document_title: History of the petroleum industry

question_text: when was oil first used as an energy source

text: History of the petroleum industry

text: Early history[edit]

text: Four thousand years ago, according to Herodotus and confirmed by Diodorus Siculus, asphalt was used in the construction of the walls and towers of Babylon; there were oil pits near Ardericca (near Babylon), and a pitch spring on Zacynthus (Ionian islands, Greece).[1] Great quantities of it were found on the banks of the river Issus[citation needed], one of the tributaries of the Euphrates. Ancient Persian tablets indicate the medicinal and lighting uses of petroleum in the upper levels of their society[citation needed].

text: Oil was exploited in the Roman province of Dacia, now in Romania, where it was called picula.[citation needed]

text: The use of petroleum dates back to ancient China more than 2000 years ago. In I Ching, one of the earliest Chinese writings cites the use of oil in its raw state without refining was first discovered, extracted, and used in China in the first century BCE. In addition, the Chinese were the first to use petroleum as fuel as the early as the fourth century BCE.[2][3][4][5]

text: The earliest known oil wells were drilled in China in 347 AD or earlier. They had depths of up to about 800 feet (240 m) and were drilled using bits attached to bamboo poles.[6][7][8][9][unreliable source?] The oil was burned to evaporate brine and produce salt. By the 10th century, extensive bamboo pipelines connected oil wells with salt springs. The ancient records of China and Japan are said to contain many allusions to the use of natural gas for lighting and heating. Petroleum was known as burning water in Japan in the 7th century.[1] In his book Dream Pool Essays written in 1088, the polymathic scientist and statesman Shen Kuo of the Song Dynasty coined the word 石油 (Shíyóu, literally "rock oil") for petroleum, which remains the term used in contemporary Chinese and Japanese (Sekiyū).

text: The first streets of Baghdad were paved with tar, derived from petroleum that became accessible from natural fields in the region. In the 9th century, oil fields were exploited in the area around modern Baku, Azerbaijan. These fields were described by the Arab geographer Abu al-Hasan 'Alī al-Mas'ūdī in the 10th century, and by Marco Polo in the 13th century, who described the output of those wells as hundreds of shiploads. Distillation of Petroleum was described by the Persian alchemist, Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes).[10][unreliable source] There was production of chemicals such as kerosene in the alembic (al-ambiq),[11] which was mainly used for kerosene lamps.[12] Arab and Persian chemists also distilled crude oil in order to produce flammable products for military purposes. Through Islamic Spain, distillation became available in Western Europe by the 12th century.[13] It has also been present in Romania since the 13th century, being recorded as păcură.[14]

text: The earliest mention of petroleum in the Americas occurs in Sir Walter Raleigh's account of the Trinidad Pitch Lake in 1595; while thirty-seven years later, the account of a visit of a Franciscan, Joseph de la Roche d'Allion, to the oil springs of New York was published in Gabriel Sagard's Histoire du Canada. A Finnish born Swede, scientist and student of Carl Linnaeus, Peter Kalm, in his work Travels into North America published first in 1753 showed on a map the oil springs of Pennsylvania.[1]

text: In 1710 or 1711 (sources vary) the Russian-born Swiss physician and Greek teacher Eirini d'Eyrinys (also spelled as Eirini d'Eirinis) discovered asphaltum at Val-de-Travers, (Neuchâtel). He established a bitumen mine de la Presta there in 1719 that operated until 1986.[15][16][17][18]

text: In 1745 under the Empress Elizabeth of Russia the first oil well and refinery were built in Ukhta by Fiodor Priadunov. Through the process of distillation of the "rock oil" (petroleum) he received a kerosene-like substance, which was used in oil lamps by Russian churches and monasteries (though households still relied on candles).[19]

text: Oil sands were mined from 1745 in Merkwiller-Pechelbronn, Alsace under the direction of Louis Pierre Ancillon de la Sablonnière, by special appointment of Louis XV.[20][21] The Pechelbronn oil field was active until 1970, and was the birthplace of companies like Antar and Schlumberger. The first modern refinery was built there in 1857.[20]

text: Modern history[edit]

text: The modern history of petroleum began in the 19th century with the refining of paraffin from crude oil. The Scottish chemist James Young in 1847 noticed a natural petroleum seepage in the Riddings colliery at Alfreton, Derbyshire from which he distilled a light thin oil suitable for use as lamp oil, at the same time obtaining a thicker oil suitable for lubricating machinery. In 1846, Baku (settlement Bibi-Heybat) the first ever well drilled with percussion tools to a depth of 21 meters for oil exploration. In 1848, Young set up a small business refining the crude oil. The new oils were successful, but the supply of oil from the coal mine soon began to fail (eventually being exhausted in 1851). Young, noticing that the oil was dripping from the sandstone roof of the coal mine, theorized that it somehow originated from the action of heat on the coal seam and from this thought that it might be produced artificially.

text: Following up this idea, he tried many experiments and eventually succeeded, by distilling cannel coal at a low heat, a fluid resembling petroleum, which when treated in the same way as the seep oil gave similar products. Young found that by slow distillation he could obtain a number of useful liquids from it, one of which he named "paraffine oil" because at low temperatures it congealed into a substance resembling paraffin wax.[22]

text: The production of these oils and solid paraffin wax from coal formed the subject of his patent dated 17 October 1850. In 1850 Young & Meldrum and Edward William Binney entered into partnership under the title of E.W. Binney & Co. at Bathgate in West Lothian and E. Meldrum & Co. at Glasgow; their works at Bathgate were completed in 1851 and became the first truly commercial oil-works and oil refinery in the world, using oil extracted from locally mined torbanite, shale, and bituminous coal to manufacture naphtha and lubricating oils; paraffin for fuel use and solid paraffin were not sold till 1856.

text: Abraham Pineo Gesner, a Canadian geologist developed a process to refine a liquid fuel from coal, bitumen and oil shale. His new discovery, which he named kerosene, burned more cleanly and was less expensive than competing products, such as whale oil. In 1850, Gesner created the Kerosene Gaslight Company and began installing lighting in the streets in Halifax and other cities. By 1854, he had expanded to the United States where he created the North American Kerosene Gas Light Company at Long Island, New York. Demand grew to where his company’s capacity to produce became a problem, but the discovery of petroleum, from which kerosene could be more easily produced, solved the supply problem.

text: In 1848 first modern oil well is drilled in Asia, on the Aspheron Peninsula north-east of Baku, by Russian engineer F.N. Semyenov.[23]

text: Ignacy Łukasiewicz improved Gesner's method to develop a means of refining kerosene from the more readily available "rock oil" ("petr-oleum") seeps, in 1852, and the first rock oil mine was built in Bóbrka, near Krosno in central European Galicia (Poland) in 1854. These discoveries rapidly spread around the world, and Meerzoeff built the first modern Russian refinery in the mature oil fields at Baku in 1861. At that time Baku produced about 90% of the world's oil.

text: The question of what constituted the first commercial oil well is a difficult one to answer. Edwin Drake's 1859 well near Titusville, Pennsylvania, discussed more fully below, is popularly considered the first modern well.[24] Drake's well is probably singled out because it was drilled, not dug; because it used a steam engine; because there was a company associated with it; and because it touched off a major boom. However, the first well ever drilled anywhere in the world, which produced oil, was drilled in 1857 to a depth of 280 feet by the American Merrimac Company in La Brea (Spanish for “Pitch”) in southeast Trinidad in the Caribbean [25]. Additionally, there was considerable activity before Drake in various parts of the world in the mid-19th century. A group directed by Major Alexeyev of the Bakinskii Corps of Mining Engineers hand-drilled a well in the Baku region in 1848.[26] There were engine-drilled wells in West Virginia in the same year as Drake's well.[27] An early commercial well was hand dug in Poland in 1853, and another in nearby Romania in 1857. At around the same time the world's first, but small, oil refineries were opened at Jasło, in Poland, with a larger one being opened at Ploiești, in Romania, shortly after. Romania is the first country in the world to have its crude oil output officially recorded in international statistics, namely 275 tonnes.[28][29] In 1875, crude oil was discovered by David Beaty at his home in Warren, Pennsylvania. This led to the opening of the Bradford oil field, which, by the 1880s, produced 77 percent of the global oil supply. However, by the end of the 19th century, the Russian Empire, particularly the Branobel company in Azerbaijan, had taken the lead in production.[30]

text: Samuel Kier established America's first oil refinery in Pittsburgh on Seventh avenue near Grant Street, in 1853. In addition to the activity in West Virginia and Pennsylvania, an important early oil well in North America was in Oil Springs, Ontario, Canada in 1858, dug by James Miller Williams.[31] The discovery at Oil Springs touched off an oil boom which brought hundreds of speculators and workers to the area. New oil fields were discovered nearby throughout the late 19th century and the area developed into a large petrochemical refining centre and exchange.[32] The modern US petroleum industry is considered to have begun with Edwin Drake's drilling of a 69-foot (21 m) oil well in 1859,[33] on Oil Creek near Titusville, Pennsylvania, for the Seneca Oil Company (originally yielding 25 barrels per day (4.0 m3/d), by the end of the year output was at the rate of 15 barrels per day (2.4 m3/d)). The industry grew through the 1800s, driven by the demand for kerosene and oil lamps. It became a major national concern in the early part of the 20th century; the introduction of the internal combustion engine provided a demand that has largely sustained the industry to this day. Early "local" finds like those in Pennsylvania and Ontario were quickly outpaced by demand, leading to "oil booms" in Ohio, Texas, Oklahoma, and California.

text:
Early crude production
in the U.S.

Year
Volume

1859
2,000 barrels (~270 t)

1869
4,215,000 barrels (~5.750×10^5 t)

1879
19,914,146 barrels (~2.717×10^6 t)

1889
35,163,513 barrels (~4.797×10^6 t)

1899
57,084,428 barrels (~7.788×10^6 t)

1906
126,493,936 barrels (~1.726×10^7 t)

text: By 1910, significant oil fields had been discovered in the Dutch East Indies (1885, in Sumatra), Persia (1908, in Masjed Soleiman), Peru (1863, in Zorritos District), Venezuela (1914, in Maracaibo Basin), and Mexico, and were being developed at an industrial level. Significant oil fields were exploited in Alberta (Canada) from 1947. First offshore oil drilling at Oil Rocks (Neft Dashlari) in the Caspian Sea off Azerbaijan eventually resulted in a city built on pylons in 1949. Availability of oil and access to it, became of "cardinal importance" in military power before[34] and after World War I, particularly for navies as they changed from coal, but also with the introduction of motor transport, tanks and airplanes.[35] Such thinking would continue in later conflicts of the twentieth century, including World War II, during which oil facilities were a major strategic asset and were extensively bombed.[36] In 1938, vast reserves of oil were discovered in the Al-Ahsa region along the coast of the Persian Gulf.

text: Until the mid-1950s coal was still the world's foremost fuel, but after this time oil quickly took over. Later, following the 1973 and 1979 energy crises, there was significant media coverage on the subject of oil supply levels. This brought to light the concern that oil is a limited resource that will eventually run out, at least as an economically viable energy source. Although at the time the most common and popular predictions were quite dire, a period of increased production and reduced demand in the following years caused an oil glut in the 1980s. This was not to last, however, and by the first decade of the 21st century discussions about peak oil had returned to the news.

text: Today, about 90% of vehicular fuel needs are met by oil. Petroleum also makes up 40% of total energy consumption in the United States, but is responsible for only 2% of electricity generation. Petroleum's worth as a portable, dense energy source powering the vast majority of vehicles and as the base of many industrial chemicals makes it one of the world's most important commodities.

text: The top three oil producing countries are Saudi Arabia, Russia, and the United States.[37] About 80% of the world's readily accessible reserves are located in the Middle East, with 62.5% coming from the Arab 5: Saudi Arabia (12.5%), UAE, Iraq, Qatar and Kuwait. However, with high oil prices (above $100/barrel), Venezuela has larger reserves than Saudi Arabia due to its crude reserves derived from bitumen.


document_title: Jesse Stone: Innocents Lost

question_text: who played cindy van alden in jesse stone

root

text: Jesse Stone: Innocents Lost

text: Plot[edit]

text: After being replaced as the chief of police in Paradise, Massachusetts by the town council president's son-in-law, William Butler (Jeff Geddis), Jesse Stone is still without a full-time job (though he vows to one day be reinstated). Nevertheless, he continues to find ways to pursue investigations into two separate murders: one involves a friend with whom he had lost contact, and the other has him working as a consulting investigator for the Massachusetts State Police Homicide Division on a case involving a robbery and murder suspect. Both Jesse and his friend, State Police Captain Healy (Stephen McHattie), have doubts as to the robbery/murder suspect's guilt. All the while, Jesse deals with tensions between Butler, who expects him to give up his "concealed carry" gun permit, but who is informed, by Rose Gammon (Kathy Baker), that as a retired (not fired) police officer that he has a federally mandated right to "concealed carry" for life. His problems with his ex-wife, and drinking issues are still present.

tag: p

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Tom Selleck as Jesse Stone
Kathy Baker as Police Officer Rose Gammon
Kohl Sudduth as Police Officer Luther "Suitcase" Simpson
Gloria Reuben as Thelma Gleffey
Stephen McHattie as Captain Healy, State Police Homicide Commander
William Sadler as Gino Fish
Mark Blum as Dr. Noble Parkinson
Eileen Boylan as Cindy Van Alden
Mike Erwin as Lewis Lipinsky
Jeff Geddis as William Butler
Rae Ritke as Jacqueline Van Aldan
Kerri Smith as Sister Mary John
Val Ovtcharov as Valery Siminov
Stacey Smith as Administrator
Saul Rubinek as Hasty Hathaway
William Devane as Dr. Dix (Jesse's psychiatrist)
Benjamin Charles Watson as Charles Morris
Dylan Roberts as Public Defender
Molly Dunsworth as Emily
Christine Tizzard as Amanda
Jeremy Akerman as Councilman Carter Hanson
Joe the Dog as Reggie
Gil Anderson as Jenn (voice)[3]

tag: ul

text: Production[edit]

text: Screenplay[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: This section's factual accuracy is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on Talk:Jesse Stone: Innocents Lost. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are reliably sourced. (March 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Unlike the first four films in the Jesse Stone series, Jesse Stone: Innocents Lost is not based on one of Robert B. Parker's novels. The screenplay was written by Tom Selleck and Michael Brandman. This was their second collaboration on an original Jesse Stone screenplay.

text: Filming locations[edit]

text: Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada[2]

text: Reception[edit]

text: This section is missing information about the critical reception and sales of the movie. Please expand the section to include this information. Further details may exist on the talk page. (February 2017)


document_title: American Federation of Labor

question_text: when did the american federation of labor start

text: American Federation of Labor

text: Organizational history[edit]

text: Origins[edit]

text: The American Federation of Labor (AFL) organized as an association of trade unions in 1886. The organization emerged from a dispute with the Knights of Labor (K of L) organization, in which the leadership of that organization solicited locals of various craft unions to withdraw from their International organizations and to affiliate with the K of L directly, an action which would have taken funds from the various unions and enriched the K of L's coffers.[1] The Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions also merged into what would become the American Federation of Labor.

text: One of the organizations embroiled in this controversy was the Cigar Makers' International Union (CMIU), a group subject to competition from a dual union, a rival "Progressive Cigarmakers' Union," organized by members suspended or expelled by the CMIU.[2] The two cigar unions competed with one another in signing contracts with various cigar manufacturers, who were at this same time combining themselves into manufacturers' associations of their own in New York City, Detroit, Cincinnati, Chicago, and Milwaukee.[2]

text: In January 1886, the Cigar Manufacturers' Association of New York City attempted to flex its muscle by announcing a 20 percent wage cut in factories around the city. The Cigar Makers' International Union refused to accept the cut and 6,000 of its members in 19 factories were locked out by the owners. A strike lasting four weeks ensued.[3] Just when it appeared that the strike might be won, the New York District Assembly of the Knights of Labor leaped into the breach, offering to settle with the 19 factories at a lower wage scale than that proposed by the CMIU, so long as only the Progressive Cigarmakers' Union was employed.[3]

text: The leadership of the CMIU was enraged and demanded that the New York District Assembly be investigated and punished by the national officials of the Knights of Labor. The committee of investigation was controlled by individuals friendly to the New York District Assembly, however, and the latter was exonerated.[4] The American Federation of Labor was thus originally formed as an alliance of craft unions outside the Knights of Labor as a means of defending themselves against this and similar incursions.[5]

text: On April 25, 1886, a circular letter was issued by Strasser of the Cigar Makers and P. J. McGuire of the Carpenters, addressed to all national trade unions and calling for their attendance of a conference in Philadelphia on May 18.[6] The call stated that an element of the Knights of Labor was doing "malicious work" and causing "incalculable mischief by arousing antagonisms and dissensions in the labor movement."[5] The call was signed by Strasser and McGuire, along with representatives of the Granite Cutters, the Iron Molders, and the secretary of the Federation of Trades of North America, a forerunner of the AFL founded in 1881.[5]

text: Forty-three invitations were mailed, which drew the attendance of 20 delegates and letters of approval from 12 other unions.[7] At this preliminary gathering, held in Donaldson Hall on the corner of Broad and Filbert Streets,[8] the K of L was charged with conspiring with anti-union bosses to provide labor at below going union rates and with making use of individuals who had crossed picket lines or defaulted on payment of union dues.[9] The body authored a "treaty" to be presented to the forthcoming May 24, 1886, convention of the Knights of Labor, which demanded that the K of L cease attempting to organize members of International Unions into its own assemblies without permission of the unions involved and that K of L organizers violating this provision should suffer immediate suspension.[9]

text: For its part, the Knights of Labor considered the demand for the parcelling of the labor movement into narrow craft-based fiefdoms to be anathema, a violation of the principle of solidarity of all workers across craft lines.[10] Negotiations with the dissident craft unions were nipped in the bud by the governing General Assembly of the K of L, however, with the organization's Grand Master Workman, Terence V. Powderly refusing to enter into serious discussions on the matter.[11] The actions of the New York District Assembly of the K of L were upheld.

text: Formation and early years[edit]

text: Convinced that no accommodation with the leadership of the Knights of Labor was possible, the heads of the five labor organizations which issued the call for the April 1886 conference issued a new call for a convention to be held December 8, 1886 in Columbus, Ohio in order to construct "an American federation of alliance of all national and international trade unions."[12] Forty-two delegates representing 13 national unions and various other local labor organizations responded to the call, agreeing to form themselves into an American Federation of Labor.[13]

text: Revenue for the new organization was to be raised on the basis of a "per-capita tax" of its member organizations, set at the rate of one-half cent per member per month (i.e. six cents per year).[14] Governance of the organization was to be by annual conventions, with one delegate allocated for every 4,000 members of each affiliated union.[14] The founding convention voted to make the President of the new federation a full-time official at a salary of $1,000 per year, and Samuel Gompers of the Cigar Makers' International Union was elected to the position.[14] Gompers would ultimately be re-elected to the position by annual conventions of the organization for every year save one until his death nearly four decades later.

text: Although the founding convention of the AFL had authorized the establishment of a publication for the new organization, Gompers made use of the existing labor press to generate support for the position of the craft unions against the Knights of Labor. Powerful opinion-makers of the American labor movement such as the Philadelphia Tocsin, Haverhill Labor, the Brooklyn Labor Press, and the Denver Labor Enquirer granted Gompers space in their pages, in which he made the case for the unions against the attacks of employers, "all too often aided by the K of L."[15]

text: Headway was made in the form of endorsement by various local labor bodies. Some assemblies of the K of L supported the Cigar Makers' position and departed the organization: in Baltimore, 30 locals left the organization, while the membership of the Knights in Chicago fell from 25,000 in 1886 to just 3,500 in 1887.[16] Factional warfare broke out in the K of L, with Terence Powderly blaming the organization's travails on "radicals" in its ranks, while those opposing Powderly called for an end to what they perceived as "autocratic leadership."[17]

text: In the face of the steady disintegration of its rival, the fledgling American Federation of Labor struggled to maintain itself, with the group showing very slow and incremental growth in its first years, only cracking the 250,000 member mark in 1892.[18] The group from the outset concentrated upon the income and working conditions of its membership as its almost sole focus. The AFL's founding convention declaring "higher wages and a shorter workday" to be "preliminary steps toward great and accompanying improvements in the condition of the working people." Participation in partisan politics was avoided as inherently divisive, and the group's constitution was structured to prevent the admission of political parties as affiliates.[19]

text: This fundamentally conservative "pure and simple" approach limited the AFL to matters pertaining to working conditions and rates of pay, relegating political goals to its allies in the political sphere. The Federation favored pursuit of workers' immediate demands rather than challenging the property rights of owners, and took a pragmatic view of politics which favored tactical support for particular politicians over formation of a party devoted to workers' interests. The AFL's leadership believed the expansion of the capitalist system was seen as the path to betterment of labor, an orientation making it possible for the AFL to present itself as what one historian has called "the conservative alternative to working class radicalism."[20]

text: Early 20th century[edit]

text: The AFL faced its first major reversal when employers launched an open shop movement in 1903 designed to drive unions out of construction, mining, longshore and other industries. Membership in the AFL's affiliated unions declined between 1904 and 1914 in the face of this concerted anti-union drive, which made effective use of legal injunctions against strikes, court rulings given force when backed with the armed might of the state.[citation needed] At its November 1907 Convention in Norfolk, Virginia the AFL founded the future North America's Building Trades Unions (NABTU) as Department of Building Trades.[21]:1

text: Ever the pragmatist, Gompers argued that labor should "reward its friends and punish its enemies" in both major parties. However, in the 1900s (decade), the two parties began to realign, with the main faction of the Republican Party coming to identify with the interests of banks and manufacturers, while a substantial portion of the rival Democratic Party took a more labor-friendly position. While not precluding its members from belonging to the Socialist Party or working with its members, the AFL traditionally refused to pursue the tactic of independent political action by the workers in the form of the existing Socialist Party or the establishment of a new labor party. After 1908, the organization's tie to the Democratic party grew increasingly strong.[22]

text: National Civic Federation[edit]

text: Some unions within the AFL helped form and participated in the National Civic Federation. The National Civic Federation was formed by several progressive employers who sought to avoid labor disputes by fostering collective bargaining and "responsible" unionism. Labor's participation in this federation, at first tentative, created internal division within the AFL. Socialists, who believed the only way to help workers was to remove large industry from private ownership, denounced labor's efforts at cooperation with the capitalists in the National Civic Federation. The AFL nonetheless continued its association with the group, which declined in importance as the decade of the 1910s drew to a close.[23]

text: Canada[edit]

text: By the 1890s, Gompers was planning an international federation of labor, starting with the expansion of AFL affiliates in Canada, especially Ontario. He helped the Canadian Trades and Labour Congress with money and organizers, and by 1902, the AFL came to dominate the Canadian union movement.[24]

text: Immigration restriction[edit]

text: The AFL vigorously opposed unrestricted immigration from Europe for moral, cultural, and racial reasons. The issue unified the workers who feared that an influx of new workers would flood the labor market and lower wages.[25] Nativism was not a factor because upwards of half the union members were themselves immigrants or the sons of immigrants from Ireland, Germany and Britain. Nativism was a factor when the AFL even more strenuously opposed all immigration from Asia because it represented (to its Euro-American members) an alien culture that could not be assimilated into American society. The AFL intensified its opposition after 1906 and was instrumental in passing immigration restriction bills from the 1890s to the 1920s, such as the 1921 Emergency Quota Act and the Immigration Act of 1924, and seeing that they were strictly enforced.[26]

text: Mink (1986) concludes that the link between the AFL and the Democratic Party rested in part on immigration issues, noting the large corporations, which supported the Republicans, wanted more immigration to augment their labor force.[27]

text: The AFL in World War I, 1914-18[edit]

text: Towards the beginning of World War I, the AFL was against prohibition as it was viewed as cultural right of the working class to drink.[28]

text: During World War I, the AFL—motivated by fear of government repression, and hope of aid (often in the form of pro-AFL labor policies)—had worked out an informal agreement with the United States government, in which the AFL would coordinate with the government both to support the war effort and to join "into an alliance to crush radical labor groups" such as the Industrial Workers of the World and Socialist Party of America.[29]

text: The 1920s[edit]

text: In the pro-business environment of the 1920s, business launched a large-scale offensive on behalf of the so-called "open shop", which meant that a person did not have to be a union member to be hired. AFL unions lost membership steadily until 1933.[30] In 1924, following the death of Samuel Gompers, UMWA member and AFL vice president William Green became the president of the labor federation.[31]

text: The organization endorsed pro-labor progressive Robert M. La Follette Sr. in the 1924 presidential election. He only carried his home state of Wisconsin. The campaign failed to establish a permanent independent party closely connected to the labor movement, however, and thereafter the Federation embraced ever more closely the Democratic Party, despite the fact that many union leaders remained Republicans.[32] Herbert Hoover in 1928 won the votes of many Protestant AFL members.[33]

text: The New Deal years, 1933-38[edit]

text: The Great Depression were hard times for the unions, and membership fell sharply across the country. As the national economy began to recover in 1933, so did union membership. The New Deal of president Franklin D. Roosevelt, a Democrat, strongly favored labor unions. He made sure that relief operations like the Civilian Conservation Corps did not include a training component that would produce skilled workers who would compete with union members in a still glutted market. The major legislation was the National Labor Relations Act of 1935, called the Wagner Act. It greatly strengthened organized unions, especially by weakening the company unions that many workers belonged to. It was to the members advantage to transform a company union into a local of an AFL union, and thousands did so, dramatically boosting the membership. The Wagner Act also set up to the National Labor Relations Board, which used its powers to rule in favor of unions and against the companies. However, the NLRB was later taken over by leftist elements who favored the CIO over the AFL.[citation needed]

text: In the early 1930s AFL president William Green (president, 1924–1952) experimented with an industrial approach to organizing in the automobile and steel industries.[34] The AFL made forays into industrial unionism by chartering federal labor unions, which would organize across an industry and be chartered by the Federation, not through existing craft unions, guilds, or brotherhoods. As early as 1923, the AFL had chartered federal labor unions, including six news writer locals that had formerly been part of the International Typographical Union.[35] However, in the 1930s the AFL began chartering these federal labor unions as an industrial organizing strategy. The dues in these federal labor unions (FLUs) were kept intentionally low to make them more accessible to low paid industrial workers; however, these low dues later allowed the Internationals in the Federation to deny members of FLUs voting membership at conventions.[36] In 1933, Green sent William Collins to Detroit to organize automobile workers into a federal labor union.[34] That same year workers at the Westinghouse plant in East Springfield MA, members of federal labor union 18476, struck for recognition.[37] In 1933, the AFL received 1,205 applications for charters for federal labor unions, 1006 of which were granted.[38] By 1934, the AFL had successfully organized 32,500 autoworkers using the federal labor union model.[39] Most of the leadership of the craft union internationals that made up the federation, advocated for the FLU's to be absorbed into existing craft union internationals and for these internationals to have supremacy of jurisdiction.[39][38] At the 1933 AFL convention in Washington, DC John Frey of the Molders and Metal Trades pushed for craft union internationals to have jurisdictional supremacy over the FLU's; the Carpenters headed by William Hutchenson and the IBEW also pushed for FLU's to turn over their members to the authority of the craft internationals between 1933 and 1935.[40] In 1934, one hundred FLUs met separately and demanded that the AFL continue to issue charters to unions organizing on an industrial basis independent of the existing craft union internationals.[41] In 1935 the FLUs representing autoworkers and rubber workers both held conventions independent of the craft union internationals.[42] By the 1935 AFL convention, Green and the advocates of traditional craft unionism faced increasing dissension led by John L. Lewis of the coal miners, Sidney Hillman of the Amalgamated, David Dubinsky of the Garment Workers, Charles Howard of the ITU, Thomas McMahon of the Textile Workers, and Max Zaritsky of the Hat, Cap, and Millinery Workers, in addition to the members of the FLU's themselves.[43] Lewis argued that the AFL was too heavily oriented toward traditional craftsmen, and was overlooking the opportunity to organize millions of semiskilled workers, especially those in industrial factories that made automobiles, rubber, glass and steel. In 1935 Lewis led the dissenting unions in forming a new Congress for Industrial Organization (CIO) within the AFL. Both the new CIO industrial unions, and the older AFL crafts unions grew rapidly after 1935. In 1936 union members enthusiastically supported Roosevelt's landslide reelection. Proposals for the creation of an independent labor party were rejected.[44]

text: World War II until merger, 1939-1955[edit]

text: The AFL retained close ties to the Democratic machines in big cities through the 1940s. Its membership surged during the war and it held on to most of its new members after wartime legal support for labor was removed. Despite its close connections to many in Congress, the AFL was not able to block the Taft–Hartley Act in 1947.[45]

text: In 1955, the AFL and CIO merged to form the AFL–CIO, headed by George Meany.[46]

text: Historical problems[edit]

text: Racism[edit]

text: During its first years, the AFL admitted nearly anyone. Gompers opened the AFL to radical and socialist workers and to some semiskilled and unskilled workers. Women, African Americans, and immigrants joined in small numbers. But by the 1890s, the Federation had begun to organize only skilled workers in craft unions and became an organization of mostly white men. Although the Federation preached a policy of egalitarianism in regard to African American workers, it actively discriminated against black workers.[47][48] The AFL sanctioned the maintenance of segregated locals within its affiliates—particularly in the construction and railroad industries—a practice which often excluded black workers altogether from union membership and thus from employment in organized industries.[49]

text: In 1901, the AFL lobbied Congress to reauthorize the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act, and issued a pamphlet entitled "Some reasons for Chinese exclusion. Which shall survive?" The AFL also began one of the first organized labor boycotts when they began putting white stickers on the cigars made by unionized white cigar rollers while simultaneously discouraging consumers from purchasing cigars rolled by Chinese workers.[50]

text: Sexism[edit]

text: In most ways, the AFL's treatment of women workers paralleled its policy towards black workers. The AFL never adopted a strict policy of gender exclusion and, at times, even came out in favor of women's unionism. But despite such rhetoric, the Federation only half-heartedly supported women's attempts to organize and, more often, took pains to keep women out of unions and the workforce altogether. Only two national unions affiliated with the AFL at its founding openly included women, and others passed by-laws barring women's membership entirely. The AFL hired its first female organizer, Mary Kenney O'Sullivan, only in 1892, released her after five months, and it did not replace her or hire another woman national organizer until 1908. Women who organized their own unions were often turned down in bids to join the Federation, and even women who did join unions found them hostile or intentionally inaccessible. AFL unions often held meetings at night or in bars when women might find it difficult to attend and where they might feel uncomfortable, and male unionists heckled women who tried to speak at meetings.[51]

text: Generally the AFL viewed women workers as competition, as strikebreakers, or as an unskilled labor reserve that kept wages low. As such, the Federation often opposed women's employment entirely. When it did organize women workers, most often it did so to protect men's jobs and earning power and not to improve the conditions, lives, or wages of women workers. In response, most women workers remained outside the labor movement. In 1900, only 3.3% of working women were organized into unions. In 1910, even as the AFL surged forward in membership, the number had dipped to 1.5%. And while it improved to 6.6% over the next decade, women remained mostly outside of unions and practically invisible inside of them into the mid-1920s.[52]

text: Attitudes gradually changed within the AFL due to the pressure of organized female workers. Female-domination began to emerge in the first two decades of the 20th century, including particularly the International Ladies Garment Workers' Union. Women organized independent locals among New York hat makers, in the Chicago stockyards, and among Jewish and Italian waist makers, to name only three examples. Through the efforts of middle class reformers and activists, often of the Women's Trade Union League, these unions joined the AFL.[53]

text: Conflicts between affiliated unions[edit]

text: From the beginning, unions affiliated with the AFL found themselves in conflict when both unions claimed jurisdiction over the same groups of workers: both the Brewers and Teamsters claimed to represent beer truck drivers, both the Machinists and the International Typographical Union claimed to represent certain printroom employees, and the Machinists and a fledgling union known as the "Carriage, Wagon and Automobile Workers Union" sought to organize the same employees—even though neither union had made any effort to organize or bargain for those employees. In some cases the AFL mediated the dispute, usually favoring the larger or more influential union. The AFL often reversed its jurisdictional rulings over time, as the continuing jurisdictional battles between the Brewers and the Teamsters showed. In other cases the AFL expelled the offending union, as it did in 1913 in the case of the Carriage, Wagon and Automobile Workers Union (which quickly disappeared).[citation needed]

text: These jurisdictional disputes were most frequent in the building trades, where a number of different unions might claim the right to have work assigned to their members. The craft unions in this industry organized their own department within the AFL in 1908, despite the reservations of Gompers and other leaders about creation of a separate body within the AFL that might function as a federation within a federation. While those fears were partly borne out in practice, as the Building Trades Department did acquire a great deal of practical power gained through resolving jurisdictional disputes between affiliates, the danger that it might serve as the basis for schism never materialized.[citation needed]

text: Affiliates within the AFL formed "departments" to help resolve these jurisdictional conflicts and to provide a more effective voice for member unions in given industries. The Metal Trades Department engaged in some organizing of its own, primarily in shipbuilding, where unions such as the Pipefitters, Machinists and Iron Workers joined together through local metal workers' councils to represent a diverse group of workers. The Railway Employees Department dealt with both jurisdictional disputes between affiliates and pursued a common legislative agenda for all of them. Even that sort of structure did not prevent AFL unions from finding themselves in conflict on political issues. For example, the International Seamen's Union opposed passage of a law applying to workers engaged in interstate transport that railway unions supported. The AFL bridged these differences on an ad hoc basis.[citation needed]

text: Historical achievements[edit]

text: Organizing and coordination[edit]

text: The AFL made efforts in its early years to assist its affiliates in organizing: it advanced funds or provided organizers or, in some cases, such as the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, the Teamsters and the American Federation of Musicians, helped form the union. The AFL also used its influence (including refusal of charters or expulsion) to heal splits within affiliated unions, to force separate unions seeking to represent the same or closely related jurisdictions to merge, or to mediate disputes between rival factions where both sides claimed to represent the leadership of an affiliated union. The AFL also chartered "federal unions"—local unions not affiliated with any international union—in those fields in which no affiliate claimed jurisdiction.[citation needed]

text: The AFL also encouraged the formation of local labor bodies (known as central labor councils) in major metropolitan areas in which all of the affiliates could participate. These local labor councils acquired a great deal of influence in some cases. For example, the Chicago Federation of Labor spearheaded efforts to organize packinghouse and steel workers during and immediately after World War I. Local building trades councils also became powerful in some areas. In San Francisco, the local Building Trades Council, led by Carpenters official P. H. McCarthy, not only dominated the local labor council but helped elect McCarthy mayor of San Francisco in 1909. In a very few cases early in the AFL's history, state and local bodies defied AFL policy or chose to disaffiliate over policy disputes.[citation needed]

text: Political action[edit]

text: Though Gompers had contact with socialists and such as AFL co-founder Peter J. McGuire, the AFL adopted a philosophy of "business unionism" that emphasized unions' contribution to businesses' profits and national economic growth. The business unionist approach also focused on skilled workers' immediate job-related interests, while refusing to "rush to the support of any one of the numerous society-saving or society destroying schemes" involved in larger political issues.[54] This approach was set by Gompers, who was influenced by a fellow cigar maker (and former socialist) Ferdinand Laurrel. Despite his socialist contacts, Gompers himself was not a socialist.[55]

text: In some respects the AFL leadership took a pragmatic view toward politicians, following Gompers' slogan to "reward your friends and punish your enemies" without regard to party affiliation. Over time, after repeated disappointments with the failure of labor's legislative efforts to protect workers' rights, which the courts had struck down as unconstitutional, Gompers became almost anti-political, opposing some forms of protective legislation, such as limitations on working hours, because they would detract from the efforts of unions to obtain those same benefits through collective bargaining.[citation needed]

text: Employers discovered the efficacy of labor injunctions, first used with great effect by the Cleveland administration during the Pullman Strike in 1894. While the AFL sought to outlaw "yellow dog contracts," to limit the courts' power to impose "government by injunction" and to obtain exemption from the antitrust laws that were being used to criminalize labor organizing, the courts reversed what few legislative successes the labor movement won.[56]

text: The AFL concentrated its political efforts during the last decades of the Gompers administration on securing freedom from state control of unions—in particular an end to the court's use of labor injunctions to block the right to organize or strike and the application of the anti-trust laws to criminalize labor's use of pickets, boycotts and strikes. The AFL thought that it had achieved the latter with the passage of the Clayton Antitrust Act in 1914—which Gompers referred to as "Labor's Magna Carta". But in Duplex Printing Press Co. v. Deering, 254 U.S. 443 (1921), the United States Supreme Court narrowly read the Act and codified the federal courts' existing power to issue injunctions rather than limit it. The court read the phrase "between an employer and employees" (contained in the first paragraph of the Act) to refer only to cases involving an employer and its own employees, leaving the courts free to punish unions for engaging in sympathy strikes or secondary boycotts.[citation needed]

text: The AFL's pessimistic attitude towards politics did not, on the other hand, prevent affiliated unions from pursuing their own agendas. Construction unions supported legislation that governed entry of contractors into the industry and protected workers' rights to pay, rail and mass production industries sought workplace safety legislation, and unions generally agitated for the passage of workers' compensation statutes.[citation needed]

text: At the same time, the AFL took efforts on behalf of women in supporting protective legislation. It advocated fewer hours for women workers, and based its arguments on assumptions of female weakness. Like efforts to unionize, most support for protective legislation for women came out of a desire to protect men's jobs. If women's hours could be limited, reasoned AFL officials, they would infringe less on male employment and earning potential. But the AFL also took more selfless efforts. Even from the 1890s, the AFL declared itself vigorously in favor of women's suffrage. It often printed pro-suffrage articles in its periodical, and in 1918, it supported the National Union of Women's Suffrage.[57]

text: The AFL relaxed its rigid stand against legislation after the death of Gompers. Even so, it remained cautious. Its proposals for unemployment benefits (made in the late 1920s) were too modest to have practical value, as the Great Depression soon showed. The impetus for the major federal labor laws of the 1930s came from the New Deal. The enormous growth in union membership came after Congress passed the National Industrial Recovery Act in 1933 and National Labor Relations Act in 1935. The AFL refused to sanction or participate in the mass strikes led by John L. Lewis of the United Mine Workers and other left unions such as the Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America. After the AFL expelled the CIO in 1936, the CIO undertook a major organizing effort. The AFL responded with its own massive organizing drive that kept its membership totals 50 percent higher than the CIO's.[citation needed]

text: Presidents of the American Federation of Labor[edit]

text:
Samuel Gompers, 1886–1894
John McBride, 1894–1895
Samuel Gompers, 1895–1924
William Green, 1924–1952
George Meany, 1952–1955 (afterwards President of the AFL-CIO)

text: Affiliated unions and brotherhoods[edit]

text:
Union
Date organized
Date affiliated
1925 members
Comments

Asbestos Workers, International Union of Heat and Frost Insulators and
1887
1887
2,400
Journal: Official Journal

Actors and Artistes of America, Associated
1919
1919
10,100
Includes: Actors' Equity Association, American Guild of Musical Artists, American Guild of Variety Artists, Screen Actors Guild.

Auto Workers, United
1935
1935
N/A
Suspended 1936 due to Communist influence; helped form CIO.

Bakery and Confectionery Workers of America, International Union of
1886
1887
21,800
Started as Journeymen Bakers' Union. Journal: The Bakers' Journal.

Journeymen Barbers' International Union of America
1887
1888
48,000
Journal: The Journeyman Barber.

Bill Posters and Billers of United States and Canada International Alliance
1902
1903
1,600

Blacksmiths, Drop Forgers and Helpers, International Brotherhood of
1890
1890
5,000
Journal: Blacksmiths Journal.

Boilermakers and Iron Shipbuilders, International Brotherhood of
1880
1882
17,100
Two Boilermakers unions amalgamated in 1893, considered the start date of this union by some. Journal: The Boilermakers and Iron Shipbuilders' Journal.

Bookbinders, International Brotherhood of
1892
1892
13,600
Journal: The International Bookbinder.

Boot and Shoe Workers' Union
1895
1895
36,200
Journal: The Shoe Workers' Journal.

Brewery, Flour, Cereal and Soft Drink Workers of America
1884
1887
16,000
Journal: Brewery, Flour, Cereal and Soft Drink Workers' Journal.

Brick and Clay Workers of America, United
1894
1898
5,000
Journal: Union Clay Worker.

Bricklayers', Masons and Plasterers' International Union of America
1865
1916
70,000
Journal: The Bricklayer, Mason and Plasterer.

Bridge, Structural and Ornamental Iron Workers, International Association of
1896
1903
16,300
Journal: The Bridgemen's Magazine.

Broom and Whisk Makers' Union, International
1893
1893
700
Journal: The Broom Maker.

Building Service Employees International Union
1921
1921
6,200

Carpenters and Joiners, Amalgamated Association of
1869
1890
N/A
AFL charter revoked by 1912 convention for refusing to amalgamate with Brotherhood of Carpenters. Journal: The Carpenter.

Carpenters and Joiners of America, United Brotherhood of
1867
1886
317,000

Cigarmakers' International Union
1864
1887
23,500
Journal: Cigarmakers' Official Journal.

Cloth Hat, Cap and Millinery Workers' International Union
1901
1902
7,800
Suspended for protracted period in early 1920s for failure to comply with convention decision. Journal: The Headgear Worker.

Conductors, Order of Sleeping Car
1918
1919
2,300
Journal: The Sleeping Car Conductor.

Coopers' International Union of North America
1864
1892
1,300
Journal: The Coopers' International Journal.

Cutting Die and Cutter Makers of America, International Union of

N/A
Suspended for non-payment of dues, 1923 on.

Diamond Workers' Protective Union of America
1910
1912
400

Elastic Goring Weavers, Amalgamated Association of
1894
1894
100

Electrical Workers, International Brotherhood of
1891
1891
142,000
Journal: The Journal of Electrical Workers and Operators.

Elevator Constructors, International Union of
1901
1903
8,100
Journal: The Elevator Constructor.

Federal Employees, National Federation of
1917
1917
20,200
Disaffiliated from AFL, December 1931. Journal: Federal Employee.

Fire Fighters, International Association of
1918
1918
16,000
Journal: International Fire Fighter.

Foundry Employees, International Brotherhood of
1904
1904
3,500
Later amalgamated with the Molders.

Fur Workers' Union of the United States and Canada, International
1913
1913
11,400
Journal: The Fur Worker.

Garmernt Workers of America, United
1891
1891
47,500
Journal: The Garment Worker.

Glass Bottle Blowers' Association
1847
1899
6,000
Journal: The Bottle Maker.

Glass Workers' Union, American Flint
1878
1912
5,300
Journal: American Flint.

Glass Workers, National Window
1872
1918
2,000

Glove Workers' Union of America, International
1902
1902
300

Granite Cutters' International Association
1877
1886
8,500
Journal: Granite Cutters Journal.

Hatters of North America, United
1854
1886
11,500

Hod Carriers, Building and Common Laborers' Union, International
1903
1903
61,500
Now Laborers' International Union of North America.

Horseshoers of United States and Canada, International Union of Journeymen
1874
1893
2,000
Journal: International Horseshoers' Monthly Magazine.

Hotel and Restaurant Employees' International Alliance and Bartenders' League of America
1890
1890
38,500
Journal: The Mixer and Server.

Iron, Steel and Tin Workers, Amalgamated Association of
1876
1887
11,400
Journal: The Amalgamated Journal.

Jewelry Workers' Union, International
1916
1916
800
Journal: Jewelry Workers' Monthly Bulletin.

Lace Operatives of America, The Chartered Association of

N/A
Suspended c. 1920 for failure to comply with decisions of convention.

Ladies' Garment Workers Union, International
1900
1900
90,000
Journals: Justice (English); Gerechtigkeit (Yiddish); Giustizia (Italian);

Lathers, International Union of Wood, Wire and Metal
1899
1899
8,900
Journal: The Lather.

Laundry Workers' International Union
1900
1900
5,500

Leather Workers' International Union, United
1896
1896
2,000
Journal: Leather Workers' Journal.

Letter Carriers, National Association of
1889
1917
32,500
Journal: Postal Record.

Letter Carriers, National Association of Rural
1919
1919
300

Lithographers of America, Amalgamated
1882
1906
5,300
Journal: Lithographers' Journal.

Longshoremen's Association, International
1892
1896
31,800
Journal: The Longshoreman.

Machinists, International Association of
1888
1895
71,400
Journal: Machinists Monthly Journal.

Maintenance of Way Employees, United Brotherhood of
1886
1900
37,400
Journal: Railway Maintenance of Way Employees' Journal.

Marble, Slate and Stone Polishers, Rubbers and Sawyers, Tile and Marble Setters' Helpers, International Association of
1916
1916
3,200

Marine Engineers' Beneficial Association, National
1875

N/A
Disaffiliated with AFL, 1923.

Masters, Mates and Pilots of America
1897
1914
3,900

Meat Cutters and Butcher Workmen, Amalgamated
1897
1897
12,200

Metal Engravers' International Union
1920
1921
100

Metal Polishers Union of North America, International
1891
1896
6,000

Mine, Mill and Smelter Workers, International Union of
1893
1896
8,500
Journal: The Miners' Magazine.

Mine Workers of America, United
1890
1890
400,000
Journal: United Mine Workers' Journal.

Molders' Union of America, International
1859
1886
27,500
Later amalgamated with Foundry Employees. Journal: International Molders' Journal.

Musicians, American Federation of
1896
1896
80,000
Journal: International Musician.

Office Employees International Union
1942
1945
N/A

Oil Field, Gas Well and Refinery Workers of America, International Association of
1919
1919
1,200

Painters, Decorators and Paperhangers of America, Brotherhood of
1887
1887
107,600
Now International Union of Painters and Allied Trades. Journal: The Painter and Decorator.

Papermakers, International Brotherhood of
1892
1897
5,000
Journal: Paper Maker Journal.

Pattern Makers' League of North America
1887
1894
7,000
Journal: Pattern Makers Journal.

Pavers, Rammersmen, Flag Layers, Bridge and Stone Setters, International Union of
1860
1905
2,000

Paving Cutters' Union of the United States
1901
1904
2,400
Journal: Paving Cutters' Journal.

Photo-Engravers' Union of North America, International
1900
1904
7,200
Journal: The American Photo Engraver.

Piano, Organ and Musical Instrument Workers' Union of America, International
1898
1902
600

Plasterers and Cement Finishers' International Association of the United States and Canada, Operative
1862
1908
30,000
Journal: The Plasterer.

Plate Printers' and Die Stampers' Union of North America, International
1891
1898
1,200
Amalgamated with Steel and Copper Plate Engravers' League, late 1925. Journal: The Plate Printer.

Plumbers and Steamfitters of the United States and Canada, United Association of
1889
1897
39,200
Journal: Plumbers, Gas and Steam Fitters' Journal.

Pocketbook Workers of America, International
1923
1925
N/A
Journal: International Pocketbook Worker.

Postal Employees, National Federation of
1906
1906
23,700
Was National Federation of Postal Employees. Journal: Union Postal Clerk.

Potters, National Brotherhood of Operative
1899
1899
8,100
Journal: The Potters' Herald.

Powder and High Explosive Workers, United
1902
1902
200

Print Cutters' Association of America, International

N/A
Amalgamated with Timber Workers, 1923.

Printers and Color Mixers of the United States, International Association of Machine

N/A
Amalgamated with Timber Workers, 1923.

Printing Pressman and Assistants' Union of North America, International
1889
1890
40,000
Journal: The American Pressman.

Pulp, Sulphite and Paper Mill Workers, International Brotherhood of
1906
1909
5,000

Quarry Workers' International Union of North America
1903
1903
3,000
Journal: Quarry Workers' Journal.

Railroad Carmen, Brotherhood of
1888
1900
125,000
Journal: Railway Carmen's Journal.

Railroad Signalmen of America, Brotherhood of
1908
1914
8,000
Journal: Signalmen's Journal.

Railroad Telegraphers, Order of
1886
1899
39,200
Journal: The Railroad Telegrapher.

Railway Clerks, Brotherhood of
1899
1908
91,200
Journal: The Railway Clerk.

Railway Mail Association
1898
1917
19,100
Journal: The Railway Post Office.

Retail Clerks' International Protective Association
1890
1891
10,000
Journal: Retail Clerks' International Advocate.

Roofers, United Slate, Tile and Composition + Damp and Waterproof Workers' Association
1902
1903
3,000
Amalgamated with Slate and Tile Roofers in 1919. Now United Union of Roofers, Waterproofers and Allied Workers.

Sawsmiths' National Union

N/A
Apparently defunct from 1924.

Seamen's International Union of America
1892
1893
16,000
Journal: The Seamen's Journal.

Sheet Metal Workers' Union, Amalgamated
1888
1890
25,000
Journal: Sheet Metal Workers Journal.

Spinners' Union, International

N/A
Apparently absorbed through amalgamation or defunct by 1925.

Stage Employees and Moving Picture Machine Operators of the United States and Canada
1893
1894
20,000
Journal: General Bulletin.

State, County and Municipal Employees, American Federation of
1932
1936
N/A

Stationary Firemen and Oilers, International Brotherhood of
1898
1898
10,000
Journal: Firemen and Oilers Journal.

Steam and Operating Engineers, International Union of
1896
1897
25,300
Now International Union of Operating Engineers. Journal: International Steam Engineer.

Steam Shovel and Dredgemen, International Brotherhood of
1896
1915
N/A
Suspended by AFL in 1920 due to jurisdictional dispute with Steam Engineers. Journal: Steam Shovel and Dredge.

Stereotypers and Electrotypers' Union, International
1902
1902
6,800
Journal: International Stereotypers and Electrotypers' Union Journal.

Stone Cutters' Association, Journeymen
1853
1907
5,100
Journal: The Stone Cutters Journal.

Stove Mounters' International Union
1892
1894
1,600
Journal: Stove Mounters and Range Workers' Journal.

Street and Electric Railway Employees of America, Amalgamated Association of
1892
1893
101,000
Now Amalgamated Transit Union. Journal: The Motorman and Conductor.

Switchmen's Union of North America
1894
1906
8,900
Journal: The Journal of the Switchmen's Union of North America.

Tailors' Union of America, Journeymen
1883
1887
9,300
Journal: The Tailor.

Teachers, American Federation of
1916
1916
3,500
Journal: American Federation of Teachers Monthly Bulletin.

Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Stablemen and Helpers, International Brotherhood of
1899
1899
78,900
Journal: Official Magazine.

Technical Engineers', Architects' and Draftsmen's Unions, International Federation of
1916
1916
600

Telegraphers' Union of America, Commercial
1902
1902
4,100
Journal: The Commercial Telegraphers' Journal.

Textile Workers of America, United
1901
1901
30,000
Journal: The Textile Worker.

Theatrical Press Agents and Managers, Association of
1928
1928
 ?
Includes: Press Agents and Theatre Managers.

Timber Workers, International Union of

N/A
Disbanded 1923.

Tobacco Workers International Union
1895
1895
1,400
Journal: Tobacco Worker.

Transferrers' Association of America, International Steel Plate

N/A
Apparently absorbed through amalgamation or defunct by 1925.

Tunnel and Subway Constructors
1910
1910
3,000

Typographical Union, International
1852
1881
71,000
Journals: The Typographical Journal (English); Buchdrucker-Zeitung (German).

Upholsters' International Union of North America
1882
1892
7,600
Journal: Upholsterers' Journal.

Wall Paper Crafts of North America, United
1923
1923
600

Wire Weavers' Protective Association, America
1876
1895
400

Wood Carvers' Association of North America, International
1883
1896
1,000
Journal: The International Woodcarver.

text: State federations[edit]

text:
Pennsylvania Federation of Labor
Texas State Federation of Labor


document_title: List of My Hero Academia episodes

question_text: when is my hero academia season 2 episode 10 coming out

text: List of My Hero Academia episodes

text: Episode list[edit]

text: Season 1[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Original air date

1
"Izuku Midoriya: Origin"
"Midoriya Izuku: Orijin" (緑谷出久：オリジン)
April 3, 2016

In a world where most of the population is gifted with special powers known as "Quirks", Izuku Midoriya is a young boy who always dreamed of becoming a hero, despite not having a Quirk himself, until one day he is attacked by a villain and is rescued by no other than All Might, the most famous hero ever and his idol since childhood.

2
"What It Takes to Be a Hero"
"Hiro no Jouken" (ヒーローの条件)
April 10, 2016

Izuku discovers that All Might's true form is that of a frail, emaciated man, who suffered a massive injury years ago. All Might tells Izuku that he should give up on being a hero and focus on a more realistic dream. Disheartened, Izuku makes his way home, only to see his classmate and bully Katsuki Bakugō attacked by a villain. With no heroes around able to fight the villain, Izuku, without any thought given, rushes in.

3
"Roaring Muscles"
"Unare kin'niku" (うなれ筋肉)
April 17, 2016

All Might tells Izuku of his quirk, "One For All", a special quirk that transfers its strength from person to person. While All Might believes Izuku to be worthy of his quirk, bestowing it to him right away would ruin his untrained body. All Might then designs a ten-month training regimen, to ensure that Izuku can become a vessel that can carry it.

4
"Start Line"
"Sutaatorain" (スタートライン)
April 24, 2016

After receiving All Might's Quirk, the time has come for Izuku to attend the exams for the prestigious U.A. High School for heroes in training. However, during the practical exam, Izuku gets himself in a pinch and is about to fail, until one of his fellow examinees finds herself in serious danger and he runs to her rescue.

5
"What I Can Do For Now"
"Ima Boku ni Dekiru Koto wo" (今 僕に出来ることを)
May 1, 2016

It's Izuku's first day as a student of U.A. High School. However, his homeroom teacher Shōta Aizawa decides to hold a physical test to evaluate how the students use their Quirks. Mr. Aizawa threatens the worst ranked student with expulsion, and Izuku finds himself in another predicament as he still has not learned to control his Quirk properly.

6
"Rage, You Damned Nerd"
"Takere Kusonādo" (猛れクソナード)
May 8, 2016

Now donning their own hero costumes, the students are assigned to a mock battle between teams of two to test their combat abilities. Izuku is paired with Ochako Uraraka, the girl he helped during the entrance exams who also becomes his friend much to his joy. However, also to his dismay, one of his opponents is Bakugō, who always mocked him for his quirklessness, and is now furious at him.

7
"Deku vs. Kacchan"
(デクvsかっちゃん)
May 15, 2016

The mock battle continues with Izuku barely holding against Bakugō's devastating attacks, leaving Ochako to face the other opponent Tenya Iida by herself. As the time limit approaches, Izuku seems to have no option but to use his Quirk against Bakugō in an attempt to just defeat him, until he comes up with a better idea.

8
"Bakugō's Starting Line"
"Sutāto Rain, Bakugō no." (スタートライン、爆豪の。)
May 22, 2016

After losing against Izuku in the mock battle, Bakugō watches the rest of his classmates in action and realizes that he still has a long way to stand above his peers. After recovering from his injuries, Izuku attempts to cheer him up, to the point of sharing with him parts of his secret. Meanwhile, news that All Might is teaching at U.A. are received by some individuals with contempt.

9
"Yeah, Just Do Your Best, Iida!"
"Ii zo Ganbare Iida-kun!" (いいぞガンバレ飯田くん！)
May 29, 2016

Izuku is chosen as the class president, much to his surprise, but he ends up relinquishing the position to Iida when he and his friends find him more suitable for the position. The students are then assigned to another field exercise, but before it begins, a horde of villains suddenly appear before them.

10
"Encounter with the Unknown"
"Michi to no Sōgū" (未知との遭遇)
June 5, 2016

The villains use their powers to scatter and ambush the students around in order to attract All Might for a trap. Izuku ends up stranded and surrounded on a boat along with his classmates Tsuyu Asui and Minoru Mineta, but after learning more about their powers, he comes up with a plan to turn the tides literally, while Iida is chosen by the others to break through the enemy trap and call for help.

11
"Game Over"
"Gēmu Ōbā" (ゲームオーバー)
June 12, 2016

The students fight for their lives against the Villains while Iida manages to escape with his friends' help. Once knowing that Iida will warn the other teachers who will come to stop them, the Villains' leader Tomura Shigaraki decides to kill Izuku and his friends just to hurt All Might's pride before they leave, when All Might himself appears.

12
"All Might"
"Ōrumaito" (オールマイト)
June 19, 2016

Shigaraki unleashes his secret weapon, the multi-quirk monster called "Noumu" against All Might, who finds himself in a pinch, until Izuku and some other students arrive to assist him, but All Might has little time left before he runs out of power to defeat the creature in order to protect the school.

13
"In Each of Their Hearts"
"Onoono no Mune ni" (各々の胸に)
June 26, 2016

Despite having defeated the Noumu, All Might has no energy left and is defenseless against Shigaraki, but Izuku manages to stall the enemy long enough for the other teachers to arrive and forcing him to retreat. As the leftover Villains are captured and the students are rescued, All Might thanks Izuku for saving his life, but elsewhere, Shigaraki confides with his master, implying that their feud against the Heroes is just beginning.

text: Season 2[edit]

text:
Series no.
Episode no.
Title[a]
Original air date[8]

13.5
0
"Hero Notebook"
"Hīrō Nōto" (ヒーローノート)
March 25, 2017[10]

A recap of the first season.
Note: The episode earned a 3.3% rating in the Kantō region of Japan.[9]

14
1
"That's the Idea, Ochaco"
"Sou iu Koto ne Ochako-san" (そういうことね お茶子さん)
April 1, 2017

Still recovering from the previous incident, the school is about to hold the Sports Festival, which will serve as an opportunity for the students to show off their Quirks for professional heroes looking for assistants. In the occasion, All Might confesses to Izuku that his powers are diminishing, and that the festival is an opportunity for Izuku to show his true value to the world.
Note: The episode earned a 3.4% rating in the Kantō region of Japan.[11]

15
2
"Roaring Sports Festival"
"Unare Taiikusai" (うなれ体育祭)
April 8, 2017

Todoroki expresses to Midoriya that he will defeat him and show his true power. As the Sports Festival begins, the students from the four branches of the school - Hero, General Studies, Business and Support Courses - participate in an obstacle-course race.
Note: The episode earned a 3.5% rating in the Kantō region of Japan.[12]

16
3
"In Their Own Quirky Ways"
"Minna Koseiteki de ii ne" (みんな個性的でいいね)
April 15, 2017

During the obstacle race, Todoroki effortlessly passes each obstacle with Bakugo in hot pursuit. At the last obstacle, Izuku uses his wits to pass through both and win the race. However, his victory is short-lived when he learns that by being first place, he is the top target for the next round.

17
4
"Strategy, Strategy, Strategy"
"Saku Saku Saku" (策策策)
April 22, 2017

In the next round, the Cavalry Battle, Izuku teams up with Ochako, Fumikage and Support Course student Mei. Being the team with most points, they barely evade the advances from the other teams from their class, while the students from Class B take advantage of it to claim points for themselves.

18
5
"Cavalry Battle Finale"
"Kibasen Kecchaku" (騎馬戦決着)
April 29, 2017

As the end of the Cavalry Battle approaches, Izuku's team have a heated confrontation with the team led by Todoroki and despite losing the first place to them, they earn a place in the next round by working together.

19
6
"The Boy Born with Everything"
"Subete o Motte Umareta Otokonoko" (全てを持って生まれた男の子)
May 6, 2017

The 16 remaining students advance to the final stage, with battles one on one to decide the winner. Before the fights begin, Todoroki has a private talk with Izuku, revealing the reasons for his hatred toward his father, the world's second-best hero Endeavor.
Note: The episode earned a 3.5% rating in the Kantō region of Japan.[13]

20
7
"Victory or Defeat"
"Kachimake" (勝ち負け)
May 13, 2017

In the first round, Izuku is struck by Hitoshi Shinso's brainwashing ability, but breaks free in the last moment and obtains victory, while Todoroki displays his overwhelming power and easily wins his match against Hanta Sero, becoming Izuku's opponent in the following round.
Note: The episode earned a 3.4% rating in the Kantō region of Japan.[14]

21
8
"Battle on, Challengers!"
"Furue! Charenjā" (奮え！チャレンジャー)
May 20, 2017

The U.A. Sports Festival continues with the completion of the other six bracket matches. Shiozaki swiftly overcomes Kaminari. Mei manipulates Iida in order to show off her tech to support companies, giving him the win by stepping out. Mina beats Aoyama by exploiting his weakness. Yaoyorozu is overwhelmed by the speed of Tokoyami's Dark Shadow and is pushed out of the ring. Tetsutetsu and Kirishima have a homestyle brawl ending in a tie. Throughout all of this, Ochako is trying to prepare herself for the daunting task of battling Bakugo.
Note: The episode earned a 3.0% rating in the Kantō region of Japan.[15]

22
9
"Bakugo vs. Uraraka"
"Bakugo vs. Uraraka" (爆vs麗日豪)
May 27, 2017

Ochako uses many different strategies to attempt to defeat Bakugo. However, despite her plans, Bakugo wins after Ochako falls unconscious. Afterwards, Ochako talks over the phone with her father who tries to console her, but to no avail. Also during this time, Tetsutetsu and Kirishima have an arm-wrestling contest to determine who moves on to the next round; Kirishima wins and the two become friends. Izuku prepares for his fight with Todoroki.

23
10
"Shoto Todoroki: Origin"
"Todoroki ase kō: Orijin" (轟 焦凍:オリジン)
June 3, 2017

Izuku and Todoroki begin their match. Izuku, while still trying to win, is attempting to get Todoroki to use his left side so they can both battle at their full power. As Todoroki fights on, more of his past is revealed through his thoughts. He remembers his mother saying it was okay to use his left side because he wanted to be a hero. So Izuku fights Todoroki who is using both sides. Cementoss and Midnight attempt to stop the match before the two deal their final attacks but to no avail. Izuku is thrown out of bounds and Todoroki moves on.
Note: The episode earned a 3.0% rating in the Kantō region of Japan.[16]

24
11
"Fight on, Iida"
"Īda-kun Faito" (飯田くんファイト)
June 10, 2017

Izuku caused significant damage in his right hand warranting surgery; school nurse Recovery Girl refuses future treatment if he does it again. All Might admits to his youth being identical to Izuku's. Todoroki admits to Endeavor he was able to use his left side fire because he forgot all about his father. In the last matches of the second round, Iida and Tokoyami push respective opponents Shiozaki and Ashido out of bounds, while Bakugo overpowers Kirishima. When Iida vs Todoroki, Iida is frozen and rendered unable to go on. Bakugo figures Tokoyami's weakness to intense light as they fight and makes him yield. Meanwhile in Tokyo, Iida's brother Ingenium is crippled in pursuit of the Hero Killer: Stain, and Iida is informed not long after by his mother. Stain is invited by Kurogiri to meet with Shiguraki about joining the Villain's League.

25
12
"Todoroki vs. Bakugo"
"Todoroki vs. Bakugo" (轟vs爆豪)
June 17, 2017

Todoroki is still unsure if he should be using his left side. As the match starts, Todoroki attacks Bakugo with his ice power. Bakugo becomes angry as he wants Todoroki to fight him with both of his sides. After Izuku's cheer, Todoroki decides to use his left side but when Bakugo is about to use his "Howitzer Impact", Todoroki suddenly stops using his left side. The attack pushes Todoroki out of bounds, resulting in Bakugo being named the winner. Angered, Bakugo still goes after Todoroki, but Midnight stops him. After the match, All Might gives everyone medals. Iida goes to see his brother at the hospital before the match begins and did not attend the award ceremony. After everyone went home to recover, Todoroki finally decides to go see his mother whom he had not seen for many years.

26
13
"Time to Pick Some Names"
"Namae o Tsuke te Miyō no Kai" (名前をつけてみようの会)
June 24, 2017

The Sports Festival is over, and everyone's injuries are almost recovered. Everyone is present in class and Mr. Aizawa announces that everyone has to decide a hero name for themselves. He also tells how many students have gotten offers from the pro-heroes; besides that, he announces that everyone will be doing a one-week internship at a hero agency. Midnight joins Aizawa and guides students so that everyone can pick a good hero name. After that, everyone decides an agency where they want to do the internship. Midoriya is still not sure which agency he should join when suddenly All Might shows up. He tells Izuku that his teacher has offered an internship, and Izuku accepts it. Meanwhile, Iida picks an agency in the area where his brother was attacked. The next day, everyone sets off for the internship.

27
14
"Bizarre! Gran Torino Appears"
"Kaiki! Guran Torino Arawaru" (怪奇!グラントリノ現る)
July 8, 2017

internship program starts and izuku is waiting to meet gran tarino but When he does he is not what he expected. izuku decids to go back then gran tarino shows his power and tempts izuku to fight him. Meanwhile Iida is looking for hero-killer stain and every other candidate in the program Are also busy in their internship. izuku train hard with gran tarino and finally after tarino advice he starts to Understand One For All.

28
15
"Midoriya and Shigaraki"
"Midoriya to Shigaraki" (緑谷と死柄木)
July 15, 2017

Now that izuku knows how to control some of his powers he starts to train more and more with gran tarnio to perfect that power. Meanwhile truth about Nomu is revealed to All Might and hero-killer stain refuses to join the league of hero and attacks Haso city. Shigaraki also jumps in the attack. Gran tarino decids to take izuku to shibuya city. During their ride they are attack by another Nomu meanwhile Iida finds hero-killer and begins his fight.
Note: The episode earned a 3.0% rating in the Kantō region of Japan.[17]

29
16
"Hero Killer: Stain vs U.A. Students"
"Hīrō Goroshi Sutein vs U.A. Seito" (ヒーロー殺し ステインvs雄英生徒)
July 22, 2017

Haso city is under attack by league of villain with their Nomu army and hero killer is about to kill his victams including Iida. izuku starts to look for Iida and save's Iida from getting killed. izuku fights hero-killer and after some time Todoroki also joins the fight. They both start to fight hero-killer with all their might and the fight starts to begin more and more intense as hero-killer starts to take the fight seriously.
Note: The episode earned a 2.8% rating in the Kantō region of Japan.[18]

30
17
"Climax"
"Ketchaku" (決着)
July 29, 2017

As hero-killer quirk is known both izuku and todoroki starts to take the fight more carefully and Iida also joins the fight. Endeavor and gran tarino defeats a nomu meanwhile Iida and izuku receives some serious injuries and are finally able to defeat hero-killer. Endeavor defeats the remaining nomu and controls the situation.
Note: The episode earned a 4.5% rating in the Kantō region of Japan.[19]

31
18
"The Aftermath of Hero Killer: Stain"
"'Hīrō-Goroshi Sutein' Sono Yoha" (「 ヒーロー殺しスティン」その余波)
August 5, 2017

Following Stain's arrest, the video of Stain expressing his views on the present Heroes has gone viral, and more people are falling to those views, and with no one to follow, they begin to gravitate towards the Villan League. Meanwhile, credit for the arrest has gone to Endeavor, to ensure that Iida, Izuku and Todoroki are not arrested for using their powers without permission. Iida apologizes for his rash behavior and decides to work on improving himself.

32
19
"Everyone's Internships"
"Sorezore no Shokuba Taiken" (それぞれの職場体験)
August 12, 2017

Anime-original episode showing what some of the other characters did on their internships, particularly focusing on Tsuyu/Froppy.

33
20
"Listen Up!! A Tale from the Past"
"Shire!! Mukashi no Hanashi" (知れ!!昔の話)
August 19, 2017

Following their internships, everyone has returned to school, and All Might decides to tell Izuku the truth behind the Quirk, One for All.

34
21
"Gear up for the Final Exams"
"Sonaero Kimatsu Tesuto" (備えろ期末テスト)
September 2, 2017

The episode begins with Mr. Aizawa telling the students about their end semester exams, the final exams begin with the 3 day written test followed by the beginning of the practical exams which shocks everyone.

35
22
"Yaoyorozu: Rising"
"Yaoyorozu: Raijingu" (八百万：ライジング)
September 9, 2017

36
23
"Stripping the Varnish"
"Mukero Hitokawa" (むけろ一皮)
September 16, 2017

Practical exams continue and everyone completes their exams with the last one left

37
24
"Katsuki Bakugo: Origin"
"Bakugo Katsuki: Orijin" (爆豪勝己：オリジン)
September 23, 2017

text: OVA[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Original air date

OVA 1
"Rescue! Rescue Training!"
(救え!救助訓練!)
November 27, 2016 (event)
April 4, 2017 (DVD)

OVA 2
"Training Of The Dead"
June 2, 2017

text: Notes[edit]

text: Jump up ^ All English titles are taken from Crunchyroll.

tag: ol


document_title: List of Sofia the First characters

question_text: what is sofia the first mom's name

question_tokens: what is sofia the first mom 's name

text: List of Sofia the First characters

text: Main cast[edit]

text:
Princess Sofia (voiced by Ariel Winter[1]) - A young village girl who became a princess after her mother married King Roland II. She is upbeat, outgoing, adventurous, and loves the outdoors. Ever since she was brought into the royal family, she became the bearer of the mystical Amulet of Avalor, which gave her the ability to understand animal speech (they can understand her without the amulet[2], with the amulet itself having been the refuge for another princess for 41 years, whom Sofia would eventually release). It can also summon Disney Princesses to help her, with Sofia eventually helping other princesses in need herself as well, in a similar manner.
Princess Amber (voiced by Darcy Rose Byrnes) - Sofia's stepsister, James' twin[3] sister, King Roland's daughter and Queen Miranda's stepdaughter. She is stoic, vain, spoiled, sassy, jealous, impatient, but nonetheless, a good friend. Honoring her title as princess, she devotes her life to a huge liking of jewelry and keeping everything clean and pristine. She becomes queen of the Island of the Rompkins in The Mystic Isles.
Prince James (voiced by Zach Callison, Tyler Merna and Nicolas Cantu) - Sofia's stepbrother, Amber's twin who has the same color hair as Amber's [3] brother, Roland's son and Miranda's stepson. Unlike Amber, he is adventurous and outgoing.
Queen Miranda (voiced by Sara Ramirez) - Born Miranda Cordova,[4] she is Sofia's mother,[1] Roland's current wife, and the stepmother of the royal twins. She was a cobbler until she married King Roland.
King Roland II (voiced by Travis Willingham) - Born Roland Winslow,[5] he is Sofia's stepfather, Miranda's husband, the father of the royal twins, and the ruler of Enchancia.
Cedric (voiced by Jess Harnell) - The royal sorcerer of Enchancia. He is described as a great and impressive sorcerer by the Good Fairies.[6] He is the son of the previous royal sorcerer Goodwyn the Great who is now retired with Cedric's mother Winnifred the Wise.[7] Cedric has also referred to having a sister who stole from him, who he has never forgiven.[8] His sister's name is later revealed to be Cordelia.[9] In his earlier appearances, he secretly longs to take over the kingdom to bring glory to sorcerers everywhere and prove himself as someone of worth. Ever since Sofia wore the Amulet, he fails repeatedly at stealing it. The one time he managed to, Cedric was cursed by the amulet due to his selfish plans for its use, leaving him unable to use it to take over Enchancia, and found it to be useful only for performing beneficent acts instead to help others.[10] In the episode "Gone with the Wand," it is revealed that Cedric has a niece named Calista who adores him.[10] In "Day of the Sorcerers", Cedric's treachery was finally exposed and he even admitted that the Royal Family have not once thanked him for his magical services. King Roland gave him a second chance after he repented of his wrongdoings and helped save Sofia and the kingdom from Grimtrix where King Roland will treat him better than before.[10]
Clover (voiced by Wayne Brady[1]) - A rabbit and friend of Sofia with help of the Amulet. He usually thinks of eating constantly.
Baileywick (voiced by Tim Gunn[1]) - The castle steward. Being a workaholic, he does his job well though he did fall into a few accidents. He can be overprotective of Sofia at times, but she doesn't really mind most of the time. Baileywick also has an older brother named Nigel.
Robin (voiced by Meghan Strange) - A robin and friend of Sofia.
Mia (voiced by Ashley Eckstein) - A bluebird and friend of Sofia.

text: Disney Princesses[edit]

text:
Cinderella from Cinderella (voiced by Jennifer Hale) - In the pilot movie Once Upon a Princess, she helps Sofia make amends with Amber and become true sisters. She sings a song called "True Sisters."
Jasmine from Aladdin (voiced by Linda Larkin, singing voice provided by Lea Salonga) - In "Two to Tangu", she teaches Sofia and Amber how to tame a wild carpet and not to be afraid of trying something new. She sings a song called "The Ride of Our Lives."
Belle from Beauty and the Beast (voiced by Julie Nathanson) - In "The Amulet and the Anthem", she sings a song called "Make It Right" and helps Sofia realize that actions speak louder than words.
Ariel from The Little Mermaid (voiced by Jodi Benson) - In "The Floating Palace", she encourages Sofia to enlist Cora to help rescue her mermaid friend Oona from the sea monster, saying that the love of family is held by all. She sings a song called "The Love We Share." She is the first Disney Princess not to be shown in her re-design.
Aurora from Sleeping Beauty (voiced by Kate Higgins) - In "Holiday in Enchancia", she teaches Sofia that in a crisis she can always count on her animal friends. She is the first Disney Princess who doesn't sing in the series.
Snow White from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (voiced by Katherine Von Till) - In "The Enchanted Feast", she teaches Sofia to learn the importance of trusting one's instincts after Sofia suspects that a visiting sorceress is not who she says she is. She is the second Disney Princess who doesn't sing in the series.
Fa Mulan from Mulan (voiced by Ming-Na Wen) - In "Princesses To The Rescue", she teaches Sofia and her friends that they are stronger than they know. Her singing voice was performed by Lea Salonga and is the second Disney Princess not to be shown in her re-design, rather in her armor. She sings the song "Stronger Than You Know."
Rapunzel from Tangled (voiced by Mandy Moore) - In the second half of the hour-long episode "The Curse of Princess Ivy", she shows how much Sofia and Amber's relationship has grown and deepened despite mistakes that Amber has made. She also teaches Amber to mend their relationship she has to "Dare to Risk It All."
Tiana from The Princess and the Frog (voiced by Anika Noni Rose) - In "Winter's Gift", she teaches Sofia that what matters most when giving a gift to someone is that it comes from the heart. She sings a song called "From the Heart".
Merida from Brave (voiced by Ruth Connell) - In "The Secret Library", she teaches Sofia confidence so she can save Minimus and Mazzimo and fulfill her task as the storykeeper. She is the 3rd Disney Princess not to be shown in her re-design and third Princess who doesn't sing in the series.

text: Characters from other Disney properties[edit]

text:
Flora, Fauna, and Merryweather from Sleeping Beauty (voiced by Barbara Dirikson, Russi Taylor, and Tress MacNeille) - Three good fairies who are the headmistresses of Royal Prep, the school that Sofia and her peers attend.
Olaf from Frozen (voiced by Josh Gad) - In "The Secret Library: Olaf and the Tale of Miss Nettle," Olaf is summoned by the Amulet of Avalor after it is affected by Miss Nettle's Crazy Crystals.
Merlin from The Sword in the Stone (voiced by Jeff Bennett) - A revered wizard who is referenced numerous times in the series, most often by his admirer Cedric. In "Gone with the Wand" he makes his debut after inviting Sofia and two of her friends to visit him at his home. However, Cedric's niece Calista takes Merlin's wand from his tower, allowing it to fall into the possession of his enemy Morgana.
Archimedes from The Sword in the Stone - a owl and a friend of Merlin.

text: Recurring characters[edit]

text:
Princess Hildegard (voiced by Coco Grayson, singing voice provided by Jenna Lea Rosen) - One of Amber's best friends and a princess of Freezenburg. Hildegard is just as snobbish and vain as Amber. She has a pet seal-headed white squirrel named Lulu.
Princess Clio (voiced by Harley Graham, singing voice is provided by Jenna Lea Rosen) - One of Amber's best friends and the princess of Corinthia. Cleo is more ladylike and soft-sided than Amber and Hildegard.
Prince Hugo (voiced by Colin Ford in 2013, Grayson Hunter in 2014-2015) - A prince who attends Royal Prep. In his first appearance, Hugo started as a bully, making fun of Sofia for failing to ride a flying horse. He also made fun of James for helping Sofia. In the episode from the second season "The Flying Crown" after learning of the true reason for his personality, Sofia reformed Hugo and they became friends. It is revealed in "Lord of the Rink" that Hugo loves ice-dancing, but he was so afraid of his father's reaction that he kept it a secret until Sofia convinced him to trust his heart.
Prince Axel (voiced by Colin Ford) - Prince Hugo's older brother. Axel appears to be a teenager and has already graduated from Royal Prep. While his joking personality can annoy Hugo and sometimes hurt his feelings, he goes out of his way to show his younger brother that he cares.
Minimus (voiced by Eric Stonestreet) - Sofia's flying-derby horse.
Wormwood (voiced by Jim Cummings) - Cedric's pet raven. Just like Cedric, Wormwood is very mean and usually discourages Cedric whenever he fails. Wormwood and Clover are known for having a big rivalry between each other.
Jade (voiced by Isabella Acres) - One of Sofia's best friends from the village.
Ruby (voiced by Fiona Bishop in the pilot movie, Diamond White in the TV series) - One of Sofia's best friends from the village.
Princess Vivian (voiced by Sabrina Carpenter) - A formerly shy friend of Sofia's who is the music-loving princess of Zumaria.
Crackle (voiced by Ellie Kemper) - She is Princess Vivian's sky-blue hued, young pet dragon girl. Crackle likes Clover much to his dismay.
Aunt Matilda "Tilly" (voiced by Bonnie Hunt) - Tilly is King Roland II's sister, the sister-in-law of Queen Miranda, the aunt of James and Amber, and the step-aunt of Sofia.
Oona (voiced by Kiernan Shipka) - A mermaid from Merroway Cove who Sofia befriends.
Cora (voiced by Sarah Mitchell)
Fluke (voiced by Gabe Eggerling)
Shelly (voiced by Jenna Lea Rosen)
Flip (voiced by Connor Wise)
Sven (voiced by John Ross Bowie) a seahorse and friend of Oona.
Slim (voiced by Sean Schemmel) a puffer fish and friend of Fluke.
Prince Zandar (voiced by Maxim Knight in "Just One of the Princes," Karan Brar in 2013, Cade Sutton in "A Tale of Two Teams," Nathaniel Semsen in "New Genie on the Block") - Prince Zandar is Prince James' best friend and the prince of Tangu.
Princess Jun (voiced by Michaela Zee) - A princess from Wei-Ling who is a classmate and friend of Sofia's.
Princess Kari (voiced by Kiara Muhammad) - A new princess who loves magic and is a friend of Sofia's.
Princess Zooey[11] (voiced by Fiona Bishop) - A new princess who loves adventures. Zooey is also Amber and Sofia's friend.
Prince Desmond (voiced by Maxim Knight and Joshua Carlon)
Miss Nettle (voiced by Megan Mullally) - A fairy who was once apprenticed to Flora, Fauna, and Merryweather, but who later sought to surpass her mentors. Like Cedric, she initially covets Sofia's amulet and seeks to obtain it, but is thwarted by Sofia. In "The Secret Library: Olaf and the Tale of Miss Nettle," Miss Nettle's ability at "enchanted horticulture" is revealed to have been the origin for breeding Freezenberg's "snowdrop" royal flower — Miss Nettle never received proper recognition for the "snowdrop" flower, which could be a source for some of her antagonism. Miss Nettle's design appears to have been inspired by concept art from Sleeping Beauty, specifically an unused color scheme for one of the three fairies.
Rosey (voiced by Pamela Adlon) - A magical talking rose who is Miss Nettle's constant companion.
Lucinda (voiced by Merit Leighton) - A little witch with magic powers that Sofia befriends.
Lily (voiced by Brennley Brown).
Indigo (voiced by Bailey Gambertoglio).
Marla (voiced by Tracey Ullman and Laraine Newman).
Calista (voiced by Kaite Zieff).
Cordelia (voiced by Rachael MacFarlane).
Morgana (voiced by Catherine le Fay)
Kazeem (voiced by Connor Wise and Jadon Sand)
Sergeant Fizz (voiced by Keith Ferguson)
King Habib and Queen Farnaz (voiced by Sean Schemmel and Nika Flutterman)
Book Narrator (voiced by Hugh Bonneville)
Prisma (voiced by Megan Hilty)
Azurine (voiced by Rachael MacFarlane)
Locket of Vor (voiced by Paty Lombard)
Twitch (voiced by Jeff Bennett) is a rat and friend of Prisma
Orion (voiced by Colin Salmon)
Vega (voiced by Ming-Na Wen)
Protectors is a people of The Mystic Isles.
Chrysta (voiced by Jurnee Smollett-Bell)
Skye (voiced by Andrew Rannells) - A flying unicorn and Sofia's Protector steed on the Mystic isles.