document_title: Drop kick

question_text: who did the last drop kick in the nfl

question_tokens: who did the last drop kick in the nfl

text: Drop kick

text: Rugby[edit]

text: Drop kick technique[edit]

text: The drop kick technique in rugby codes is usually to hold the ball with one end pointing downwards in two hands above the kicking leg. The ball is dropped onto the ground in front of the kicking foot, which makes contact at the moment or fractionally after the ball touches the ground, called the half-volley. The kicking foot usually makes contact with the ball slightly on the instep.[1]

text: In a rugby union kick-off, or drop out, the kicker usually aims to kick the ball high but not a great distance, and so usually strikes the ball after it has started to bounce off the ground, so the contact is made close to the bottom of the ball.

text: Rugby league[edit]

text: In rugby league, drop kicks are mandatory to restart play from the goal line (called a goal line drop-out) after the defending team is tackled or knocks on in the in-goal area or the defending team causes the ball to go dead or into touch-in-goal. Drop kicks are also mandatory to restart play from the 20 metre line after an unsuccessful penalty goal attempt goes dead or into touch-in-goal and to score a drop goal (sometimes known as a field goal) in open play, which is worth one point.[2]

text: Drop kicks are optional for a penalty kick to score a penalty goal (this being done rarely, as place kicks are generally used[original research?]) and when kicking for touch (the sideline) from a penalty, although the option of a punt kick is usually taken instead.

text: Rugby union[edit]

text: In rugby union, a drop kick is used for the kick-off and restarts and to score a drop goal (sometimes called a field goal). Originally, it was one of only two ways to score points, along with the place kick.

text: Drop kicks are mandatory from the centre spot to start a half (a kick-off), from the centre spot to restart the game after points have been scored, to restart play from the 22-metre line (called a drop-out) after the ball is touched down or made dead in the in-goal area by the defending team when the attacking team kicked or took the ball into the in-goal area, and to score a drop goal (sometimes called a field goal) in open play, which is worth three points.[3]

text: Drop kicks are optional for a conversion kick after a try has been scored. This is rare, as place kicks are almost always used for the conversion; a drop kick is sometimes used late in a game if the scoring team needs to score again quickly, and taking a place kick would be slower. Also, if a gust of wind blows the ball over on a place kick attempt after the kicker has begun his run-up, thus allowing the opposing team to begin a charge down, then there is no time to reset the ball, and the kicker may attempt a quick drop kick. Drop kicks are also optional for a penalty kick to score a penalty goal. This is rare, as place kicks are almost always used. When kicking for touch (the sideline) from a penalty, a drop kick may be used. This is rare, as the option of a punt kick is almost always taken instead.[original research?]

text: Rugby sevens[edit]

text: The usage of drop kicks in rugby sevens is the same as in rugby union, except that drop kicks are used for all conversion attempts and for penalty kicks, both of which must be taken within 40 seconds of the try being scored or the award of the penalty.[citation needed]

text: American and Canadian (gridiron) football[edit]

text: In both American and Canadian football, one method of scoring a field goal or extra point is by drop-kicking the football through the goal.

text: It contrasts to a punt, wherein the player kicks the ball without letting it hit the ground first; and a placekick, wherein the player kicks a stationary ball off the ground: "from placement". A drop kick is significantly more difficult; as Jim Thorpe once explained, "I regard the place kick as almost two to one safer than the drop kick in attempting a goal from the field."[4]

text: The drop kick was often used in early football as a surprise tactic. The ball would be snapped or lateraled to a back, who would fake a run or pass, but then would kick the field goal instead. This method of scoring worked well in the 1920s and early 1930s, when the football was rounder at the ends (similar to a modern rugby ball). Early football stars such as Charles Brickley, Frank Hudson, Jim Thorpe, Paddy Driscoll, and Al Bloodgood were skilled drop-kickers; Driscoll in 1925 and Bloodgood in 1926 hold a tied NFL record of four drop kicked field goals in a single game.[5] Driscoll's 55 yard drop kick in 1924 stood as the unofficial record for field goal range[6] until Bert Rechichar kicked a 56-yard field goal (by placekick) in 1953.

text: In 1934, the ball was made more pointed at the ends. The creation of the pointed football is generally credited to Shorty Ray, at the time a college football official and later the NFL's head of officiating.[7] This made passing the ball easier, as was its intent, but made the drop kick obsolete, as the more pointed ball did not bounce up from the ground reliably. The drop kick was supplanted by the place kick, which cannot be attempted out of a formation generally used as a running or passing set. The drop kick remains in the rules, but is seldom seen, and rarely effective when attempted.[citation needed] In Canadian football the drop kick can be taken from any point on the field, unlike placekicks which must be attempted behind the line of scrimmage.

text: NFL[edit]

text: Before the NFL–AFL merger, the last successful drop kick in the NFL was executed by Scooter McLean of the Chicago Bears in their 37–9 victory over the New York Giants on December 21, 1941, in the NFL Championship game at Chicago's Wrigley Field. Though it was not part of the NFL at the time, the All-America Football Conference saw its last drop kick November 28, 1948, when Joe Vetrano of the San Francisco 49ers drop kicked an extra point after a muffed snap against the Cleveland Browns.[8]

text: The only successful drop kick in the NFL since the 1940s was by Doug Flutie, the backup quarterback of the New England Patriots, against the Miami Dolphins on January 1, 2006, for an extra point after a touchdown. Flutie had estimated "an 80 percent chance" of making the drop kick,[9] which was called to give Flutie, 43 at the time, the opportunity to make a historic kick in his final NFL game; the drop kick was his last play in the NFL. After the game, New England coach Bill Belichick said, "I think Doug deserves it,"[10] and Flutie said, "I just thanked him for the opportunity."[9]

text: Dallas Cowboys punter Mat McBriar attempted a maneuver similar to a drop kick during the 2010 Thanksgiving Day game after a botched punt attempt, but the ball bounced several times before the kick and the sequence of events is officially recorded as a fumble, followed by an illegal kick, with the fumble being recovered by the New Orleans Saints 29 yards downfield from the spot of the kick. The Saints declined the illegal kick penalty.[11][12]

text: New England Patriots kicker Stephen Gostkowski attempted an onside drop kick on a free kick after a safety against the Pittsburgh Steelers on October 30, 2011. The kick went out of bounds.[13][14]

text: New Orleans Saints quarterback Drew Brees, a former teammate of Flutie's, executed a drop kick late on an extra point attempt in the fourth quarter of the 2012 Pro Bowl; the kick fell short.

text: New England Patriots special teams player Nate Ebner attempted an onside drop kick on a kickoff after a Patriots touchdown against the Philadelphia Eagles on December 6, 2015. The kick was recovered by the Eagles at their own 41 yard line.[15] Two weeks later, on December 20, Buffalo Bills punter Colton Schmidt executed what is believed to be an unintentional drop kick after a botched punt against the Washington Redskins; because the Redskins recovered the kick, it was treated as a punt (and not as a field goal attempt, which would have pushed the ball back to the spot of the kick).[16]

text: NCAA[edit]

text: The last successful drop kick extra point in the NCAA was by Jason Millgan of Hartwick College on December 11, 1998, St. Lawrence University.[17] Frosty Peters of Montana State College made 17 drop kicks in one game in 1924.[18]

text: Canadian football[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: In the Canadian game, the drop kick can be attempted at any time by either team. Any player on the kicking team behind the kicker, and including the kicker, can recover the kick. When a drop kick goes out of bounds, possession on the next scrimmage goes to the non-kicking team.

text: On September 8, 1974, Tom Wilkinson, quarterback for the Edmonton Eskimos, unsuccessfully attempted a drop kick field goal in the final seconds of a 24–2 romp over the Winnipeg Blue Bombers. This may have been the last time the play was deliberately attempted in the CFL.

text: During one game in the 1980s, Hamilton Tiger-Cats wide receiver Earl Winfield was unable to field a punt properly; in frustration, he kicked the ball out of bounds. The kick was considered a drop kick and led to a change of possession, with the punting team regaining possession of the ball.

text: Arena football[edit]

text: In Arena football, a drop-kicked extra point counts for two points rather than one and a drop-kicked field goal counts for four points rather than three.[19] The most recent conversion of a drop kick was by Geoff Boyer of the Pittsburgh Power on June 16, 2012; it was the first successful conversion in the Arena Football League since 1997.[20]

text: Australian rules football[edit]

text: Once the preferred method of conveying the ball over long distances, the drop-kick has been superseded by the drop punt as a more accurate means of delivering the ball to a fellow player. It is, therefore, no longer used in the game as it is considered too unpredictable.[21]


document_title: First white child

question_text: who was the first white person born in america

root

text: First white child

text: Americas[edit]

text: Snorri Thorfinnsson (probably born between 1005 and 1013) was the son of Thorfinnur Karlsefni and Gudrídur Þorbjarnardottir. Generally known to his contemporaries as Snorri Gudrídsson, as his mother outlived his father, was born in Vinland, making him the first European documented to be born in North America.

tag: p

text: Continental United States[edit]

text: Martín de Argüelles, Jr., born in the Spanish colony of St. Augustine, Florida, was the first white child known to be born in what is now the continental United States.[2] Born in 1566, his father was a hidalgo and one of the expeditioners who went to New Spain with Captain General Pedro Menéndez de Avilés in 1565. St. Augustine, Florida, is also the oldest continuously occupied European-founded city anywhere in the United States excluding Puerto Rico.[3]

text: British, Dutch and Swedish colonies[edit]

text: Virginia Dare, born in 1587 at the Roanoke Colony, was the first child born in North America to English parents, and her memory was celebrated in the British colonies.  Peregrine White, born aboard the Mayflower at Provincetown Harbor in 1620, was the first Pilgrim birth.[3] Sarah Rapelje, born on June 6, 1625, was the first white child born in New Netherland in what is now New York state.[4][5] Born in 1659, Kristian Gaapstörm was the first white child born in New Sweden.

text: Canada[edit]

text: Hélène Desportes is often cited as the first white child born in New France, in what would later be Canada. She was born probably 1620, to Pierre Desportes and Françoise Langlois, although there is some disagreement about whether she was born in Quebec or before her family arrived on the continent in 1614.  Hélène's maternal aunt was the mother of Eustache Martin, born in October 1621 in Quebec to Abraham Martin and Marguerite Langlois.[6]

text: Jonathan Guy, the son of Newfoundland settler Nicholas Guy, was the first child born to Anglophone parents in Canada, and one of the first born in any part of North America within a permanent settlement. He was born on 27 March 1613 in Cuper's Cove, a settlement that has been continuously occupied since 1610 and where his family remained long after his birth[7]

text: At Port Royal, Acadia in 1636, Pierre Martin and Catherine Vigneau, who had arrived on the passenger ship Saint Jehan along with 78 other migrants, were the first European parents to have a child in Acadia. The first-born child was Mathieu Martin. In part because of this distinction, Mathieu Martin later became the Seigneur of Cobequid (1699).[8]

text: Oceania[edit]

text: Australia[edit]

text: Seebaer van Nieuwelant (born 27 July 1623), son of Willemtgen and Willem Janszoon, was born south of Dirk Hartog Island, in present-day Western Australia. His father, not to be confused with the earlier Dutch explorer of the same name, was a midshipman from Amsterdam. He and his wife were aboard the Leijden, commanded by Claes Hermanszoon, which was charting the coast at the time. Their son's name in Dutch meant "sea-born (or sea-birth) of new land".[9]

text: New Zealand[edit]

text: The first European birth in New Zealand was Thomas Holloway King at the Rangihoua Bay settlement on February 21, 1815.[10][11]

text: Fiji[edit]

text: Novelist Joan Lindsay states [12]that her mother-in-law, Janey Lindsay, was the first white child to be born in Fiji.  She was born Jane Elizabeth Williams to the missionary Thomas Williams, and became the matriarch of an artistic family, including Daryl Lindsay (born 1889).

text: Africa[edit]

text: Rhodesia[edit]

text: Nada Burnham (May 1894 – May 19, 1896), daughter of the celebrated American scout Frederick Russell Burnham, was the first white child born in Bulawayo and died of fever and starvation during the Siege of Bulawayo in the Second Matabele War.[13][14] She was buried in the Pioneer Cemetery, plot #144, in Bulawayo, Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe).[15] Nada is the Zulu word for lily and she was named after the heroine in Sir H. Rider Haggard’s Zulu tale, Nada the Lily (1892). Three of Haggard's books are posthumously dedicated to her: The Wizard (1896), Elissa: The Doom of Zimbabwe (1899), and Black Heart and White Heart: A Zulu Idyll (1900).[16][17] Haggard's dedication reads: To the Memory of the Child: Nada Burnham, who "bound all to her" and, while her father cut his way through the hordes of the Ingobo Regiment, perished of the hardships of war at Buluwayo on 19 May 1896, I dedicate these tales—and more particularly the last, that of a Faith which triumphed over savagery and death.[16]

text: The first white baby born in Rhodesia was named Unwin Moffat. He was the son of the missionary John Smith Moffat & his wife Emily, nee Unwin. The child was born on the 18th of December 1858. The Moffats had eleven children between 1858 and 1871.  One of their sons, Howard Unwin Moffat, became premier of S. Rhodesia in 1927.


document_title: Koenigsegg Regera

question_text: what is the top speed of the koenigsegg regera

text: Koenigsegg Regera

text: Specifications[edit]

text: The Regera produces a reported total of 1,822 PS (1,340 kW; 1,797 hp) through a hybrid powertrain. As in general, the Regera's internal combustion engine (ICE) produces its greatest power only at high RPMs; however, due to the fixed gear, this corresponds to very high speeds. Power at low speeds is filled in by the electric motors, giving a maximum combined mechanical output of 1,500 PS (1,100 kW; 1,500 hp) and 2,000 N·m (1,475 lb·ft) of torque.[3][4][5] The ICE is a mid-rear mounted, in-house developed, twin-turbocharged V8 engine with a 5.0-litre capacity. It produces 820 kW (1,115 PS; 1,100 hp) at 7,800 rpm and 1,280 N·m (944 lb·ft) at 4,100 rpm. It works in conjunction with three YASA electric motors with a total capacity of 520 kW (707 PS; 697 hp) and 900 N·m (664 lb·ft) of torque. One 215 hp (160 kW; 218 PS) electric motor-generator on the crankshaft acts as starter and generator and supplies torque fill; and two 241 hp (180 kW) wheel-shaft mounted electric motors drive each rear wheel and provide torque vectoring. The electric motors are powered by a 4.5-kWh, 800-volt, 75-kg liquid cooled battery pack developed by Rimac Automobili, making it the first 800-volt production car.[6] Koenigsegg claims that the battery pack is the most power-dense battery pack ever created for a production car.[2][3][5][7]

text: Transmission[edit]

text: Christian von Koenigsegg invented the Koenigsegg Direct Drive System (KDD) and it was developed for the Regera by the Koenigsegg Advanced Engineering Team. The KDD system effectively eliminates the need for a transmission and allows for pure EV (electric vehicle) mode. The Regera doesn't have a traditional multi-gear transmission but instead features a single-speed fixed-gear transmission, often called a direct drive, with a 2.73:1 reduction ratio, meaning the crankshaft mounted on the ICE will rotate 2.73 times for every 1 time that the output shaft of the direct drive mechanism will rotate. At speeds below 30 mph, mostly the wheel shaft electric motors propel the car through the use of a hydraulic coupling that lets the ICE and the crankshaft mounted electric motor slip. In reverse, only the wheel shaft electric motors propel the car.[2][8] Above 30 mph, the RPM of the crankshaft mounted electric motor and internal combustion engine are proportional to wheel speed through locking of the hydraulic coupling.[9] However, in the first driving footage from the Regera through Koenigseggs official YouTube channel, Christian von Koenigsegg described and demonstrated how the Regera features a steering wheel mounted paddle that simulates a traditional downshift by initiating slip of the hydraulic coupling connecting the crankshaft to the output shaft. This results in higher RPM of the ICE and the cranskshaft mounted electric motor and therefore higher power at lower speeds than what would have been possible if the coupling would have been locked at all times.[10] Koenigsegg reported that the omission of a gearbox and addition of electric motors and battery only added 88 kg (194 lb) compared to what the Regera would have weighed with the same combustion engine but a 7-speed dual-clutch transmission (DCT) and no electric motors or batteries.[11][12]

text: Interior features[edit]

text: The Regera will include added insulation to help add to the luxury by reducing cabin noise caused by wind and powertrain noises. Also included as an added luxury item over previous models will be 8-way electrically adjustable memory foam seats. The Regera will also include many new technical features such as a Koenigsegg 9-inch information and entertainment system, a complete camera system with recording capabilities (front, inner, and rear), Apple CarPlay, a new sound system, ambient lighting, and 3G and Wi-Fi connectivity. It will also feature front and rear parking sensors.[11][13]

text: The Regera will feature active engine mounts for the ICE and transmission to rest on. The engine mounts are designed to stay soft at lower speeds, significantly reducing vibrations and engine noise, adding to the luxury effect of the vehicle. While driving more aggressively or at higher speeds, the engine mounts will firm up, giving greater lateral response to the vehicle.[11]

text: Exterior features[edit]

text: Christian von Koenigsegg believes that a good design of the day-time running lights (DRL) on a vehicle gives it character, and developed a DRL system that is supposed to resemble a constellation with the carbon-fiber background resembling the night sky.[11]

text: Koenigsegg claims that the Regera is the first "fully-robotized" car. The vehicle features hydraulic pumps and accumulators to control the active front and rear wings, as well as active chassis control and lifting. Hydraulic lifters were added to the already existing pumps and accumulators to allow for all body panels on the vehicle to be remotely operated.[11]

text: Performance[edit]

text: The car has a claimed, electronically limited top speed of 410 km/h (255 mph), is capable of reaching 100 km/h (62 mph) in 2.7 seconds, 300 km/h (186 mph) in 10.9 seconds, and a speed of 400 km/h (249 mph) in 20 seconds. Koenigsegg also claims that the acceleration from 150 to 250 km/h (from 93 to 155 mph) requires 3.9 seconds.[6]

text: Koenigsegg Regera has a power to weight ratio of 0.69 kW (0.93 hp) per kilogram.

text: Comparison with other Koenigsegg models[edit]

text: World records set on September 2, 2011 with an Agera R.[14]

text:
Record
Time (seconds)

Agera R
One:1[15]
Regera[6]

0–100 km/h
2.8
2.8
2.7

0–200 km/h
7.68
6.6
6.6

0–300 km/h
14.53
11.92
10.9

0–400 km/h

20
>20

300–0 km/h
6.66
6.03

200–0 mph
7.28
6.38

0–300–0 km/h
21.19
17.95

0–200–0 mph
24.96
20.07

tag: table


document_title: Roman numerals

question_text: what is the number zero in roman numerals

question_tokens: what is the number zero in roman numerals

text: Roman numerals

text: Roman numeric system

text: Basic decimal pattern

text: The original pattern for Roman numerals used the symbols I, V. and X (1, 5, and 10) as simple tally marks. Each marker for 1 (I) added a unit value up to 5 (V), and was then added to (V) to make the numbers from 6 to 9:

text: The numerals for 4 (IIII) and 9 (VIIII) proved problematic (among other things, they are easily confused with III and VIII), and are generally replaced with IV (one less than 5) and IX (one less than 10). This feature of Roman numerals is called subtractive notation.

text: The numbers from 1 to 10 (including subtractive notation for 4 and 9) are expressed in Roman numerals as follows:

text: The system being basically decimal, tens and hundreds follow the same pattern:

text: Thus 10 to 100 (counting in tens, with X taking the place of I, L taking the place of V and C taking the place of X):

text: Note that 40 (XL) and 90 (XC) follow the same subtractive pattern as 4 and 9.

text: Similarly, 100 to 1000 (counting in hundreds):

text: Many numbers include hundreds, units and tens. The Roman numeral system being basically decimal, each "place" is added separately, in descending sequence from left to right, as with "arabic" numbers. For example, the number 39 is XXXIX, (three tens and a ten less one), 246 is CCXLVI (two hundreds, a fifty less ten, a five and a one. As each place has its own notation there is no need for place keeping zeros, so "missing places" can be simply omitted: thus 207, for instance, is written CCVII (two hundreds, a five and two ones) and 1066 becomes MLXVI (a thousand, a fifty and a ten, a five and a one)[3][4]

text: Roman numerals for large numbers are nowadays seen mainly in the form of year numbers (other uses are detailed later in this article), as in these examples:

text:
1776 as MDCCLXXVI, the date written on the book held by the Statue of Liberty.[5]
1954 as MCMLIV, as in the trailer for the movie The Last Time I Saw Paris[6]
1990 as MCMXC, used as the title of musical project Enigma's debut album MCMXC a.D., named after the year of its release.
2014 as MMXIV, the year of the games of the XXII (22nd) Olympic Winter Games (in Sochi)

tag: ul

text: Alternative forms

text: The "standard" forms described above reflect typical modern usage rather than a universally accepted convention. Usage in ancient Rome varied greatly and remained inconsistent in medieval and modern times.[7]

text:
Inscriptions dating from the Roman period not infrequently use "additive" forms such as IIII and VIIII for "4" and "9" instead of IV and IX. There are even instances of both forms appearing within the same document.
While in standard usage subtractive notation is limited to use of "adjacent" numerals, so that 99 (for example) is written XCIX, forms such as IC are not unknown.
XIIX or IIXX are sometimes used for "18" instead of XVIII. The Latin word for "eighteen" is often rendered as the equivalent of "twenty less two", which may be the source of this usage.
Sometimes V and L are not used, with instances such as IIIIII and XXXXXX rather than VI or LX.[8][9]

text:
Clock faces that use Roman numerals normally show IIII for four o’clock but IX for nine o’clock, a practice that goes back to very early clocks such as the Wells Cathedral clock of the late 14th century.[10][11][12] However, this is far from universal: for example, the clock on the Palace of Westminster in London (aka "Big Ben") uses a "normal" IV.[11]
At the beginning of the 20th century, different representations of 900 (conventionally CM) appeared in several inscribed dates. For instance, 1910 is shown on Admiralty Arch, London, as MDCCCCX rather than MCMX, while on the north entrance to the Saint Louis Art Museum, 1903 is inscribed as MDCDIII rather than MCMIII.[13]

text: History

text: Pre-Roman times and ancient Rome

text: Although Roman numerals came to be written with letters of the Roman alphabet, they were originally independent symbols. The Etruscans, for example, used 𐌠, 𐌡, 𐌢, ⋔, 𐌚, and ⊕ for I, V, X, L, C, and M, of which only I and X happened to be letters in their alphabet.

text: Hypotheses about the origin of Roman numerals

text: Tally marks

text: One hypothesis is that the Etrusco-Roman numerals actually derive from notches on tally sticks, which continued to be used by Italian and Dalmatian shepherds into the 19th century.[14]

text: Thus, ⟨I⟩ descends not from the letter ⟨I⟩ but from a notch scored across the stick. Every fifth notch was double cut i.e. ⋀, ⋁, ⋋, ⋌, etc.), and every tenth was cross cut (X), IIIIΛIIIIXIIIIΛIIIIXII...), much like European tally marks today. This produced a positional system: Eight on a counting stick was eight tallies, IIIIΛIII, or the eighth of a longer series of tallies; either way, it could be abbreviated ΛIII (or VIII), as the existence of a Λ implies four prior notches. By extension, eighteen was the eighth tally after the first ten, which could be abbreviated X, and so was XΛIII. Likewise, number four on the stick was the I-notch that could be felt just before the cut of the Λ (V), so it could be written as either IIII or IΛ (IV). Thus the system was neither additive nor subtractive in its conception, but ordinal. When the tallies were transferred to writing, the marks were easily identified with the existing Roman letters I, V and X.

text: The tenth V or X along the stick received an extra stroke. Thus 50 was written variously as N, И, K, Ψ, ⋔, etc., but perhaps most often as a chicken-track shape like a superimposed V and I: ↆ. This had flattened to ⊥ (an inverted T) by the time of Augustus, and soon thereafter became identified with the graphically similar letter L. Likewise, 100 was variously Ж, ⋉, ⋈, H, or as any of the symbols for 50 above plus an extra stroke. The form Ж (that is, a superimposed X and I like: 𐊌) came to predominate. It was written variously as >I< or ƆIC, was then abbreviated to Ɔ or C, with C variant finally winning out because, as a letter, it stood for centum, Latin for "hundred".

text: The hundredth V or X was marked with a box or circle. Thus 500 was like a Ɔ superimposed on a ⋌ or ⊢, becoming D or Ð by the time of Augustus, under the graphic influence of the letter ⟨D⟩. It was later identified as the letter D; an alternative symbol for "thousand" was (I) (or CIƆ or CꟾƆ), and half of a thousand or "five hundred" is the right half of the symbol, I) (or IƆ or ꟾƆ), and this may have been converted into ⟨D⟩.[15] This at least was the etymology given to it later on.

text: Meanwhile, 1000 was a circled or boxed X: Ⓧ, ⊗, ⊕, and by Augustinian times was partially identified with the Greek letter Φ phi. Over time, the symbol changed to Ψ and ↀ. The latter symbol further evolved into ∞, then ⋈, and eventually changed to M under the influence of the Latin word mille "thousand".

text: Hand signals

text: Alfred Hooper has an alternative hypothesis for the origin of the Roman numeral system, for small numbers.[16] Hooper contends that the digits are related to hand gestures for counting. For example, the numbers I, II, III, IIII correspond to the number of fingers held up for another to see. V, then represents that hand upright with fingers together and thumb apart. Numbers 6–10, are represented with two hands as follows (left hand, right hand) 6=(V,I), 7=(V,II), 8=(V,III), 9=(V,IIII), 10=(V,V) and X results from either crossing of the thumbs, or holding both hands up in a cross.

text: Another possibility is that each I represents a finger and V represents the thumb of one hand. This way the numbers between 1–10 can be counted on one hand using the order: I=P, II=PR, III=PRM, IV=IT, V=T, VI=TP, VII=TPR, VIII=TPRM, IX=IN, X=N (P=Pinky, R=Ring, M=Middle, I=Index, T=Thumb N=No Fingers/Other Hand). This pattern can also be continued using the other hand with the fingers representing X and the thumb L.

text: Intermediate symbols deriving from few original symbols

text: A third hypothesis about the origins states that the basic ciphers were I, X, C and Φ (or ⊕) and that the intermediary ones were derived from taking half of those (half an X is V, half a C is L and half a Φ/⊕ is D).[17] The Φ was later replaced with M, the initial of Mille (the Latin word for "thousand").

text: Middle Ages and Renaissance

text: Minuscule (lower-case) letters were developed in the Middle Ages, well after the demise of the Western Roman Empire, and since that time lower-case versions of Roman numbers have also been commonly used: i, ii, iii, iv, and so on.

text: Since the Middle Ages, a "j" has sometimes been substituted for the final "i" of a "lower-case" Roman numeral, such as "iij" for 3 or "vij" for 7. This "j" can be considered a swash variant of "i" (see example [1]). The use of a final "j" is still used in medical prescriptions to prevent tampering with or misinterpretation of a number after it is written.[18][19]

text: Numerals in documents and inscriptions from the Middle Ages sometimes include additional symbols, which today are called "medieval Roman numerals". Some simply substitute another letter for the standard one (such as "A" for "V", or "Q" for "D"), while others serve as abbreviations for compound numerals ("O" for "XI", or "F" for "XL"). Although they are still listed today in some dictionaries, they are long out of use.[20]

text:
Number
Medieval
abbreviation
Notes and etymology

5
A
Resembles an upside-down V. Also said to equal 500.

6
Ϛ
Either from a ligature of VI, or the Greek numeral 6: stigma (Ϛ).[21]

7
S, Z
Presumed abbreviation of septem, Latin for 7.

11
O
Presumed abbreviation of onze, French for 11.

40
F
Presumed abbreviation of English forty.

70
S
Also could stand for 7, with the same derivation.

80
R

90
N
Presumed abbreviation of nonaginta, Latin for 90. (N.B. N is also used for "nothing" (nullus)).

150
Y
Possibly derived from the lowercase y's shape.

151
K
Unusual, origin unknown; also said to stand for 250.[22]

160
T
Possibly derived from Greek tetra, as 4 × 40 = 160.

200
H
Could also stand for 2 (see also 𐆙, the symbol for the dupondius). From a barring of two I's.

250
E

300
B

400
P, G

500
Q
Redundant with D; abbreviates quingenti, Latin for 500.

2000
Z

text: Chronograms, messages with dates encoded into them, were popular during the Renaissance era. The chronogram would be a phrase containing the letters I, V, X, L, C, D, and M. By putting these letters together, the reader would obtain a number, usually indicating a particular year.

text: Modern use

text: By the 11th century, Hindu–Arabic numerals had been introduced into Europe from al-Andalus, by way of Arab traders and arithmetic treatises. Roman numerals, however, proved very persistent, remaining in common use in the West well into the 14th and 15th centuries, even in accounting and other business records (where the actual calculations would have been made using an abacus). Replacement by their more convenient "Arabic" equivalents was quite gradual, and Roman numerals are still used today in certain contexts. A few examples of their current use are:

text:
Names of monarchs and popes, e.g. Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom, Pope Benedict XVI. These are referred to as regnal numbers; e.g. II is pronounced "the second". This tradition began in Europe sporadically in the Middle Ages, gaining widespread use in England only during the reign of Henry VIII. Previously, the monarch was not known by numeral but by an epithet such as Edward the Confessor. Some monarchs (e.g. Charles IV of Spain and Louis XIV of France) seem to have preferred the use of IIII instead of IV on their coinage (see illustration).
Generational suffixes, particularly in the US, for people sharing the same name across generations, for example William Howard Taft IV.
In the French Republican Calendar, initiated during the French Revolution, years were numbered by Roman numerals – from the year I (1792) when this calendar was introduced to the year XIV (1805) when it was abandoned.
The year of production of films, television shows and other works of art within the work itself. It has been suggested – by BBC News, perhaps facetiously – that this was originally done "in an attempt to disguise the age of films or television programmes."[23] Outside reference to the work will use regular Hindu–Arabic numerals.
Hour marks on timepieces. In this context, 4 is usually written IIII.
The year of construction on building faces and cornerstones.
Page numbering of prefaces and introductions of books, and sometimes of annexes, too.
Book volume and chapter numbers, as well as the several acts within a play (e.g. Act iii, Scene 2).
Sequels of some movies, video games, and other works (as in Rocky II).
Outlines that use numbers to show hierarchical relationships.
Occurrences of a recurring grand event, for instance:

The Summer and Winter Olympic Games (e.g. the XXI Olympic Winter Games; the Games of the XXX Olympiad)
The Super Bowl, the annual championship game of the National Football League (e.g. Super Bowl XXXVII; Super Bowl 50 is a one-time exception[24])
WrestleMania, the annual professional wrestling event for the WWE (e.g. WrestleMania XXX). This usage has also been inconsistent.

text: Specific disciplines

text: In astronomy, the natural satellites or "moons" of the planets are traditionally designated by capital Roman numerals appended to the planet’s name. For example, Titan's designation is Saturn VI.

text: In chemistry, Roman numerals are often used to denote the groups of the periodic table. They are also used in the IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry, for the oxidation number of cations which can take on several different positive charges. They are also used for naming phases of polymorphic crystals, such as ice.

text: In computing, Roman numerals may be used in identifiers which are limited to alphabetic characters by syntactic constraints of the programming language. In LaTeX, for instance, \labelitemiii refers to the label of an item in the third level iii of a nested list environment.

text: In military unit designation, Roman numerals are often used to distinguish between units at different levels. This reduces possible confusion, especially when viewing operational or strategic level maps. In particular, army corps are often numbered using Roman numerals (for example the American XVIII Airborne Corps or the WW2-era German III Panzerkorps) with Hindu-Arabic numerals being used for divisions and armies.

text: In music, Roman numerals are used in several contexts:

text:
Movements are often numbered using Roman numerals.
In music theory, the diatonic functions are identified using Roman numerals. (See: Roman numeral analysis)
Individual strings of stringed instruments, such as the violin, are often denoted by Roman numerals, with higher numbers denoting lower strings.

text: In pharmacy, Roman numerals are used in some contexts, including S to denote "one half" and N to mean "nothing".[25] (See the sections below on "zero" and "fractions".)

text: In photography, Roman numerals (with zero) are used to denote varying levels of brightness when using the Zone System.

text: In seismology, Roman numerals are used to designate degrees of the Mercalli intensity scale of earthquakes.

text: In tarot, Roman numerals (with zero) are used to denote the cards of the Major Arcana.

text: In theology and biblical scholarship, the Septuagint is often referred to as LXX, as this translation of the Old Testament into Greek is named for the legendary number of its translators (septuaginta being Latin for "seventy").

text: In entomology, the broods of the thirteen and seventeen year periodical cicadas are identified by Roman numerals.

text: In advanced mathematics (including trigonometry, statistics, and calculus), when a graph includes negative numbers, its quadrants are named using I, II, III, and IV. These quadrant names signify positive numbers on both axes, negative numbers on the X axis, negative numbers on both axes, and negative numbers on the Y axis, respectively. The use of Roman numerals to designate quadrants avoids confusion, since Hindu-Arabic numerals are used for the actual data represented in the graph.

text: Modern use in continental Europe

text: Some uses that are rare or never seen in English speaking countries are relatively common in continental Europe. For instance:

text: Capital or small capital Roman numerals are widely used in Romance languages to denote centuries, e.g. the French xviiie siècle[26] and the Spanish siglo XVIII mean "18th century". Slavic languages in and adjacent to Russia similarly favour Roman numerals (XVIII век). On the other hand, in Slavic languages in Central Europe, like most Germanic languages, one writes "18." (with a period) before the local word for "century".

text: Mixed Roman and Hindu-Arabic numerals are sometimes used in numeric representations of dates (especially in formal letters and official documents, but also on tombstones). The month is written in Roman numerals, while the day is in Hindu-Arabic numerals: "14.VI.1789" and "VI.14.1789" both refer unambiguously to 14 June 1789.

text: Roman numerals are sometimes used to represent the days of the week in hours-of-operation signs displayed in windows or on doors of businesses,[27] and also sometimes in railway and bus timetables. Monday, taken as the first day of the week, is represented by I. Sunday is represented by VII. The hours of operation signs are tables composed of two columns where the left column is the day of the week in Roman numerals and the right column is a range of hours of operation from starting time to closing time. In the example case (left), the business opens from 10 AM to 7 PM on weekdays, 10 AM to 5 PM on Saturdays and is closed on Sundays. Note that the listing uses 24-hour time.

text: Roman numerals may also be used for floor numbering.[28][29] For instance, apartments in central Amsterdam are indicated as 138-III, with both a Hindu-Arabic numeral (number of the block or house) and a Roman numeral (floor number). The apartment on the ground floor is indicated as '138-huis'.

text: In Italy, where roads outside built-up areas have kilometre signs, major roads and motorways also mark 100-metre subdivisionals, using Roman numerals from I to IX for the smaller intervals. The sign "IX | 17" thus marks kilometre 17.9.

text: A notable exception to the use of Roman numerals in Europe is in Greece, where Greek numerals (based on the Greek alphabet) are generally used in contexts where Roman numerals would be used elsewhere.

text: Special values

text: Zero

text: The number zero does not have its own Roman numeral, but the word nulla (the Latin word meaning "none") was used by medieval scholars in lieu of 0. Dionysius Exiguus was known to use nulla alongside Roman numerals in 525.[30][31] About 725, Bede or one of his colleagues used the letter N, the initial of nulla or of nihil (the Latin word for "nothing"), in a table of epacts, all written in Roman numerals.[32]

text: Fractions

text: Though the Romans used a decimal system for whole numbers, reflecting how they counted in Latin, they used a duodecimal system for fractions, because the divisibility of twelve (12 = 22 × 3) makes it easier to handle the common fractions of 1/3 and 1/4 than does a system based on ten (10 = 2 × 5). On coins, many of which had values that were duodecimal fractions of the unit as, they used a tally-like notational system based on twelfths and halves. A dot (•) indicated an uncia "twelfth", the source of the English words inch and ounce; dots were repeated for fractions up to five twelfths. Six twelfths (one half) was abbreviated as the letter S for semis "half". Uncia dots were added to S for fractions from seven to eleven twelfths, just as tallies were added to V for whole numbers from six to nine.[33]

text: Each fraction from 1/12 to 12/12 had a name in Roman times; these corresponded to the names of the related coins:

text:
Fraction
Roman numeral
Name (nominative and genitive)
Meaning

1/12
•
Uncia, unciae
"Ounce"

2/12 = 1/6
•• or :
Sextans, sextantis
"Sixth"

3/12 = 1/4
••• or ∴
Quadrans, quadrantis
"Quarter"

4/12 = 1/3
•••• or ::
Triens, trientis
"Third"

5/12
••••• or :·:
Quincunx, quincuncis
"Five-ounce" (quinque unciae → quincunx)

6/12 = 1/2
S
Semis, semissis
"Half"

7/12
S•
Septunx, septuncis
"Seven-ounce" (septem unciae → septunx)

8/12 = 2/3
S•• or S:
Bes, bessis
"Twice" (as in "twice a third")

9/12 = 3/4
S••• or S:·
Dodrans, dodrantis
or nonuncium, nonuncii
"Less a quarter" (de-quadrans → dodrans)
or "ninth ounce" (nona uncia → nonuncium)

10/12 = 5/6
S•••• or S::
Dextans, dextantis
or decunx, decuncis
"Less a sixth" (de-sextans → dextans)
or "ten ounces" (decem unciae → decunx)

11/12
S••••• or S:·:
Deunx, deuncis
"Less an ounce" (de-uncia → deunx)

12/12 = 1
I
As, assis
"Unit"

text: The arrangement of the dots was variable and not necessarily linear. Five dots arranged like (⁙) (as on the face of a die) are known as a quincunx, from the name of the Roman fraction/coin. The Latin words sextans and quadrans are the source of the English words sextant and quadrant.

text: Other Roman fractional notations included the following:

text:
1/8 sescuncia, sescunciae (from sesqui- + uncia, i.e. 1½ uncias), represented by a sequence of the symbols for the semuncia and the uncia.
1/24 semuncia, semunciae (from semi- + uncia, i.e. ½ uncia), represented by several variant glyphs deriving from the shape of the Greek letter sigma (Σ), one variant resembling the pound sign (£) without the horizontal line(s) and another resembling the Cyrillic letter Є.
1/36 binae sextulae, binarum sextularum ("two sextulas") or duella, duellae, represented by a sequence of two reversed Ss (ƧƧ).
1/48 sicilicus, sicilici, represented by a reversed C (Ɔ).
1/72 sextula, sextulae (1/6 of an uncia), represented by a reversed S (Ƨ).
1/144 = 12−2 dimidia sextula, dimidiae sextulae ("half a sextula"), represented by a reversed S crossed by a horizontal line (𐆔).
1/288 scripulum, scripuli (a scruple), represented by the symbol ℈.
1/1728 = 12−3 siliqua, siliquae, represented by a symbol resembling closing guillemets (𐆕).

text: Large numbers

text: A number of systems were developed for the expression of larger numbers that cannot be conveniently expressed using the normal seven letter symbols of conventional Roman numerals.

text: Apostrophus

text: One of these was the apostrophus,[34] in which 500 (usually written as "D") was written as |Ɔ, while 1,000 was written as C|Ɔ instead of "M".[15] This is a system of encasing numbers to denote thousands (the Cs and Ɔs functioned in this case as the Roman equivalent of parentheses), and has its origins in Etruscan numeral usage. Each extra set of C combined with Ɔ, raises C|Ɔ by a factor of ten, for example, CC|ƆƆ is 10,000 and CCC|ƆƆƆ is 100,000. Whereas the |Ɔ (representing 500) is raised by a factor of ten by combining it with a Ɔ, for example, |ƆƆ is 5,000, and |ƆƆƆ is 5,000. The D and M used to represent 500 and 1,000 in conventional Roman numerals were probably derived from |Ɔ and C|Ɔ, respectively.

text: For example:

text:
Base number

C|Ɔ = 1,000
CC|ƆƆ = 10,000
CCC|ƆƆƆ = 100,000

with |Ɔ
|Ɔ = 500
C|Ɔ|Ɔ = 1,500 (broken down as C|Ɔ plus |Ɔ)
CC|ƆƆ|Ɔ = 10,500 (broken down as CC|ƆƆ plus |Ɔ)
CCC|ƆƆƆ|Ɔ = 100,500 (broken down as CCC|ƆƆƆ plus |Ɔ)

with |ƆƆ
|ƆƆ = 5,000

CC|ƆƆ|ƆƆ = 15,000 (broken down as CC|ƆƆ plus |ƆƆ)
CCC|ƆƆƆ|ƆƆ = 105,000 (broken down as CCC|ƆƆƆ plus |ƆƆ)

with |ƆƆƆ
|ƆƆƆ = 50,000

CCC|ƆƆƆ|ƆƆƆ = 150,000 (broken down as CCC|ƆƆƆ plus |ƆƆƆ)

text: Sometimes C|Ɔ was reduced to ↀ for 1,000. John Wallis is often credited for introducing the symbol for infinity (modern ∞), and one conjecture is that he based it on this usage, since 1,000 was hyperbolically used to represent very large numbers. Similarly, |ƆƆ for 5,000 was reduced to ↁ; CC|ƆƆ for 10,000 to ↂ; |ƆƆƆ for 50,000 to ↇ; and CCC|ƆƆƆ for 100,000 to ↈ.[14]

text: Vinculum

text: Another system is the vinculum, where a conventional Roman numeral is multiplied by 1,000 by adding an overline.[14] Although mathematical historian David Eugene Smith disputes that this was part of ancient Roman usage,[35] the notation was certainly in use in the Middle Ages, and is at least a convenient and "conventional" way to express numbers greater than 3,999 in Roman numerals.

text: For instance:

text:
IV for 4,000
XXV for 25,000

text: Adding vertical lines (or brackets) before and after the numeral seems to have been used (at least by late medieval times) to multiply a Roman numeral by 10: thus |M| for 10,000 rather than X (perhaps under the influence of Arabic/Hindu numerals, which were by this time coming into use). In combination with the overline the bracketed forms might be used to raise the multiplier to (say) ten (or one hundred) thousand, thus:

text:
|VIII| for 80,000 (or 800,000)
|XX| for 200,000 (or 2,000,000)

text: This needs to be distinguished from the custom of adding both underline and overline to a Roman numeral, simply to make it clear that it is a number, e.g. MCMLXVII.