to build one of her invisible walls around Arthur for one night, so that when he goes on his hunting trip the next day, he will not be able to get back to the castle ("The Persuasion"). Meanwhile, Mordred incites the Knights to remember their former days of fighting and pillaging, and turns them against Arthur, ("Fie On Goodness!"). With Arthur gone, Lancelot, unable to stop himself, visits Guinevere in her chambers, as Mordred fully suspected he would. They kiss passionately ("I Loved You Once in Silence"). However, Lancelot and Guinevere's affair and Mordred's machinations come to a head when Mordred and some of the Knights of the Round Table interrupt, accuse Lancelot of treason, and try to take him prisoner. Lancelot fights them off and escapes, but Guinevere is arrested, tried, found guilty of treason by reason of her infidelity, and sentenced to be burned at the stake ("Guinevere"). At the execution, Arthur watches from a distance as Mordred taunts him for his failures; he is torn between upholding his law and doing his duty as a king, or sparing Guinevere, whom he still loves in spite of everything. At the last moment, Lancelot arrives with an army, rescues Guinevere and takes her off with him to France. But in the process, Lancelot has been forced to kill some of the other knights, leaving the survivors vowing revenge.

text: For the sake of his own honor and that of Camelot, Arthur must now wage war against Lancelot. Mordred has taken up his own army against Arthur, back in England. The war takes a terrible toll on Camelot, as more than half of the Knights of the Round Table are killed. Before the final battle, Arthur meets Lancelot and Guinevere. Lancelot and Guinevere's relationship has foundered, doubtless because of their guilty consciences. Guinevere has become a nun, and the Round Table is now broken. They offer to face up to justice in England, but Arthur will not see Guinevere burned or Lancelot beheaded. He forgives them both, and they depart separately. That night in camp, Arthur meets a young stowaway named Tom of Warwick, who has come to join the Round Table. His speech reminds Arthur of the idealism and hope that he had as a young king, and inspires him. Arthur knights Tom, and sends him back to England to grow up there, that he might pass on to future generations the ideals of chivalry and Camelot ("Camelot" (reprise)).

text: Musical numbers[edit]

text:
Act I

"Overture"
"The March [Parade]" – Instrumental
"I Wonder What the King Is Doing Tonight" – Arthur
"The Simple Joys of Maidenhood" – Guenevere
"Camelot" – Arthur
"Camelot" (reprise) – Arthur, Guenevere
"Follow Me" – Nimue
"C'est Moi" – Lancelot
"The Lusty Month of May" – Guenevere, Ensemble
"Then You May Take Me to the Fair"§ – Guenevere, Sir Lionel, Sir Sagramore, Sir Dinaden
"How To Handle a Woman" – Arthur
"The Jousts" – Arthur, Guenevere, Ensemble
"Before I Gaze at You Again" – Guenevere

Act II

"If Ever I Would Leave You" – Lancelot
"The Seven Deadly Virtues" – Mordred
"What Do the Simple Folk Do?" – Arthur and Guenevere
"Fie on Goodness!"§ – Mordred & Knights
"I Loved You Once In Silence" – Guenevere
"Guenevere" – Ensemble
"Camelot" (reprise) – King Arthur

text: § – Cut shortly into the original 1960 run, still present on cast album; restored in most subsequent revivals.

text: Critical assessments[edit]

text: The New York critics' reviews of the original production were mixed to positive.[8] A 1993 New York Times review commented that the musical "has grown in stature over the years, primarily because of its superb score.... [which] combined a lyrical simplicity with a lush romanticism, beautifully captured in numbers like 'I Loved You Once in Silence' and 'If Ever I Would Leave You.' These ballads sung by Guenevere and Lancelot are among the most memorable in the Lerner-Loewe catalogue. King Arthur supplies the wit, with songs like 'I Wonder What the King Is Doing Tonight.'"[10] A 2003 review noted, "this musically rich, legend-based classic evokes enough swashbuckling spectacle to keep one smiling. And for lovers of dime-store romance, Camelot has it all – a beautiful English princess swept off her feet by a shy, but passionate bachelor king; an ardent French knight, torn between devotion to his liege and an uncontrollable hunger, reciprocated, to be sure, for the king's tempestuous wife.... Camelot features a score rich in English country-tune charm by Mr. Lerner. [sic: Loewe wrote the music] Its lyrics, by Mr. Loewe [sic: Lerner wrote the lyrics], never fail to dazzle with their virtuosity and wit."[23] However, "Jay Lerner's murky book... has helped sink many a revival of the musical.... It's a good story, but Lerner's book is talky and dense, filled with pontificating soliloquies that would have been more powerfully contained in song. Moreover, while the entire show rushes towards a bloody climax... when it finally arrives, it is merely sketched upon in one song, "Guinevere." ...The score, though, is pure magic"[24]

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text: Original Broadway production[edit]

text:
Year
Award
Category
Nominee
Result

1961
Tony Award

Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Musical
Richard Burton
Won

Best Performance by a Leading Actress in a Musical
Julie Andrews
Nominated

Best Conductor and Musical Director
Franz Allers
Won

Best Scenic Design in a Musical
Oliver Smith
Won

Best Costume Design in a Musical
Adrian and Tony Duquette
Won

Outer Critics Circle Award
Best Set Design
Oliver Smith
Won

Theatre World Award
Robert Goulet
Won

text: 1980 Broadway revival[edit]

text:
Year
Award
Category
Nominee
Result

1981
Tony Award
Best Revival
Nominated

Best Performance by a Featured Actor in a Musical
Paxton Whitehead
Nominated

text: 1981 Broadway revival[edit]

text:
Year
Award
Category
Nominee
Result

1981
Drama Desk Award
Outstanding Featured Actor in a Musical
Paxton Whitehead
Nominated

text: Original cast recording[edit]

text:
Year
Chart
Peak
position

1961
US Pop Albums (Billboard)[citation needed]
1

1968
Norwegian Albums (VG-lista)[25]
20

text:
Preceded by
The Button-Down Mind of Bob Newhart by Bob Newhart
Billboard Top Albums (mono) number-one album
March 13, 1961 – April 30, 1961
May 22, 1961 – May 28, 1961
Succeeded by
Stars of a Summer Night by Various artists

text: Other recordings[edit]

text: The American rock/new wave group Blondie covered "Follow Me" on their 1980 album Autoamerican.