document_title: Dish Network

question_text: who does dish network use for internet service

question_tokens: who does dish network use for internet service

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text: Dish Network

text: History[edit]

text: In January 2008, Dish Network was spun off from its former parent company EchoStar, which was founded by Charlie Ergen as a satellite television equipment distributor in 1980.[3] The company began using Dish Network as its consumer brand in March 1997.[citation needed] after the successful launch of its first satellite, EchoStar I, in December 1995.[6][7] That launch marked the beginning of its subscription television services, and EchoStar has since launched numerous satellites, with nine owned and leased satellites in its fleet as of January 2013. EchoStar continues to be the primary technology partner to Dish Network.

tag: p

text: Joseph Clayton became president and chief executive officer of the company in June 2011,[8] while Charlie Ergen remained chairman. Clayton remained in the position until March 31, 2015 when he retired leaving Ergen to resume the post.[9] Ergen has said diversifying and updating technology for the company will be a high priority, with an expectation that, over the coming decade, the company will provide internet, video, and telephone service for both home and mobile applications.[10] In December 2017, Dish Network announced that Ergen will step down and be replaced by Erik Carlson.[11]

text: Founding and early growth[edit]

text: Dish Network officially began operations on March 4, 1996, as a service of EchoStar. EchoStar, a precursor to Dish Network, was formed in 1980 by its chairman and chief executive officer, Charlie Ergen along with colleagues Candy Ergen and Jim Defranco,[3] as a distributor of C-band satellite television systems. In 1987, EchoStar applied for a direct broadcast satellite broadcast license with the Federal Communications Commission and was granted access to orbital slot 119° west longitude in 1992.[14]

text: In 1998 EchoStar purchased the broadcasting assets of a satellite broadcasting joint venture of News Corporation and MCI Worldcom, called ASkyB (for American Sky Broadcasting, named after News Corp's BSkyB service in Britain); the two companies had nearly merged (which called for Dish Network being renamed Sky) before it was called off due to Charlie Ergen's clashes with News Corp. executives. With this purchase EchoStar obtained 28 of the 32 transponder licenses in the 110° West orbital slot, more than doubling existing continental United States broadcasting capacity at a value of $682.5 million; some of the other assets were picked up by rival PrimeStar, which was sold to DirecTV in 1999. The acquisition (which also included an uplink center in Gilbert, Arizona) inspired the company to introduce a multi satellite system called Dish 500, theoretically capable of receiving more than 500 channels on one Dish. In the same year, Echostar, partnering with Bell Canada, launched Dish Network Canada.

text: Acquisitions and expansion[edit]

text: In 2011, Dish Network spent over $3 billion in acquisitions of companies in bankruptcy,[15] which Motley Fool's Anders Bylund described as "a veritable buying rampage in the bargain bin."[16] This includes the April 6, 2011, purchase of Blockbuster Inc. in a bankruptcy auction in New York, agreeing to pay $322 million in cash and assume $87 million in liabilities and other obligations for the nationwide video-rental company.[17] Dish Network also acquired the defunct companies DBSD and Terrestar.[15] Dish Network also made a bid to purchase Hulu on October 2011, but Hulu's owners chose not to sell the company.[18] There was also speculation that Dish Network might purchase Sprint Nextel or Clearwire.[19] In 2013, Dish made a bid for both companies. CEO Charles Ergen plans on adding wireless internet and mobile video services that can compete with Netflix and cable companies.[15] About the new markets, Ergen said, "Given the assets we've been accumulating, I don't think it's hard to see we're moving in a different direction from simply pay-TV, which is a market that's becoming increasingly saturated."[15]

text: Dish Network put its Blockbuster acquisition to work by making available Dish Movie Pack for Dish Network subscribers and Sling TV for non-Dish Network subscribers. Blockbuster also has agreements that allow it to receive movies 28 days before Netflix and Redbox which could encourage customers to use these services.[15]

text: Dish Network also plans on offering high-speed internet. The company plans a hybrid satellite/terrestrial mobile broadband service. In 2011, it petitioned the FCC to combine the S-Band spectrum it acquired from DBSD and Terrestar, and combine this spectrum with LTE. Unlike LightSquared, Dish's spectrum has minimal risk of disrupting Global Positioning Systems.[20]

text: At the 2012 Consumer Electronics Show, Dish Network announced that they would be dropping the “Network” and going solely by Dish (along with a new logo) in their marketing. Dish Network's parent company will remain "Dish Network".[21]

text: After changing the position of a satellite orbital position from being over Mexico to Brazil in 2011, Dish Network sought companies that could make a deal, among them Telefónica. However, nothing ever came of this, and Dish decided to enter the country itself. According to the Brazilian Agency of Telecommunications (Anatel), they await the authorization of the application.[22]

text: Services and Devices[edit]

text: Dish's main service is satellite television. Its offerings are similar to other satellite and cable companies. Viewers can choose from a series of service bundles, paying more money for more channels. A la carte programming is available, however limited other than Premium channels. The company is currently working on diversifying its offerings. With its purchase of Blockbuster LLC, it now owns the Blockbuster trademarks and has used its intellectual property agreement to offer streaming and mail-order video services.

text: In May 2012, the American Customer Satisfaction Index ranked Dish second among American television providers.[23][24]

text: DishNET[edit]

text: On September 27, 2012, Dish Network announced a satellite broadband service called DishNET, aimed at rural areas.[25]

text: Technical information[edit]

text: Broadcast technology[edit]

text: While for years Dish Network has used standard MPEG-2 for broadcasting, the addition of bandwidth-intensive HDTV in a limited-bandwidth world has called for a change to an H.264/MPEG-4 AVC system. Dish Network announced as of February 1, 2006, that all new HDTV channels would be available in H.264 format only, while maintaining the current lineup as MPEG-2. Dish Network intends to eventually convert the entire platform to H.264 in order to provide more channels to subscribers. In 2007, Dish Network reduced the resolution of 1080-line channels from 1920x1080 to 1440x1080. Reducing horizontal resolution and/or data rate of HD video is known as HD Lite and is practiced by other TV providers as well.

text: Both a standard receiver and a receiver with built-in digital video recorder (DVR) are available to subscribers. The Dish Network ViP722 HD DVR (Record up to 350 hours of standard-definition (SD), up to 55 hours of high-definition (HD)) replacement to the ViP622 has received generally positive reviews[26] from CNET and others.

text: Both a standard receiver and a DVR (digital video recorder) are available to subscribers for an upgrade fee. Beginning in January 2010, Dish Network charges $7.00 as a DVR service fee, which covers cost of licensing EPG (electronic program guide) listings from Rovi Corporation, with the TV Guide logo displayed on listings screens to signify the partnership.

text: High-definition television (HDTV)[edit]

text: In January 1999, the company released the industry's first high-definition television (HDTV) tuner. In August 2003, the company launched EchoStar IX, the first satellite equipped with commercial Ka band payload for broadband service over the United States. This led the company in 2004 to be the first satellite TV service to offer local channels to all 50 states. In that year, the company also introduced the nation's first interactive TV multiple picture-in picture application for the Olympic Games, offering coverage from multiple channels at once. This year the company also acquired its 10 millionth customer.

text: In January 2005, EchoStar bought the broadcasting assets of the troubled HDTV satellite provider Voom, including its Rainbow 1 satellite co-located with EchoStar 3 at 61.5° West. On April 29, EchoStar announced that it would expand its HDTV programming by adding the first 10 of 21 original Voom channels and mirror the channels on a CONUS slot. Dish Network added CNN HD in Spanish along with other packages in its Latino HD lineup.

text: On January 1, 2008, the company completed its spinoff of its technology and set-top box business into a separate publicly traded company, Echostar Corporation ("EchoStar"), effectively splitting the original EchoStar into two separate businesses.[27] Dish Network Corporation, the larger of the two resulting companies, focuses on programming, service and marketing of satellite television, while EchoStar Corporation runs a majority of the satellite fleet and other signal infrastructure. While neither company has any ownership in the other, the majority of the voting power of the shares in both companies is owned by Charlie Ergen.

text: Receivers and devices[edit]

text: Satellite antennas[edit]

text: Dish Network offers different types of satellite receiving equipment for obtaining signals from its diverse satellite fleet. Most of their consumer boxes are manufactured by Sanmina-SCI Corporation to EchoStar specifications. Prior to the December 2001 merger of SCI Systems and Sanmina, Dish Network receivers were produced at factories in Huntsville, Alabama and Fountain, Colorado. Currently,[when?] receiver assembly takes place in Guadalajara, Mexico and India.

text: Earlier satellite dishes[edit]

text: Dish Network's first satellite antenna was simply called the "Dish Network" Dish. It was retroactively named the "Dish 300" when legal and satellite problems forced delays of the forthcoming Dish 500 systems. It uses one LNB to obtain signals from the 119°W orbital location,[28] and was commonly used as a second Dish to receive additional high-definition or ethnic programming from either the 148°W or 61.5°W orbital locations.[29][30] The 119°W slot is one of two primary orbital locations, the other being 110°W, that provide core services.[31][32]

text: After EchoStar obtained the broadcasting assets of a failed joint venture between ASkyB and MCI WorldCom, it had more than doubled its capacity by adding 28 transponders at the 110°W orbital location. Since EchoStar also owned the adjacent 119°W orbital location it developed the Dish 500 to receive the signals of both orbital locations using one Dish and an innovative dual-LNB assembly. Although the new 20-inch Dish 500 was slightly larger than the then-current 18-inch Dish 300 and DirecTV Dishes it had the distinct advantage of obtaining signals from EchoStar's two adjacent satellite locations for a theoretical 500-channel capacity. The Dish 500, as a result, provided very large capacity for local-into-local service, nationwide programming, and business services. In order to migrate existing customers to Dish 500, Dish Network provides value-added channels in addition to local channels that can only be received with the Dish 500 and newer systems. Some of the channels exclusive to these newer systems are H2, Boomerang, Science, Planet Green, PBS Kids Sprout and Comedy Central.

text: Higher capacity satellite dishes[edit]

text: In spite of all this capacity, EchoStar still needed to fulfill the dream of nationwide high-definition television and conceived the Dish 1000 system to receive signals from 110°W, 119°W, and 129°W orbital locations. Originally, Dish Network high-definition subscribers required two separate satellite dishes. Currently, Dish Network subscribers can receive nationwide HDTV channels using the 129°W orbital location or 61.5°W orbital location. Because of issues with low signal strength, the older model Dish 1000 has been replaced with the Dish 1000.2. The 1000.2 has a 10% larger reflector for better signal strength and an integrated LNB for easier installation. The Dish 1000.2 is 23 in (580 mm) in diameter. Even with the larger size, there are still many reports of customers consistently losing signal on the 129°W orbital location. This has forced some customers to either use a 2nd separate Dish Network brand dish, or an aftermarket 30" dish, aimed specifically at the 129°W orbital location. On several satellite related web support forums, customers have critically suggested that the new Dish 1000.2 wasn't nearly large enough and should have been 20–30% larger to properly deal with rain fade. Later Dish Network took the approach of splitting the US into two regions. Subscribers west of Chicago use Dish 1000.2 antennas aimed at the 110°W, 119°W, and 129°W orbital locations (referred to as the western arc). Subscribers east of Chicago use Dish 1000.4 antennas aimed at the 61.5°W, 72°W and 77°W oribital locations (referred to as the eastern arc).

text: During Dish Network's quest for capacity, they had accumulated an array of satellite broadcasting technologies, orbital locations, and surplus capacity using non-mainstream technologies requiring larger dish sizes. To capitalize on these broadcasting assets, Dish Network started providing extensive ethnic programming from lower-powered satellites broadcasting in the non-DBS portion of the FSS band. Dish Network offers specialized equipment for these customers including larger dish antennas.[citation needed]

text: The SuperDish, Dish 500+, and Dish 1000+ systems receive DBS signals from both of the primary 110°W and 119°W locations (129°W for Dish 1000+) as well as lower-powered FSS signals from either 121°W, 105°W, or 118.75°W. The Dish 500+ and 1000+ systems receive circularly polarized signals in the non-DBS portion of the FSS band—the only American satellite television service to do so.

text: Tailgater[edit]

text: Tailgater is a portable satellite antenna; the tailgater can be purchased as a standalone device for $350, The Tailgater is now being supported by a Wally receiver, to replace the still supported 211k model. Customers only need pay for the period of time where the receiver is active on the dish account, monthly cost for a Vip211k or Wally is $7 per month, if the receiver is the only one on the account, there is no charge.[33] It weighs ten pounds, is protected from weather, and automatically searches for a signal. The only satellites that are currently compatible with the Tailgater are at Dish's 119 (SD/HD TV), 110 (SD/HD TV), and 129 (SD/HD TV) orbital slots.[34]

text: Wally[edit]

text: The Wally is a solo-receiver without a built in digital video recorder (DVR).

text: Hopper[edit]

text: In March 2012,[35] Dish began offering a digital video recorder called Dish Hopper (DVR) that can automatically record all prime time programming on the four major television networks.[36] The DVR, which costs $10 per month, has three tuners (Hopper ver. 3 has sixteen) and 2 TB of hard-disk space, half of which can be used to record 500 hours of high-definition television or 2000 hours of standard-definition television programs. The other half is for video on demand.[37][38] A Hopper feature, called AutoHop, enables customers to view these programs without commercials, subject to time restrictions. AutoHop has attracted enthusiasts, critics, boycotts and legal action.[39] At the 2013 Consumer Electronics Show Dish won an award for their AutoHop feature on the Hopper.[40]

text: Hopper with Sling[edit]

text: The Hopper Sling is a Hopper with the ability to connect to the Internet in order to allow access to the DISH Anywhere service that allows you stream live TV and access your DVR content from a computer and or mobile device. The Hopper contains three-tuners built in that allows you watch or record up to three shows at the same time. It is also possess a hard drive that stores the DVR content. They are a apart of the new generation of XIP receivers.

text: At the 2013 Consumer Electronics Show, Dish announced the Hopper with Sling, an updated version of the Hopper with Slingbox place-shifting technology built-in, allowing the ability to watch live TV and DVR recordings online or through a free Dish Anywhere mobile app, and the ability to "fling" content from a mobile device (such as videos or photos) onto the TV as well. A Hopper Transfers app for the iPad and Android also allows recordings to be downloaded directly to the device for offline viewing and a new Dish Explorer app also provides control of the Hopper along with integration with social networks to track trends and reactions to a program [iPad only]. The new Hopper also includes a 2 TB hard drive (allowing the storage of up to 2,000 hours of standard definition recordings and 500 hours in high definition) and a Broadcom BCM7425 CPU.[41]

text: CNET praised the Hopper with Sling for being cutting-edge technology that "helps Dish make a strong case that its HD DVR is the most advanced out there." It subsequently nominated the new Hopper for the CES Best in Show award (which was decided by CNET), and had won the award based off the original vote of CNET's staff. However, CNET's parent company CBS Corporation vetoed the results, disqualified the device, and forced a re-vote because CBS was in active litigation with Dish.[42][43] After complaints by critics (including Consumer Electronics Association CEO Gary Shapiro), CNET was dropped as the organizer of the CES awards program, and the Best in Show award was re-awarded to both the Hopper with Sling and the Razer Edge gaming tablet (which had won in the second vote by CNET).[44]

text: Joeys[edit]

text: Locations with multiple televisions, can use one or more Joey-receivers which are a secondary receiver that is used in conjunction with a main Hopper receiver to allow Live TV(using one of the Hopper's integrated tuners) and DVR access through the Hoppers MoCA Network(an internal network for the whole home system). The Hopper acts as the brains for Joey.

text: Apps[edit]

text: Dish Anywhere is Dish's subscriber-only streaming video service, which includes HBO and Cinemax programming.[45]

text: Sling TV[edit]

text: In May 2012, Dish launched DishWorld— A subscription-based over-the-top streaming IPTV service, as an app on Roku devices, offering access to over 50 international television channels via broadband streaming.[46]

text: In 2014, Dish Network began to reach carriage deals with broadcasters for a new over-the-top service that would be aimed towards cord cutters as a low-cost alternative to traditional pay television.[47] On January 5, 2015, Dish Network officially unveiled Sling TV, an over-the-top IPTV service designed to compliment subscription video on-demand services such as Hulu and Netflix.[48]

text: Some broadcasters have been hesitant about over-the-top services such as Sling TV, showing concern that they may undermine their carriage deals with larger conventional cable, satellite and Internet TV providers. Time Warner initially noted that the carriage of its channels on the service was only for a "trial" basis, while both Time Warner's CEO Jeffrey Bewkes and an analyst from the firm Macquarie Capital disclosed that current contract language in Dish's OTT carriage deals with the service's content distributors would cap the number of subscribers that the service is allowed to have at any given time to 5 million. Neither Dish Network or its content providers have confirmed any such cap.[49][50][51] As of October 2016[update], the service has approximately 1 million subscribers.[52]

text: Satellite fleet[edit]

text: Most of the satellites used by Dish Network are owned and operated by EchoStar. Since EchoStar frequently moves satellites among its many orbiting slots this list may not be immediately accurate. Refer to Lyngsat and Dish Channel Chart for detailed satellite information.

text:
Dish Network Satellites

Satellite
Location (Degrees West)
Launched
Type
Notes

EchoStar I
77
000000001995-12-28-0000December 28, 1995
Lockheed Martin Astro Space Series 7000 (AS-7000)
Can carry a limited number of services on odd numbered transponders. EchoStar is not licensed to serve CONUS customers in the United States from this location but may transmit local stations.

EchoStar III
61.5
000000001997-10-05-0000October 5, 1997
Lockheed Martin Missiles and Space A2100AX
Replaced by EchoStar XV and was serving as an in-orbit spare. Deorbited with some difficulty by 000000002017-09-06-0000September 6, 2017.[53]

EchoStar IV
77
000000001998-05-08-0000May 8, 1998
Lockheed Martin Missiles and Space A2100AX
This satellite had a launch issue, is now in an inclined orbit and is not currently[when?] operational. It largely serves as a placeholder for EchoStar slots.

EchoStar V
Deorbited from 148
000000001999-09-23-0000September 23, 1999
Space Systems/Loral FS-1300
EchoStar V was moved from 110 to 129 and finally to 148. International programming at 148 has moved to Anik F3/118.75°. Locals have moved to spot beams at other locations. The satellite was to serve as a placeholder for EchoStar at the 148 slot. The satellite was experiencing stability issues that made signal levels unstable for the short time it was located at 148. On July 31, 2009, all remaining programming at 148 ceased. Factors now indicate discontinuation of the 148 slot, at least for the short term, 3–4 years.

EchoStar VI
77
000000002000-07-14-0000July 14, 2000
Space Systems/Loral FS-1300
Replaces EchoStar VIII.

EchoStar VII
119
000000002002-02-21-0000February 21, 2002
Lockheed Martin Missiles and Space A2100AX
Currently[when?] an on orbit spare. Provides Dish Network's spot beam services to the western United States, as well as Muzak programming to businesses on leased bandwidth.

EchoStar VIII
77
000000002002-08-21-0000August 21, 2002
Space Systems/Loral (SS/L) FS-1300
Formerly at 110. On January 30, 2011, the satellite experienced a single event upset and drifted out of its intended orbit, this required all services to be relocated to other available satellite capacity in the Eastern Arc. One week later some services were restored, but the satellite is expected to be taken out of service again and replaced temporarily by EchoStar VI in order to conduct further testing.

Echostar XII
61.5
000000002003-07-17-0000July 17, 2003
Lockheed Martin AS-2100
Originally known as Rainbow 1, this satellite was launched by Cablevision/Rainbow DBS and used for the Voom DBS service at 61.5° W until the satellite and transponder licenses were sold to EchoStar in 2005. Renamed EchoStar 12 in March 2006. Currently only used for spot beam capabilities.

EchoStar X
110
000000002006-02-15-0000February 15, 2006
Lockheed Martin Missiles and Space A2100AX

Anik F3[54]
118.75
000000002007-04-12-0000April 12, 2007
Astrium Eurostar 3000
Customers use the 36 inch Dish 500+ or Dish 1000+ to receive this non-DBS, medium-powered signal. Anik F3 is leased by EchoStar from Telesat Canada to serve CONUS customers. It broadcasts on non-DBS FSS frequencies (~11.7-12.2 GHz) using circular polarity (the only satellite serving the United States in this mode). It permanently replaces AMC-16, which was temporarily placed at 118.75° W due to delays in Anik F3 production. AMC-16 moved back to 85° W when Anik F3 was fully operational. A primarily international satellite with international channels once on 61.5, 121, or 148.

EchoStar XI
110
000000002008-07-16-0000July 16, 2008
SS/L 1300

Ciel-2
129
000000002008-12-10-0000December 10, 2008
Thales Alenia Space Spacebus-4000C4
Replaced Echostar-V at the 129°W orbital location. Owned by Canadian Ciel Satellite Group, EchoStar leases the entire bandwidth of the Ciel-2 satellite. Provides national HD programming and HD spot beam locals.

Nimiq 5
72.7
000000002009-09-17-0000September 17, 2009
Space Systems/Loral LS-1300
A Canadian satellite operated by Telesat Canada. Echostar leases the satellite's capacity.

Echostar XIV
119
000000002010-03-20-0000March 20, 2010
Space Systems/Loral FS-1300
Replaced Echostar VII. EchoStar XIV launched on an International Launch Services Proton/Breeze M vehicle from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan. Resides at an altitude of 22,000 miles.

EchoStar XV
61.5
000000002010-07-10-0000July 10, 2010
Space Systems/Loral (SS/L) FS-1300

A CONUS only satellite.

tag: table

text: Criticisms and controversies[edit]

text: Since the early 2000s, Dish Network received criticism regarding controversial technology and carriage disputes with programming providers. Most notably, when the Hopper digital video recorder provided an easy way for viewers to watch certain programming without commercials, major networks sued Dish Network.[55]

text: AutoHop[edit]

text: Dish Network's Hopper digital video recorder, announced in January 2012, led to controversy over a feature, called "AutoHop", which allows viewers to watch some programming without commercials, subject to time restrictions.

text: AutoHop is an extension of the DVR's prime time recording capability. When enabled, the feature records but hides commercials, giving viewers the option of viewing prime time programming on the four major networks commercial-free. Commercials cannot be skipped until 1 am Eastern Time, and the viewer must choose to do this. Recorded programs are available for eight days after they have aired. News of AutoHop met with an immediate, polarized response. The feature was deemed a "dream come true" for consumers, but for networks, a nightmare undercutting the revenue model. Dish asserted that AutoHop would encourage its customers to sample new programming. Leslie Moonves, CBS chief executive, asked rhetorically how he is to produce CSI without the revenue stream of commercials. News Corporation refused to accept Dish advertising for the device. A Forrester Research analyst said the move demonstrated Dish's desperation to keep customers at a time when alternative programming is readily available via the Internet.[35][36][55][56]

text: The controversy surrounding AutoHop contributed to one small-market station group, Hoak Media Corporation, removing its 14 stations channels from the service on June 6, 2012. In negotiations, Hoak sought a 200 percent increase in carriage fees and the dropping of the AutoHop feature. David Shull, Dish senior vice president of programming, accused Hoak of effectively telling Dish's customers that they must watch commercials, disrespecting customer control over its services. Eight days later, the two companies announced a distribution deal. Terms were not disclosed.[57][58][59]

text: On June 27, 2012, Dish Chairman Charlie Ergen told the United States House Subcommittee on Communications and Technology that the feature would enable parents to protect their children from alcohol and fast food advertising.[60] The next day, Michael Petricone of the Consumer Electronics Association spoke to the subcommittee, likening Hopper to earlier time shifting devices. He argued that Hopper is legal and that AutoHop entices people to watch more television, thereby expanding television's market.[61]

text: CNET was also forced by parent company CBS to disqualify the newest Hopper with Sling model from the CES Best in Show award for 2013 because of its active litigation with the company. CEO Joe Clayton said that Dish was "saddened that CNET's staff is being denied its editorial independence because of CBS' heavy handed tactics."[42] Dish Network directly attacked CBS for its decision in an advertisement for the device on its website. The ad proclaimed the DVR as being CNET's "Best in Show", but with a footnote stating that "CBS will go to any lengths to keep you from enjoying ad-skipping technology—even censoring its own writers and throwing out their decision to name Hopper 'Best In Show.' Your vote is the only one that really matters."[62]

text: Telemarketing violations[edit]

text: Dish Network independent dealers have repeatedly been charged and fined for employing illegal telemarketing tactics, such as violating do not call lists and making calls in which a live telemarketer does not connect promptly after the call is answered. Dish Network terminated agreements with some independent dealers in relation to these charges.[63][64][65] In March 2009 the Federal Trade Commission charged Dish Network and two of its dealers with multiple violations of the FTC's Telemarketing Sales Rule and the Telephone Consumer Protection Act of 1991.[66]

text: Hidden fees[edit]

text: In January 2004, thirteen states charged that Echostar, then the parent company of Dish Network, had not disclosed termination fees to potential customers and had debited customers' bank accounts for hidden fees. The company settled the lawsuit, paid $5 million, and promised to disclose all terms prior to signing contracts with potential customers.[67]

text: Dish has also begun to collect shipping fees on equipment that needs to be returned after customers cancel their service with Dish. The shipping cost back in September 2014 was $17. As of June 6, 2017, the shipping cost is now $12. This fee applies regardless of whether the fee was included in the initial contract customers signed.[68]

text: Litigations[edit]

text: Dish has been sued and countersued dozens of times. In fact, Dish uses litigation as a profit center. Charlie Ergen said, "I may be the only CEO who likes to go to depositions. You can live in a bubble, and you’re probably not going to get a disease. But you can play in the mud and the dirt, and you’re probably not going to get a disease either, because you get immune to it. You pick your poison, and I think we choose to go play in the mud.” In 2001, Dish admitted to using over 100 law firms over a ten-year period.[69]

text: AutoHop[edit]

text: On May 24, 2012, Dish and the networks filed suit in federal court, the Dish case in Manhattan and the networks' cases in Los Angeles. On May 30, U.S. District Judge Laura Taylor Swain ruled the networks' cases should not be filed in Los Angeles and asked for comments on a possible move of all cases to New York.[37]

text: In July 9 preliminary judgement, Swain denied Dish's request to set aside the issue of copyright violation, ruling that Dish's argument lacked specificity. She also ruled that the case could be heard in Los Angeles, thereby eliminating New York as a potential venue.[70]

text: On November 7, 2012, the United States District Court for the Central District of California denied Fox's motion for preliminary injunction for the reasons mainly because 1) PTAT and AutoHop did not infringe copyright and did not breach the contract; and 2) while QA copies constituted a copyright infringement and breached the contract, the harm from the copies was not irreparable, but was compensable with money.[71]

text: Fox appealed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit. On July 24, 2013, the Ninth Circuit reviewed the district court's decision with a very deferential standard of review, and affirmed it.[72]

text: Frequency acquisition subsidies[edit]

text: Dish Network received about $3 billion in subsidies from the federal government to buy wireless bandwidth. Dish Network used the 1934 Federal Communications Act to win subsidies for the purchases it made at the January 2015 auction of wireless spectrum. Under the terms of that act, "designated entities" qualify for a 25 percent discount on the market price of such licenses. Dish used small subsidiaries such as Northstar Wireless and SNR Wireless in order to qualify. Dish only paid $10 billion for licenses that would have otherwise cost $13 billion. The difference would have been paid to the federal government. The FEC and the United States Senate opened investigations into the matter after numerous public complaints.[73]

text: Off-the-job marijuana use[edit]

text: Dish fired a wheelchair-bound quadriplegic man, Brandon Coats, from his job as a telephone operator in 2010 for using medical-marijuana during off-work hours. Coats used marijuana to control muscle spasms. His paralysis was due to injuries from a car crash. Coats failed a random drug test. Coats sued claiming that marijuana use was legal and that he was a model employee. Coats suit relied under a Colorado law called the Lawful Off-Duty Activities Statute that prohibits employers from firing employees for doing legal things during their personal time. The trial court and Colorado Court of Appeals ruled in Coats v. Dish Network that since marijuana is banned by federal law it does not qualify as legal activity despite being permitted by state law. The trial court ruled that Coats should have to pay Dish's legal fees; the appeals court overturned this ruling.[74]

text: Voom[edit]

text: In April 2005, Rainbow Media and Dish Network entered into a 15-year affiliation agreement whereby EchoStar’s Dish Network obtained the right to distribute the Voom channels until 2020 and agreed that it would pay Rainbow Media monthly subscription fees for the life of the agreement. The subscription fees started at $3.25 per subscriber in the first year of the agreement, and were to increase to $6.43 per subscriber by the year 2020.[75] In a separate agreement, EchoStar’s Dish obtained a 20% ownership interest in Rainbow Media (the business unit that contained the Voom HD channels) and Rainbow agreed to invest $100 million into the Voom service each year for the first five years of the agreement.[76] As a result, EchoStar's Dish Network announced that they would be adding ten of Voom's original 21 channels to their lineup starting May 1; the remaining channels were added on February 1, 2006.

text: In January 2008, EchoStar's Dish Network abandoned the affiliation agreement claiming that Voom had failed to invest $100 million in the service during 2006 although Cablevision and Rainbow provided Dish Network with the financial statements documenting their compliance. Dish Network proceeded to remove ten of the channels from their lineup on May 12, 2008, with the remaining five removed the next day,[77][78] leaving coverage limited to Cablevision's systems in New York, New Jersey, Connecticut and parts of Pennsylvania. Cablevision and Rainbow sued Dish Network for breach of contract and sought more than $2.5 billion in damages. Citing this drop in carriage and the ensuing lengthy litigation, Cablevision announced on December 18 that the Voom HD suite would be discontinued as of January 15, 2009, to be replaced by other HD programming.[79] (Ultimately, the channels ceased operations on January 20, and were replaced by multiplexed HD content from premium providers.)[80]

text: Following the discovery process, the court granted Voom's motion for sanctions.[81] The New York State Supreme Court found that EchoStar's Dish Network "systematically destroyed evidence" in the case and stated that “it is entirely possible that the documents destroyed by EchoStar demonstrated that EchoStar knew all along that there was no breach...and would prove Voom’s case.” The Judge also stated that he would tell jurors that Dish Network destroyed evidence and that the jury may assume the evidence would have been helpful to Voom’s case.[81]

text: According to Sanford C. Bernstein analyst Craig Moffett in a recent Wall Street Journal article, "cases involving spoilation of evidence rarely go to trial because the odds are so skewed against the offending party." In this case, the judge told the jury that EchoStar failed to preserve certain evidence; he barred Dish from calling its expert witness to testify on damages.[82] Additionally, the court stated in its November 3, 2010 ruling: “In conclusion, the court notes EchoStar’s pattern of egregious conduct and questionable – and, at times, blatantly improper – litigation tactics. EchoStar’s spoliation in this action, and the fact that it has been sanctioned for spoliation in previous actions, is precisely the type of offensive conduct that cannot be tolerated by the court. Similarly egregious is EchoStar’s last minute finagling with expert reports, believing that it can play fast and loose with the rules of procedure in order to enhance its litigation posture.”[83]

text: The trial commenced on September 19, 2012 in the New York State Supreme Court. During the summer of 2012, financial analysts who cover Dish urged the company to settle the lawsuit in advance of the trial, as “the odds would…appear to be heavily in Cablevision’s/AMC’s favor.”[84]

text: Dish chose to settle. The terms of the settlement required Dish to pay $700 million for spectrum licenses covering 500 megahertz and capable of serving 150 million people.[85]

text: TiVo patent lawsuit[edit]

text: On June 3, 2009, satellite service provider EchoStar was found by Marshall, Texas, federal district court judge David Folsom to be in contempt of a permanent injunction against using some of TiVo's technology and was required to pay the DVR pioneer $103.1 million plus interest. On May 3, 2011, Dish Network Corporation and EchoStar Corporation agreed to pay TiVo Inc. $500 million to settle a dispute over the use of some of TiVo’s technology.[86]

text: This lawsuit took more than ten years to resolve. One of the judges involved said that the conduct of Dish's lawyers didn't “even meet law-school student behavior,” and “presented the saddest day I have seen in my many years in court.”[69]

text: Bartlit Beck Herman Palenchar & Scott[edit]

text: Dish sued its own law firm, Bartlit Beck Herman Palenchar & Scott of Chicago, for malpractice. The firm countersued and won a $40 million judgement against Dish. A panel from the American Arbitration Association said that Dish's allegations were "patently false" and "egregious."[69]

text: Related party transactions[edit]

text: In 2012, Dish invested $500,000 in a technology startup, Yottabyte Ventures LLC, in which Christoper Ergen, the son of CEO Charlie Ergen, has 7.1 percent equity. Yottabytes develops mobile video applications. At the end of 2012, Dish held 71.4% of that company's equity. In 2011, Dish paid $100,000 to an online marketing company that Chase Ergen, another son of Charlie Ergen, owns 50% of. As part of a reseller agreement, Dish paid another firm owned by Chase Ergen $101,000 during 2010 and 2011. Candy Ergen, Charlie Ergen's wife, is paid between $100,000 to $110,000 per year in consulting fees. Other unnamed children of Ergen received about $25,000 in 2010 and 2011.[87]

text: These transactions were criticized by analysts. Lev Janashvili, managing director at GMI Ratings, which tracks governance, accounting and other risks in publicly traded companies, said, "These are things to be concerned about because they raise reasonable questions about conflicts of interest and the overall integrity of governance at the company." Janashvili also said, "The investment in Yottabytes Ventures LLC is a classic example of (a related party transaction) that warrants a closer scrutiny of the company's governance practices, especially because this transaction is part of a broader pattern of behaviors that run counter to the interests of shareholders. Dish is a 'controlled company' whose majority shareholder can insulate himself from the opinions of other investors."[87]

text: Investor relations[edit]

text: Dish has reportedly been criticized for treating analysts and major shareholders poorly. Craig Moffett, senior analyst of U.S. telecommunications, U.S. cable, and satellite broadcasting at Sanford C. Bernstein once requested time with management to learn about how Dish does business. Ergen told him, “We’re too busy creating value around here to sit down and talk about it. Thanks but no thanks.”[69] Chris Marangi, a money manager for Gamco Investors, which held about 4 millions shares in Dish, said that the company is very uncooperative. He says that despite traveling to Denver frequently has never been able to get a meeting with Ergen or any other Dish senior manager. “They’re probably the least transparent company of any I’ve ever dealt with." Dish sends out press releases on its earnings deliberately late enough to be of little or no use to analysts and investors whom are then forced to sort through complicated filings submitted to the Securities and Exchange Commission.[69]

text: Carriage disputes involving Dish[edit]

text: AMC Networks[edit]

text: On March 4, 2012, Dish Network announced that it would no longer carry the AMC Networks family of cable channels upon the expiration of the satellite provider's distribution agreement with the company at the end of June 2012, citing that AMC Networks charged an excessive amount in retransmission consent payments from the service for their carriage and low audience viewership for the channels.[88]

text: AMC Networks responded to Dish's announcement of its pending removal of the channels as being related to a 2008 breach of contract lawsuit against Dish Network by former company parent Rainbow Media's Voom HD Networks, in which it is seeking more than $2.5 billion in damages against Dish for improperly terminating its carriage contract; Voom's high-definition channels were carried on the provider from May 1, 2005 until May 12, 2008 when Dish removed ten of Voom's fifteen channels from its lineup (the five remaining Voom HD channels were removed from Dish the day after).[77] However, Dish states that the lawsuit is unrelated to the decision to remove the AMC Networks channels and that it ended the carriage agreement on its own terms.[88]

text: On May 20, 2012, Dish Network removed Sundance Channel from its channel lineup. Two weeks later on June 4, 2012, Dish relocated AMC, WE tv, and IFC to higher channel positions with AMC being split into two separate standard definition and high definition channel feeds (AMC moved from channel 130 to channel 9609 for the SD feed and 9610 for the HD feed, WE tv moved from channel 128 to channel 9608 and IFC was moved from channel 393 to channel 9607); the former channel lineup spaces occupied by the three channels were respectively replaced with HDNet, Style and MoviePlex multiplex channel Indieplex. The move is believed to be in response to an ad run during a June 3 airing of an episode of Mad Men urging Dish Network customers to inform the company to keep the three AMC Networks channels on the satellite provider with Dish stating that the relocated channel positions better reflect the channels' ratings.[89]

text: On June 30, 2012, Dish dropped the three AMC Networks properties, replacing AMC with HDNet movies, IFC with HDNet (which subsequently became AXS TV two days later), and WE tv with Style. The move coincided with a new agreement between Dish and AT&T U-verse.[90]

text: On July 12, 2012, AMC said in an e-mailed statement that it would stream over the Internet the season premiere of "Breaking Bad" to DISH customers.[91] "Dish subscribers can register online starting July 13 for the show, which airs on July 15. We want to give Dish customers an extra week to switch providers so they can enjoy the rest of the season."[92]

text: On October 21, 2012, AMC Networks announced a settlement was reached between them, Cablevision and Dish in which Dish was forced to pay up to $700 Million in damages to Cablevision for damages from removing Voom owned channels off the Dish Lineup back in 2008, and in return Dish signed a new agreement to bring the AMC networks owned channels back on the Dish lineup with AMC returning October 21 and the rest on November 1st.[93][94] Also, DISH simultaneously brought back FUSE, and all 4 channels were moved from "America's Top 200" to 120.

text: Remarks on rural viewers[edit]

text: During a conference call Ergen stated after being asked about the removal of AMC channels, "Our customers are not looking at zombies in New York City. They live in farms and ranches ... We have data, real data from our customers. And for whatever reason, our customers don't watch some of those critically acclaimed channels at the level that we read about in the paper, perhaps because we skew a bit rural or whatever." Ergen also said "I've had satellite television for as long as satellite television has been around, and there's never been one minute that I know of that anybody in my family or anybody who's came to my house has ever watched one second of any of those channels. They have no clue about zombies in New York City marching around saying, 'Where is my AMC?'" Soon after the call, Business Insider blared the headline, "Dish CEO says customers don't care about AMC because they live on 'farms and ranches.'"[95]

text: MSG[edit]

text: MSG, a regional sports network serving New York State, was dropped on October 1, 2010. Although MSG shares ownership with Voom and AMC (all three companies being controlled by the Dolan family), it was not included in the 2012 settlement. As of 2017, the carriage dispute has never been resolved, leaving MSG, its sister networks MSG Plus and later addition MSG Western New York, unavailable on the service.[96]

text: Fox[edit]

text: On December 21, 2014, Dish Network dropped Fox News Channel and Fox Business Network. A failed first attempt to reach a deal on the 18th of the same month resulted in the blackout.[97] The two parties blamed each other; Dish said Fox tried to unfairly tie in a sister channel and charge unreasonable rates.[98] Fox pointed out the recent pattern Dish had created with other networks. A deal was finally reached on January 14, 2015 with undisclosed terms.[99]

text: Hearst Television[edit]

text: On March 3, 2017, at midnight, ET, Dish network has dropped the Hearst Television–owned local stations from their line-up. This includes 32 stations in 28 markets, affiliated with NBC, ABC, CBS, The CW, and MyNetworkTV in cities including Boston, MA, Tampa, FL, Milwaukee, WI, Pittsburgh, PA, and New Orleans, LA. The stations were restored on April 26, 2017, at 7:00 p.m. ET.

text: Turner Networks[edit]

text: On October 21, 2014, during the early morning hours, Dish entered a dispute with Time Warner's Turner Broadcasting System. Dish removed CNN, HLN, Cartoon Network/Adult Swim, Boomerang, TruTV, Turner Classic Movies, and CNN en Español as the contract to carry those channels expired on October 20. TBS and TNT were not removed, as they are carried under a different contract. The channels were pulled without warning leaving many with questions. Dish[100][101] replaced CNN and HLN with MSNBC, replaced Cartoon Network and Boomerang with Nicktoons (except for the West Feed which was replaced by a message about the removal of the channels), replaced Turner Classic Movies with FXM, and replaced TruTV with Esquire Network during the duration of the dispute. The dispute was settled and the Turner Network Channels restored on November 21, 2014.

text: CBS[edit]

text: On Monday November 20, 2017 at 11:59 p.m. Eastern, Dish entered a dispute with CBS Corporation. Dish subscribers lost access to CBS Television Stations (which own and operate select CBS and The CW affiliates in New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Dallas, among 14 other markets) CBS Sports Network and Pop as the contract to carry those channels expired that day. Showtime, The Movie Channel, and Flix were not affected as the premium networks are carried in a different contract. Dish Network claimed in a statement the following day that "CBS chose to black out Dish customers' access to its channels in an effort to raise rates and gain negotiating leverage." However, CBS rebutted those claims on Wednesday November 22, saying that Dish Network is "desperate to retain subscribers" and "clearly, pulling content providers off the air is Dish's way of doing things."[102] Customers in the Los Angeles and Dallas markets were unable to watch the Thanksgiving Day football game between the Los Angeles Chargers and the Dallas Cowboys unless they watched it over-the-air via a DTV antenna. The TV stations and cable channels were restored on November 24, 2017 after a new agreement was reached.

text: This wasn't Dish Network's first blackout with CBS. Back in March 2004, Dish briefly removed all of the original Viacom assets (including CBS and UPN O&O TV affiliates before its 2005 split into CBS Corporation) before reaching a new longterm agreement to restore those services.[103]


document_title: Leatherback sea turtle

question_text: how big is a baby leatherback sea turtle

text: Leatherback sea turtle

text: Taxonomy and evolution[edit]

text: Taxonomy[edit]

text: Dermochelys coriacea is the only species in genus Dermochelys. The genus, in turn, contains the only extant member of the family Dermochelyidae.[6]

text: Domenico Agostino Vandelli named the species first in 1761 as Testudo coriacea after an animal captured at Ostia and donated to the University of Padua by Pope Clement XIII.[7] In 1816, French zoologist Henri Blainville coined the term Dermochelys. The leatherback was then reclassified as Dermochelys coriacea.[8] In 1843, the zoologist Leopold Fitzinger put the genus in its own family, Dermochelyidae.[9] In 1884, the American naturalist Samuel Garman described the species as Sphargis coriacea schlegelii.[10] The two were then united in D. coriacea, with each given subspecies status as D. c. coriacea and D. c. schlegelii. The subspecies were later labeled invalid synonyms of D. coriacea.[11][12]

text: The turtle's common name comes from the leathery texture and appearance of its carapace. Older names include "leathery turtle"[5] and "trunk turtle".[13] The common names incorporating "lute" and "luth" compare the seven ridges that run the length of the animal's back to the seven strings on the musical instrument of the same name. In Roman mythology, the instrument was played by Mercury, the messenger of the gods.[14]

text: Evolution[edit]

text: Relatives of modern leatherback turtles have existed in some form since the first true sea turtles evolved over 110 million years ago during the Cretaceous period. The dermochelyids are relatives of the family Cheloniidae, which contains the other six extant sea turtle species. However, their sister taxon is the extinct family Protostegidae that included other species that did not have a hard carapace.[15][16]

text: Anatomy and physiology[edit]

text: Leatherback turtles have the most hydrodynamic body design of any sea turtle, with a large, teardrop-shaped body. A large pair of front flippers powers the turtles through the water. Like other sea turtles, the leatherback has flattened fore limbs adapted for swimming in the open ocean. Claws are absent from both pairs of flippers. The leatherback's flippers are the largest in proportion to its body among extant sea turtles. Leatherback's front flippers can grow up to 2.7 m (8.9 ft) in large specimens, the largest flippers (even in comparison to its body) of any sea turtle.

text: The leatherback has several characteristics that distinguish it from other sea turtles. Its most notable feature is the lack of a bony carapace. Instead of scutes, it has thick, leathery skin with embedded minuscule osteoderms. Seven distinct ridges rise from the carapace, crossing from the cranial to caudal margin of the turtle's back. Leatherbacks are unique among reptiles in that their scales lack β-keratin. The entire turtle's dorsal surface is colored dark grey to black, with a scattering of white blotches and spots. Demonstrating countershading, the turtle's underside is lightly colored.[17][18] Instead of teeth, the leatherback turtle has points on the tomium of its upper lip, with backwards spines in its throat (oesophagus) to help it swallow food and to stop its prey from escaping once caught.

text: D. coriacea adults average 1–1.75 m (3.3–5.7 ft) in curved carapace length (CCL), 1.83–2.2 m (6.0–7.2 ft) in total length, and 250 to 700 kg (550 to 1,540 lb) in weight.[17][19] In the Caribbean, the mean size of adults was reported at 384 kg (847 lb) in weight and 1.55 m (5.1 ft) in CCL.[20] Similarly, those nesting in French Guiana, weighed an average of 339.3 kg (748 lb) and measured 1.54 m (5.1 ft) in CCL.[21][22] The largest verified specimen ever found was discovered in the Pakistani beach of Sanspit and measured 213 cm (6.99 ft) in CCL and 650 kg (1,433 lb) in weight.[23] A previous contender, the "Harlech turtle", was purportedly 256.5 cm (8.42 ft) in CCL and 916 kg (2,019 lb) in weight,[24][25] however recent inspection of its remains housed at the National Museum Cardiff have found that its true CCL is closer to 1.5 m (4.9 ft), casting doubt on the accuracy of the claimed weight, as well.[23] On the other hand, one scientific paper has claimed that the species can weigh up to 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) without providing more verifiable detail.[26] The leatherback turtle is scarcely larger than any other sea turtle upon hatching, as they average 61.3 mm (2.41 in) in carapace length and weigh around 46 g (1.6 oz) when freshly hatched.[20]

text: D. coriacea exhibits several anatomical characteristics believed to be associated with a life in cold waters, including an extensive covering of brown adipose tissue,[27] temperature-independent swimming muscles,[28] countercurrent heat exchangers between the large front flippers and the core body, and an extensive network of countercurrent heat exchangers surrounding the trachea.[29]

text: Physiology[edit]

text: Leatherbacks have been viewed as unique among extant reptiles for their ability to maintain high body temperatures using metabolically generated heat, or endothermy. Initial studies on their metabolic rates found leatherbacks had resting metabolisms around three times higher than expected for reptiles of their size.[30] However, recent studies using reptile representatives encompassing all the size ranges leatherbacks pass through during ontogeny discovered the resting metabolic rate of a large D. coriacea is not significantly different from predicted results based on allometry.[31]

text: Rather than using a high resting metabolism, leatherbacks appear to take advantage of a high activity rate. Studies on wild D. coriacea discovered individuals may spend as little as 0.1% of the day resting.[32] This constant swimming creates muscle-derived heat. Coupled with their countercurrent heat exchangers, insulating fat covering, and large size, leatherbacks are able to maintain high temperature differentials compared to the surrounding water. Adult leatherbacks have been found with core body temperatures that were 18 °C (32 °F) above the water in which they were swimming.[33]

text: Leatherback turtles are one of the deepest-diving marine animals. Individuals have been recorded diving to depths as great as 1,280 m (4,200 ft).[34][35] Typical dive durations are between 3 and 8 minutes, with dives of 30–70 minutes occurring infrequently.[36]

text: They are also the fastest-moving reptiles. The 1992 edition of the Guinness Book of World Records lists the leatherback turtle moving at 35.28 km/h (21.92 mph) in the water.[37][38] More typically, they swim at 1.80–10.08 km/h (1.12–6.26 mph).[32]

text: Distribution[edit]

text: The leatherback turtle is a species with a cosmopolitan global range. Of all the extant sea turtle species, D. coriacea has the widest distribution, reaching as far north as Alaska and Norway and as far south as Cape Agulhas in Africa and the southernmost tip of New Zealand.[17] The leatherback is found in all tropical and subtropical oceans, and its range extends well into the Arctic Circle.[39]

text: The three major, genetically distinct populations occur in the Atlantic, eastern Pacific, and western Pacific Oceans.[4][40] While nesting beaches have been identified in the region, leatherback populations in the Indian Ocean remain generally unassessed and unevaluated.[41]

text: Recent estimates of global nesting populations are that 26,000 to 43,000 females nest annually, which is a dramatic decline from the 115,000 estimated in 1980.[42]

text: Atlantic subpopulation[edit]

text: The leatherback turtle population in the Atlantic Ocean ranges across the entire region. They range as far north as the North Sea and to the Cape of Good Hope in the south. Unlike other sea turtles, leatherback feeding areas are in colder waters, where an abundance of their jellyfish prey is found, which broadens their range. However, only a few beaches on both sides of the Atlantic provide nesting sites.[43]

text: Off the Atlantic coast of Canada, leatherback turtles feed in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence near Quebec and as far north as Newfoundland and Labrador.[44] The most significant Atlantic nesting sites are in Suriname, Guyana, French Guiana in South America, Antigua and Barbuda, and Trinidad and Tobago in the Caribbean, and Gabon in Central Africa. The beaches of Mayumba National Park in Mayumba, Gabon, host the largest nesting population on the African continent and possibly worldwide, with nearly 30,000 turtles visiting its beaches each year between October and April.[40][45][45] Off the northeastern coast of the South American continent, a few select beaches between French Guiana and Suriname are primary nesting sites of several species of sea turtles, the majority being leatherbacks.[21] A few hundred nest annually on the eastern coast of Florida.[5] In Costa Rica, the beaches of Gandoca and Parismina provide nesting grounds.[41][46]

text: Pacific subpopulation[edit]

text: Pacific leatherbacks divide into two populations. One population nests on beaches in Papua, Indonesia, and the Solomon Islands, and forages across the Pacific in the Northern Hemisphere, along the coasts of California, Oregon, and Washington in North America. The eastern Pacific population forages in the Southern Hemisphere, in waters along the western coast of South America, nesting in Mexico, Panama, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica.[40][47]

text: The continental United States offers two major Pacific leatherback feeding areas. One well-studied area is just off the northwestern coast near the mouth of the Columbia River. The other American area is located in California.[47] Further north, off the Pacific coast of Canada, leatherbacks visit the beaches of British Columbia.[44]

text: Estimates by the WWF suggest only 2,300 adult females of the Pacific leatherback remain, making it the most endangered marine turtle subpopulation.[48]

text: South China Sea subpopulation[edit]

text: A third possible Pacific subpopulation has been proposed, those that nest in Malaysia. This subpopulation, however, has effectively been eradicated. The beach of Rantau Abang in Terengganu, Malaysia, once had the largest nesting population in the world, hosting 10,000 nests per year. The major cause for the decline was egg consumption by humans. Conservation efforts initiated in the 1960s were ineffective because they involved excavating and incubating eggs at artificial sites which inadvertently exposed the eggs to high temperatures. It only became known in the 1980s that sea turtles undergo temperature-dependent sex determination; it is suspected that nearly all the artificially incubated hatchlings were female.[49] In 2008, two turtles nested at Rantau Abang, and unfortunately the eggs were infertile.

text: Indian Ocean subpopulation[edit]

text: While little research has been done on Dermochelys populations in the Indian Ocean, nesting populations are known from Sri Lanka and the Nicobar Islands. These turtles are proposed to form a separate, genetically distinct Indian Ocean subpopulation.[41]

text: Ecology and life history[edit]

text: Habitat[edit]

text: Leatherback turtles can be found primarily in the open ocean. Scientists tracked a leatherback turtle that swam from Jen Womom beach of Tambrauw regency in West Papua province of Indonesia to the U.S. in a 20,000 km (12,000 mi) foraging journey over a period of 647 days.[17][50] Leatherbacks follow their jellyfish prey throughout the day, resulting in turtles "preferring" deeper water in the daytime, and shallower water at night (when the jellyfish rise up the water column).[32] This hunting strategy often places turtles in very frigid waters. One individual was found actively hunting in waters that had a surface temperature of 0.4 °C. (32.72 °F).[51] Leatherback turtles are known to pursue prey deeper than 1000 m—beyond the physiological limits of all other diving tetrapods except for beaked whales and sperm whales.[52]

text: Their favored breeding beaches are mainland sites facing deep water, and they seem to avoid those sites protected by coral reefs.[53]

text: Feeding[edit]

text: Adult D. coriacea turtles subsist almost entirely on jellyfish.[17] Due to their obligate feeding nature, leatherbacks help control jellyfish populations.[4] Leatherbacks also feed on other soft-bodied organisms, such as tunicates and cephalopods.[54]

text: Pacific leatherbacks migrate about 6,000 mi (9,700 km) across the Pacific from their nesting sites in Indonesia to eat California jellyfish. One cause for their endangered state is plastic bags floating in the ocean. Pacific leatherback sea turtles mistake these plastic bags for jellyfish; an estimated one-third of adults have ingested plastic.[55] Plastic enters the oceans along the west coast of urban areas, where leatherbacks forage, with Californians using upward of 19 billion plastic bags every year.[56]

text: Several species of sea turtles commonly ingest plastic marine debris, and even small quantities of debris can kill sea turtles by obstructing their digestive tracts.[57] Nutrient dilution, which occurs when plastics displace food in the gut, affects the nutrient gain and consequently the growth of sea turtles.[58] Ingestion of marine debris and slowed nutrient gain leads to increased time for sexual maturation that may affect future reproductive behaviors.[59] These turtles have the highest risk of encountering and ingesting plastic bags offshore of San Francisco Bay, the Columbia River mouth, and Puget Sound.

text: Lifespan[edit]

text: Very little is known of the species' lifespan. Some reports claim "30 years or more",[60] while others state "50 years or more".[61] Upper estimates exceed 100 years.[62]

text: Death and decomposition[edit]

text: Dead leatherbacks that wash ashore are microecosystems while decomposing. In 1996, a drowned carcass held sarcophagid and calliphorid flies after being picked open by a pair of Coragyps atratus vultures. Infestation by carrion-eating beetles of the families Scarabaeidae, Carabidae, and Tenebrionidae soon followed. After days of decomposition, beetles from the families Histeridae and Staphylinidae and anthomyiid flies invaded the corpse, as well. Organisms from more than a dozen families took part in consuming the carcass.[63]

text: Life history[edit]

text: Predation[edit]

text: Leatherback turtles face many predators in their early lives. Eggs may be preyed on by a diversity of coastal predators, including ghost crabs, monitor lizards, raccoons, coatis, dogs, coyotes, genets, mongooses, and shorebirds ranging from small plovers to large gulls. Many of the same predators feed on baby turtles as they try to get to the ocean, as well as frigatebirds and varied raptors. Once in the ocean, young leatherbacks still face predation from cephalopods, requiem sharks, and various large fish. Despite their lack of a hard shell, the huge adults face fewer serious predators, though they are occasionally overwhelmed and preyed on by very large marine predators such as killer whales, great white sharks, and tiger sharks. Nesting females have been preyed upon by jaguars in the American tropics.[64][65][66]

text: Apparently, the adult leatherback aggressively defends itself at sea from predators. A medium-sized adult was observed chasing a shark that had attempted to bite it and then turned its aggression and attacked the boat containing the humans observing the prior interaction.[67] Dermochelys juveniles spend more of their time in tropical waters than do adults.[54]

text: Adults are prone to long-distance migration. Migration occurs between the cold waters where mature leatherbacks feed, to the tropical and subtropical beaches in the regions where they hatch. In the Atlantic, females tagged in French Guiana have been recaptured on the other side of the ocean in Morocco and Spain.[21]

text: Mating[edit]

text: Mating takes place at sea. Males never leave the water once they enter it, unlike females, which nest on land. After encountering a female (which possibly exudes a pheromone to signal her reproductive status), the male uses head movements, nuzzling, biting, or flipper movements to determine her receptiveness. Males can mate every year but the females mate every two to three years. Fertilization is internal, and multiple males usually mate with a single female. This polyandry does not provide the offspring with any special advantages.[68]

text: Offspring[edit]

text: While other sea turtle species almost always return to their hatching beach, leatherbacks may choose another beach within the region. They choose beaches with soft sand because their softer shells and plastrons are easily damaged by hard rocks. Nesting beaches also have shallower approach angles from the sea. This is a vulnerability for the turtles because such beaches easily erode. They nest at night when the risk of predation and heat stress is lowest. As leatherback turtles spend the vast majority of their lives in the ocean, their eyes are not well adapted to night vision on land. The typical nesting environment includes a dark forested area adjacent to the beach. The contrast between this dark forest and the brighter, moonlit ocean provides directionality for the females. They nest towards the dark and then return to the ocean and the light.

text: Females excavate a nest above the high-tide line with their flippers. One female may lay as many as nine clutches in one breeding season. About nine days pass between nesting events. Average clutch size is around 110 eggs, 85% of which are viable.[17] After laying, the female carefully back-fills the nest, disguising it from predators with a scattering of sand.[54][69]

text:
The female back-fills the nest

Problems playing this file? See media help.

text: Development of offspring[edit]

text: Cleavage of the cell begins within hours of fertilization, but development is suspended during the gastrulation period of movements and infoldings of embryonic cells, while the eggs are being laid. Development then resumes, but embryos remain extremely susceptible to movement-induced mortality until the membranes fully develop after incubating for 20 to 25 days. The structural differentiation of body and organs (organogenesis) soon follows. The eggs hatch in about 60 to 70 days. As with other reptiles, the nest's ambient temperature determines the sex of the hatchings. After nightfall, the hatchings dig to the surface and walk to the sea.[70][71]

text: Leatherback nesting seasons vary by location; it occurs from February to July in Parismina, Costa Rica. Farther east in French Guiana, nesting is from March to August. Atlantic leatherbacks nest between February and July from South Carolina in the United States to the United States Virgin Islands in the Caribbean and to Suriname and Guyana.[72]

text: Importance to humans[edit]

text: People around the world still harvest sea turtle eggs. Asian exploitation of turtle nests has been cited as the most significant factor for the species' global population decline. In Southeast Asia, egg harvesting in countries such as Thailand and Malaysia has led to a near-total collapse of local nesting populations.[73] In Malaysia, where the turtle is practically locally extinct, the eggs are considered a delicacy.[74] In the Caribbean, some cultures consider the eggs to be aphrodisiacs.[73]

text: They are also a major jellyfish predator,[75][76] which helps keep populations in check. This bears importance to humans, as jellyfish diets consist largely of larval fish, the adults of which are commercially fished by humans.[77]

text: Cultural significance[edit]

text: The turtle is known to be of cultural significance to tribes all over the world. The Seri people, from the Mexican state of Sonora, find the leatherback sea turtle of significant cultural significance because it is one of their five main creators. The Seri people devote ceremonies and fiestas to the turtle when one is caught and then released back into the environment.[78] The Seri people have noticed the drastic decline in turtle populations over the years and created a conservation movement to help this. The group, made up of both youth and elders from the tribe, is called Grupo Tortuguero Comaac. They use both traditional ecological knowledge and Western technology to help manage the turtle populations and protect the turtle’s natural environment.[79]

text: Conservation[edit]

text: Leatherback turtles have few natural predators once they mature; they are most vulnerable to predation in their early life stages. Birds, small mammals, and other opportunists dig up the nests of turtles and consume eggs. Shorebirds and crustaceans prey on the hatchings scrambling for the sea. Once they enter the water, they become prey to predatory fish and cephalopods.

text: Leatherbacks have slightly fewer human-related threats than other sea turtle species. Their flesh contains too much oil and fat to be considered palatable, reducing the demand. However, human activity still endangers leatherback turtles in direct and indirect ways. Directly, a few are caught for their meat by subsistence fisheries. Nests are raided by humans in places such as Southeast Asia.[73]

text: Many human activities indirectly harm Dermochelys populations. As a pelagic species, D. coriacea is occasionally caught as bycatch. Entanglement in lobster pot ropes is another hazard the animals face.[80] As the largest living sea turtles, turtle excluder devices can be ineffective with mature adults. In the eastern Pacific alone, a reported average of 1,500 mature females were accidentally caught annually in the 1990s.[73] Pollution, both chemical and physical, can also be fatal. Many turtles die from malabsorption and intestinal blockage following the ingestion of balloons and plastic bags which resemble their jellyfish prey.[17] Chemical pollution also has an adverse effect on Dermochelys. A high level of phthalates has been measured in their eggs' yolks.[73]

text: Global initiatives[edit]

text: D. coriacea is listed on CITES Appendix I, which makes export/import of this species (including parts) illegal.

text: The species is listed in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species as VU (Vulnerable),[1] and additionally with the following infraspecific taxa assessments:

text:
East Pacific Ocean subpopulation: CR (Critically Endangered)[81]
Northeast Indian Ocean subpopulation: DD (Data Deficient)[82]
Northwest Atlantic Ocean subpopulation: LC (Least Concern)[83]
Southeast Atlantic Ocean subpopulation: DD (Data Deficient)[84]
Southwest Atlantic Ocean subpopulation CR (Critically Endangered)[85]
Southwest Indian Ocean subpopulation CR (Critically Endangered)[86]
West Pacific Ocean subpopulation CR (Critically Endangered)[87]

tag: ul

text: Conserving Pacific and Eastern Atlantic populations was included among the top-ten issues in turtle conservation in the first State of the World's Sea Turtles report published in 2006. The report noted significant declines in the Mexican, Costa Rican, and Malaysian populations. The eastern Atlantic nesting population was threatened by increased fishing pressures from eastern South American countries.[88]

text: The Leatherback Trust was founded specifically to conserve sea turtles, specifically its namesake. The foundation established a sanctuary in Costa Rica, the Parque Marino Las Baulas.[89]

text: National and local initiatives[edit]

text: The leatherback sea turtle is subject to differing conservation laws in various countries.

text: The United States listed it as an endangered species on 2 June 1970. The passing of the Endangered Species Act of 1973 ratified its status.[90] In 2012, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration designated 41,914 square miles of Pacific Ocean along California, Oregon, and Washington as "critical habitat".[91] In Canada, the Species at Risk Act made it illegal to exploit the species in Canadian waters. The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada classified it as endangered.[44] Ireland and Wales initiated a joint leatherback conservation effort between Swansea University and University College Cork. Funded by the European Regional Development Fund, the Irish Sea Leatherback Turtle Project focuses on research such as tagging and satellite tracking of individuals.[92]

text: Earthwatch Institute, a global nonprofit that teams volunteers with scientists to conduct important environmental research, launched a program called "Trinidad's Leatherback Sea Turtles". This program strives to help save the world's largest turtle from extinction in Matura Beach, Trinidad, as volunteers work side-by-side with leading scientists and a local conservation group, Nature Seekers. This tropical island off the coast of Venezuela is known for its vibrant ethnic diversity and rich cultural events. It is also the site of one of the most important nesting beaches for endangered leatherback turtles, enormous reptiles that can weigh a ton and dive deeper than many whales. Each year, more than 2,000 female leatherbacks haul themselves onto Matura Beach to lay their eggs. With leatherback populations declining more quickly than any other large animal in modern history, each turtle is precious. On this research project, Dr. Dennis Sammy of Nature Seekers and Dr. Scott Eckert of Wider Caribbean Sea Turtle Conservation Network work alongside a team of volunteers to help prevent extinction of leatherback sea turtles.[93]

text: Several Caribbean countries started conservation programs, such as the St. Kitts Sea Turtle Monitoring Network, focused on using ecotourism to highlight the leatherback's plight. On the Atlantic coast of Costa Rica, the village of Parismina has one such initiative. Parismina is an isolated sandbar where a large number of leatherbacks lay eggs, but poachers abound. Since 1998, the village has been assisting turtles with a hatchery program. The Parismina Social Club is a charitable organization backed by American tourists and expatriates, which collects donations to fund beach patrols.[94][95] Mayumba National Park in Gabon, Central Africa, was created to protect Africa's most important nesting beach. More than 30,000 turtles nest on Mayumba's beaches between September and April each year.[45]

text: In mid-2007, the Malaysian Fisheries Department revealed a plan to clone leatherback turtles to replenish the country's rapidly declining population. Some conservation biologists, however, are skeptical of the proposed plan because cloning has only succeeded on mammals such as dogs, sheep, cats, and cattle, and uncertainties persist about cloned animals' health and lifespans.[96] Leatherbacks used to nest in the thousands on Malaysian beaches, including those at Terengganu, where more than 3,000 females nested in the late 1960s.[97] The last official count of nesting leatherback females on that beach was recorded to be a mere two females in 1993.[40]

text: In Brazil, reproduction of the leatherback turtle is being assisted by the Brazilian Institute of Environment and Renewable Natural Resources' projeto TAMAR (TAMAR project), which works to protect nests and prevent accidental kills by fishing boats. The last official count of nesting leatherback females in Brazil yielded only seven females.[98] In January 2010, one female at Pontal do Paraná laid hundreds of eggs. Since leatherback sea turtles had been reported to nest only at Espírito Santo's shore, but never in the state of Paraná, this unusual act brought much attention to the area, biologists have been protecting the nests and checking their eggs' temperature, although it might be that none of the eggs is fertile.[99][needs update]

text: Australia's Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 lists D. coriacea as vulnerable, while Queensland's Nature Conservation Act 1992 lists it as endangered.


document_title: Edition (book)

question_text: where do you find the edition of a book

question_tokens: where do you find the edition of a book

text: Edition (book)

text: First edition[edit]

text: According to the definition of edition above, a book printed today, by the same publisher, and from the same type as when it was first published, is still the first edition of that book to a bibliographer. However, book collectors generally use the term first edition to mean specifically the first print run of the first edition (aka "first edition, first impression"). Since World War II, books often include a number line (printer's key) that indicates the print run.

text: A "first edition" per se is not a valuable collectible book. A popular work may be published and reprinted over time by many publishers, and in a variety of formats. There will be a first edition of each, which the publisher may cite on the copyright page, such as: "First mass market paperback edition". The first edition of a facsimile reprint is the reprint publisher's first edition, but not the first edition of the work itself.

text: The Independent Online Booksellers Association has a A First Edition Primer which discusses several aspects of identifying first editions including publishing and specific publishers way of designating first editions.

text: Bibliographical definition[edit]

text: The classic explanation of edition was given by Fredson Bowers in Principles of Bibliographical Description (1949). Bowers wrote that an edition is “the whole number of copies printed at any time or times from substantially the same setting of type-pages,” including “all issues and variant states existing within its basic type-setting, as well as all impressions.”

text: Publishers often use the same typesetting for the hardcover and trade paperback versions of a book. These books have different covers, the title page and copyright page may differ, and the page margin sizes may differ (same type area, smaller trim), but to a bibliographer they are the same edition.

text: From time to time, readers may observe an error in the text (or, in the days of metal type, a piece of broken type), and report these to the publisher. The publisher typically keeps these "reprint corrections" in a file pending demand for a new print run of the edition, and before the new run is printed, they will be entered.

text: The method of entry, obviously, depends on the method of typesetting. For letterpress metal, it typically meant resetting a few characters or a line or two. For linotype, it meant casting a new line for any line with a change in it. With film, it involved cutting out a bit of the film and inserting a new bit. In an electronic file, it means entering the changes digitally.

text: Such minor changes do not constitute a new edition, but introduce typographical variations within an edition, which are of interest to collectors.

text: Collectors' definition[edit]

text: A common complaint of book collectors is that the bibliographer's definition is used in a book-collecting context. For example, J. D. Salinger's The Catcher in the Rye as of 2016[update] remains in print in hardcover. The type is the same as the 1951 first printing, therefore all hardcover copies are, for the bibliographer, the first edition. Collectors would use the term for the first printing only.

text: First edition most often refers to the first commercial publication of a work between its own covers, even if it was first printed in a periodical: the complete text of Ernest Hemingway’s The Old Man and the Sea appeared in the September 1, 1952 issue of Life, yet the generally accepted “first” edition is the hardcover book Scribner’s published on September 8, 1952.

text: The term "first trade edition," refers to the earliest edition of a book offered for sale to the general public in book stores. For example, Upton Sinclair's 1906 novel The Jungle was published in two variant forms. A "Sustainers' Edition", published by the Jungle Publishing Company, was sent to subscribers who had advanced funds to Sinclair. The first trade edition was published by Doubleday, Page to be sold in bookstores.

text: Many book collectors place maximum value on the earliest bound copies of a book—promotional advance copies, bound galleys, uncorrected proofs, and advance reading copies sent by publishers to book reviewers and booksellers. It is true that these are rarer than the production copies; but given that these were not printed from a different setting of type (just the opposite; the main purpose of galleys and proofs is to double-check the typeset matter that will be used for production), they are not different editions.

text: Publishers' definition[edit]

text: Publishers use the term first edition for their own purposes, with little consistency. The "first edition" of a trade book may be the first edition by the current publisher, or the first edition with a particular set of illustrations or editorial commentary.

text: Non-fiction, academic and textbook publishers generally distinguish between revisions of the text, usually citing the dates of the first and latest editions on the copyright page. However, even this rule of thumb is sometimes bent. A new textbook with a different format, title, and authors may be called a "second edition" because a previous textbook is being counted as the first, despite being essentially a different book (sharing only the subject with the new one). This stretch of the definition is often done for its short-term marketing effect because although first editions are often considered more valuable than later editions to book collectors, a new textbook may seem more authoritative to the potential buyer if its cover or front matter implies that there have been "previous editions".

text: Other types of editions[edit]

text: Revised edition[edit]

text: The terms revised edition and nth edition, revised are sometimes used by publishers when the book has been editorially revised or updated but for some reason the author or publisher does not want to call it the n+1th edition (where n = previous edition number).

text: Conversely, they may decide to call a version that is really not very different a "new edition" (n+1th).

text: The qualitative difference, then, between a "revised edition" and a "new edition" is subjective. This is analogous to the way that software publishers may call one update "version 3.7" but call the next update "version 4" instead of "version 3.8". The difference is their subjective sense of the significance of the change—that is, whether the differences constitute something very different or merely slightly different. Sometimes the distinction has more to do with marketing than with sound reasoning (that is, encouraging buyers to think that something slightly different is very different).

text: Revised and updated edition[edit]

text: When a non-fiction book is first published it sometimes generates more research on the topic. The author may find that in the light of the new information the book needs to be revised and updated. The new edition will thus be different from the earlier one and will therefore be a new edition. The second edition may not necessarily be published by the same publisher as the original. Years may pass between the two editions.

text: Co-edition[edit]

text: The basic definition of a co-edition is when two publishing houses publish the same edition of a book (or equivalent versions of an edition, for example, translated versions), simultaneously or near-simultaneously, usually in different countries. English and American editions may differ in spelling, and they sometimes have different titles. Some examples:

text:
An English-language edition, from the same plates, films, or files, may be published in different anglophone countries by different publishing companies. For example, Arms & Armour Press in the UK and Stackpole Books in the U.S. published co-editions of various monographs on military matters.[1]
A French-language novel published in France this year by a French publisher could become an English-language translation published in the U.S. next year by a U.S. publisher.

text: The logic of co-editions has often been to use the existing distribution systems of the different publishers in each country rather than establishing new distribution systems.

text: Advancing IT and the globalization of publishing have been blurring the lines of what co-edition means. For example, anything published online is effectively published worldwide. Also, large multinational publishers now have existing distribution systems for their hardcopy books in many countries, so they don't need to partner with other companies. They may issue a book under a different imprint for each country, but the imprints are parts of the same parent corporation. The actual manufacturing of the books may be done in China regardless of where the copies will be sold.

text: e-dition[edit]

text: The term e-dition, a play on the e-for-electronic prefix, has been used by various publishers to refer to various ideas, which include:

text:
The hardcopy book's content posted online, fully searchable
Supplemental online-only content for buyers of the hardcopy book
Online-only publishing (no hardcopy distribution)
Proprietary-format digital publication (e-books) for use in specialized hardware for reading the book (e-book readers)

text: Library edition[edit]

text: A library edition may appear to be the same as copies appearing in shops and almost certainly uses the same setting. However, the binding and hinges are made extra strong to allow for the greater wear and tear in library books. This is analogous to the "police and taxi" packages for automobiles, in which heavier brakes and other upgrades are made to withstand harsher-than-standard use and longer duty cycles.

text: Book club edition[edit]

text: A popular book is sometimes re-issued under the imprint of a book club. Often it is a new setting and with cheaper paper and binding. Any photographic illustrations in the original are either absent or reduced in number. Book club editions are sold to members at a good discount compared with the original issue price.

text: Cheap edition[edit]

text: After a book has exhausted the market at the high original price a publisher may issue a cheap edition themselves or sell the rights on to another publisher who will produce the book. A cheap edition typically uses a low-cost paper and is a paperback but they can be hardback. Also typically the size of the font is reduced to fit more words on a page to reduce the overall cost of the book. Naturally, for a cheap edition the author will receive a lower royalty but that may be compensated for by a greater volume of sales.

text: Colonial edition[edit]

text: During the peak of the British Empire, cheap editions of novels published in Britain would often be produced for sale in the colonies before other editions of the books were sold. The rationale was that books took a long time to export to the colonies, that readership in those settlements was avid, and that books were an effective means to disseminate British values. Australia was by far the largest consumer of colonial editions. Macmillan (London) published the largest number of colonial edition titles. They began in 1843 and persisted (in terms of pricing and trade) until the 1970s.[2]

text: Cadet edition[edit]

text: A cadet edition is a cut down version of a book which is more simply written. It is intended for young readers rather than adults.

text: Large print edition[edit]

text: These editions are typically library editions but the font size of the text is much larger than usual so that persons with poor eyesight (often older persons) can more easily read the book. The large print books tend to be of a uniform size.

text: Critical edition[edit]

text: A critical edition is a scholarly publication, containing commentary, critique, and sometimes a full developmental history of the work from all available sources.

text: Print run[edit]

text: Each batch of copies printed is termed a print run, printing run, printing, impression, or press run. This is all of the copies produced by a single set-up of the production equipment. One edition can have any number of print runs (i.e., first edition, first impression; first edition, second impression; second edition, first impression, etc.). Poor-selling books may have only one. Very successful books may have 50 or more. If present, the printer's key on the copyright page of a book can be used to identify the printing. In printmaking, however, each individual copy of a print is described as an impression.

text: A publisher hopes to recoup a large amount of the book's initial costs from the sale of the book's first print run. A variety of commercial and logistic factors are thus considered in deciding the number of books in a print run, and their unit price.

text: Demand for additional print runs after the first is always hoped for, because they increase the book's overall profitability. Once the fixed costs of developing, editing, typesetting, etc., have been covered by the first sales revenue, any additional sales revenue tends to add to the profit margin (minus, of course, the costs of the additional materials, printing, binding, and distribution).

text: Sometimes a print run will be unsatisfactory for some reason, particularly with art and photography books where reproduction quality is paramount. It is usually destroyed by being pulped, but occasionally a defective print run may be shipped to a distant overseas market and sold there cheaply, depending on shipping costs.

text: If sales of the book do not meet expectations, the remaining stock of a print run will be remaindered. When a print run is sold out, the title is either reprinted or becomes out of print. Some print on demand and e-book publishers keep all their titles perpetually in print.

text: Seconds are imperfect or damaged copies which are set aside from a print run. These will usually have their dust jacket clipped or marked in some way.

text: From time to time, readers may observe an error in the text and report these to the publisher. The publisher typically keeps these reprint corrections in a file pending demand for a new print run of the edition, and before the new run is printed, they will be entered. This is one of the factors that puts the "substantially" into the definition of "substantially the same setting of type".

text: Republication[edit]

text: Many commercially successful books have been republished, either by their original imprints or by other imprints. This explains why if you look up a popular book title at a large bookseller such as Amazon or a large library catalog such as WorldCat, you often find an array of different copyright years, publishers, editions, formats (hardcover, softcover, trade, mass market), and so forth. The exact distinctions between "reprinting" and "republishing" and on whether a republishing is or is not a "different edition" are not policed by any universal authority, so the meaning of the terms used in any instance cannot be known at first glance.

text: Legal status[edit]

text: UK[edit]

text: Since 1956, typographical arrangements of published editions are protected by copyright law. Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 defines a published edition to mean a published edition of the whole or any part of one or more literary, dramatic or musical works.[3]

text: It thus protects the publisher's investment in typesetting, as well as the processes of design and selection that are reflected in the appearance of the text.[4] It also covers modern editions of public domain works (such as the complete works of Shakespeare), and prohibits the reproduction of the layout (but not the work itself).