document_title: Ceramic

question_text: what are the three types of ceramic construction

text: Ceramic

text: Types of ceramic material[edit]

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text: A ceramic material is an inorganic, non-metallic, often crystalline oxide, nitride or carbide material. Some elements, such as carbon or silicon, may be considered ceramics. Ceramic materials are brittle, hard, strong in compression, weak in shearing and tension. They withstand chemical erosion that occurs in other materials subjected to acidic or caustic environments. Ceramics generally can withstand very high temperatures, such as temperatures that range from 1,000 °C to 1,600 °C (1,800 °F to 3,000 °F). Glass is often not considered a ceramic because of its amorphous (noncrystalline) character. However, glassmaking involves several steps of the ceramic process and its mechanical properties are similar to ceramic materials.

text: Traditional ceramic raw materials include clay minerals such as kaolinite, whereas more recent materials include aluminium oxide, more commonly known as alumina. The modern ceramic materials, which are classified as advanced ceramics, include silicon carbide and tungsten carbide. Both are valued for their abrasion resistance, and hence find use in applications such as the wear plates of crushing equipment in mining operations. Advanced ceramics are also used in the medicine, electrical, electronics industries and body armor.

text: Crystalline ceramics[edit]

text: Crystalline ceramic materials are not amenable to a great range of processing. Methods for dealing with them tend to fall into one of two categories – either make the ceramic in the desired shape, by reaction in situ, or by "forming" powders into the desired shape, and then sintering to form a solid body. Ceramic forming techniques include shaping by hand (sometimes including a rotation process called "throwing"), slip casting, tape casting (used for making very thin ceramic capacitors, e.g.), injection molding, dry pressing, and other variations. Details of these processes are described in the two books listed below.[which?] A few methods use a hybrid between the two approaches.

text: Noncrystalline ceramics[edit]

text: Noncrystalline ceramics, being glass, tend to be formed from melts. The glass is shaped when either fully molten, by casting, or when in a state of toffee-like viscosity, by methods such as blowing into a mold. If later heat treatments cause this glass to become partly crystalline, the resulting material is known as a glass-ceramic, widely used as cook-top and also as a glass composite material for nuclear waste disposal.

text: Properties of ceramics[edit]

text: The physical properties of any ceramic substance are a direct result of its crystalline structure and chemical composition. Solid state chemistry reveals the fundamental connection between microstructure and properties such as localized density variations, grain size distribution, type of porosity and second-phase content, which can all be correlated with ceramic properties such as mechanical strength σ by the Hall-Petch equation, hardness, toughness, dielectric constant, and the optical properties exhibited by transparent materials.

text: Physical properties of chemical compounds which provide evidence of chemical composition include odor, colour, volume, density (mass / volume), melting point, boiling point, heat capacity, physical form at room temperature (solid, liquid or gas), hardness, porosity, and index of refraction.

text: Ceramography is the art and science of preparation, examination and evaluation of ceramic microstructures. Evaluation and characterization of ceramic microstructures is often implemented on similar spatial scales to that used commonly in the emerging field of nanotechnology: from tens of angstroms (A) to tens of micrometers (µm). This is typically somewhere between the minimum wavelength of visible light and the resolution limit of the naked eye.

text: The microstructure includes most grains, secondary phases, grain boundaries, pores, micro-cracks, structural defects and hardness microindentions. Most bulk mechanical, optical, thermal, electrical and magnetic properties are significantly affected by the observed microstructure. The fabrication method and process conditions are generally indicated by the microstructure. The root cause of many ceramic failures is evident in the cleaved and polished microstructure. Physical properties which constitute the field of materials science and engineering include the following:

text: Mechanical properties[edit]

text: Mechanical properties are important in structural and building materials as well as textile fabrics. They include many properties used to describe the strength of materials such as: elasticity / plasticity, tensile strength, compressive strength, shear strength, fracture toughness & ductility (low in brittle materials), and indentation hardness.

text: In modern materials science, fracture mechanics is an important tool in improving the mechanical performance of materials and components. It applies the physics of stress and strain, in particular the theories of elasticity and plasticity, to the microscopic crystallographic defects found in real materials in order to predict the macroscopic mechanical failure of bodies. Fractography is widely used with fracture mechanics to understand the causes of failures and also verify the theoretical failure predictions with real life failures.

text: Ceramic materials are usually ionic or covalent bonded materials, and can be crystalline or amorphous. A material held together by either type of bond will tend to fracture before any plastic deformation takes place, which results in poor toughness in these materials. Additionally, because these materials tend to be porous, the pores and other microscopic imperfections act as stress concentrators, decreasing the toughness further, and reducing the tensile strength. These combine to give catastrophic failures, as opposed to the normally much more gentle failure modes of metals.

text: These materials do show plastic deformation. However, due to the rigid structure of the crystalline materials, there are very few available slip systems for dislocations to move, and so they deform very slowly. With the non-crystalline (glassy) materials, viscous flow is the dominant source of plastic deformation, and is also very slow. It is therefore neglected in many applications of ceramic materials.

text: To overcome the brittle behaviour, ceramic material development has introduced the class of ceramic matrix composite materials, in which ceramic fibers are embedded and with specific coatings are forming fiber bridges across any crack. This mechanism substantially increases the fracture toughness of such ceramics. The ceramic disc brakes are, for example using a ceramic matrix composite material manufactured with a specific process.

text: Electrical properties[edit]

text: Semiconductors[edit]

text: Some ceramics are semiconductors. Most of these are transition metal oxides that are II-VI semiconductors, such as zinc oxide.

text: While there are prospects of mass-producing blue LEDs from zinc oxide, ceramicists are most interested in the electrical properties that show grain boundary effects.

text: One of the most widely used of these is the varistor. These are devices that exhibit the property that resistance drops sharply at a certain threshold voltage. Once the voltage across the device reaches the threshold, there is a breakdown of the electrical structure in the vicinity of the grain boundaries, which results in its electrical resistance dropping from several megohms down to a few hundred ohms. The major advantage of these is that they can dissipate a lot of energy, and they self-reset – after the voltage across the device drops below the threshold, its resistance returns to being high.

text: This makes them ideal for surge-protection applications; as there is control over the threshold voltage and energy tolerance, they find use in all sorts of applications. The best demonstration of their ability can be found in electrical substations, where they are employed to protect the infrastructure from lightning strikes. They have rapid response, are low maintenance, and do not appreciably degrade from use, making them virtually ideal devices for this application.

text: Semiconducting ceramics are also employed as gas sensors. When various gases are passed over a polycrystalline ceramic, its electrical resistance changes. With tuning to the possible gas mixtures, very inexpensive devices can be produced.

text: Superconductivity[edit]

text: Under some conditions, such as extremely low temperature, some ceramics exhibit high-temperature superconductivity. The exact reason for this is not known, but there are two major families of superconducting ceramics.

text: Ferroelectricity and supersets[edit]

text: Piezoelectricity, a link between electrical and mechanical response, is exhibited by a large number of ceramic materials, including the quartz used to measure time in watches and other electronics. Such devices use both properties of piezoelectrics, using electricity to produce a mechanical motion (powering the device) and then using this mechanical motion to produce electricity (generating a signal). The unit of time measured is the natural interval required for electricity to be converted into mechanical energy and back again.

text: The piezoelectric effect is generally stronger in materials that also exhibit pyroelectricity, and all pyroelectric materials are also piezoelectric. These materials can be used to inter convert between thermal, mechanical, or electrical energy; for instance, after synthesis in a furnace, a pyroelectric crystal allowed to cool under no applied stress generally builds up a static charge of thousands of volts. Such materials are used in motion sensors, where the tiny rise in temperature from a warm body entering the room is enough to produce a measurable voltage in the crystal.

text: In turn, pyroelectricity is seen most strongly in materials which also display the ferroelectric effect, in which a stable electric dipole can be oriented or reversed by applying an electrostatic field.  Pyroelectricity is also a necessary consequence of ferroelectricity. This can be used to store information in ferroelectric capacitors, elements of ferroelectric RAM.

text: The most common such materials are lead zirconate titanate and barium titanate. Aside from the uses mentioned above, their strong piezoelectric response is exploited in the design of high-frequency loudspeakers, transducers for sonar, and actuators for atomic force and scanning tunneling microscopes.

text: Positive thermal coefficient[edit]

text: Increases in temperature can cause grain boundaries to suddenly become insulating in some semiconducting ceramic materials, mostly mixtures of heavy metal titanates. The critical transition temperature can be adjusted over a wide range by variations in chemistry. In such materials, current will pass through the material until joule heating brings it to the transition temperature, at which point the circuit will be broken and current flow will cease. Such ceramics are used as self-controlled heating elements in, for example, the rear-window defrost circuits of automobiles.

text: At the transition temperature, the material's dielectric response becomes theoretically infinite. While a lack of temperature control would rule out any practical use of the material near its critical temperature, the dielectric effect remains exceptionally strong even at much higher temperatures. Titanates with critical temperatures far below room temperature have become synonymous with "ceramic" in the context of ceramic capacitors for just this reason.

text: Optical properties[edit]

text: Optically transparent materials focus on the response of a material to incoming lightwaves of a range of wavelengths. Frequency selective optical filters can be utilized to alter or enhance the brightness and contrast of a digital image. Guided lightwave transmission via frequency selective waveguides involves the emerging field of fiber optics and the ability of certain glassy compositions as a transmission medium for a range of frequencies simultaneously (multi-mode optical fiber) with little or no interference between competing wavelengths or frequencies. This resonant mode of energy and data transmission via electromagnetic (light) wave propagation, though low powered, is virtually lossless. Optical waveguides are used as components in Integrated optical circuits (e.g. light-emitting diodes, LEDs) or as the transmission medium in local and long haul optical communication systems. Also of value to the emerging materials scientist is the sensitivity of materials to radiation in the thermal infrared (IR) portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. This heat-seeking ability is responsible for such diverse optical phenomena as Night-vision and IR luminescence.

text: Thus, there is an increasing need in the military sector for high-strength, robust materials which have the capability to transmit light (electromagnetic waves) in the visible (0.4 – 0.7 micrometers) and mid-infrared (1 – 5 micrometers) regions of the spectrum. These materials are needed for applications requiring transparent armor, including next-generation high-speed missiles and pods, as well as protection against improvised explosive devices (IED).

text: In the 1960s, scientists at General Electric (GE) discovered that under the right manufacturing conditions, some ceramics, especially aluminium oxide (alumina), could be made translucent. These translucent materials were transparent enough to be used for containing the electrical plasma generated in high-pressure sodium street lamps. During the past two decades, additional types of transparent ceramics have been developed for applications such as nose cones for heat-seeking missiles, windows for fighter aircraft, and scintillation counters for computed tomography scanners.

text: In the early 1970s, Thomas Soules pioneered computer modeling of light transmission through translucent ceramic alumina. His model showed that microscopic pores in ceramic, mainly trapped at the junctions of microcrystalline grains, caused light to scatter and prevented true transparency. The volume fraction of these microscopic pores had to be less than 1% for high-quality optical transmission.

text: This is basically a particle size effect. Opacity results from the incoherent scattering of light at surfaces and interfaces. In addition to pores, most of the interfaces in a typical metal or ceramic object are in the form of grain boundaries which separate tiny regions of crystalline order. When the size of the scattering center (or grain boundary) is reduced below the size of the wavelength of the light being scattered, the scattering no longer occurs to any significant extent.

text: In the formation of polycrystalline materials (metals and ceramics) the size of the crystalline grains is determined largely by the size of the crystalline particles present in the raw material during formation (or pressing) of the object. Moreover, the size of the grain boundaries scales directly with particle size. Thus a reduction of the original particle size below the wavelength of visible light (~ 0.5 micrometers for shortwave violet) eliminates any light scattering, resulting in a transparent material.

text: Recently[when?], Japanese scientists have developed techniques to produce ceramic parts that rival the transparency of traditional crystals (grown from a single seed) and exceed the fracture toughness of a single crystal.[citation needed] In particular, scientists at the Japanese firm Konoshima Ltd., a producer of ceramic construction materials and industrial chemicals, have been looking for markets for their transparent ceramics.

text: Livermore researchers realized that these ceramics might greatly benefit high-powered lasers used in the National Ignition Facility (NIF) Programs Directorate. In particular, a Livermore research team began to acquire advanced transparent ceramics from Konoshima to determine if they could meet the optical requirements needed for Livermore’s Solid-State Heat Capacity Laser (SSHCL).[citation needed] Livermore researchers have also been testing applications of these materials for applications such as advanced drivers for laser-driven fusion power plants.

text: Examples[edit]

text: A composite material of ceramic and metal is known as cermet.

text: Other ceramic materials, generally requiring greater purity in their make-up than those above, include forms of several chemical compounds, including:

text:
Barium titanate (often mixed with strontium titanate) displays ferroelectricity, meaning that its mechanical, electrical, and thermal responses are coupled to one another and also history-dependent. It is widely used in electromechanical transducers, ceramic capacitors, and data storage elements. Grain boundary conditions can create PTC effects in heating elements.
Bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide, a high-temperature superconductor
Boron oxide is used in body armor.
Boron nitride is structurally isoelectronic to carbon and takes on similar physical forms: a graphite-like one used as a lubricant, and a diamond-like one used as an abrasive.
Earthenware used for domestic ware such as plates and mugs.
Ferrite is used in the magnetic cores of electrical transformers and magnetic core memory.
Lead zirconate titanate (PZT) was developed at the United States National Bureau of Standards in 1954. PZT is used as an ultrasonic transducer, as its piezoelectric properties greatly exceed those of Rochelle salt.[8]
Magnesium diboride (MgB2) is an unconventional superconductor.
Porcelain is used for a wide range of household and industrial products.
Sialon (Silicon Aluminium Oxynitride) has high strength; resistance to thermal shock, chemical and wear resistance, and low density. These ceramics are used in non-ferrous molten metal handling, weld pins and the chemical industry.
Silicon carbide (SiC) is used as a susceptor in microwave furnaces, a commonly used abrasive, and as a refractory material.
Silicon nitride (Si3N4) is used as an abrasive powder.
Steatite (magnesium silicates) is used as an electrical insulator.
Titanium carbide Used in space shuttle re-entry shields and scratchproof watches.
Uranium oxide (UO2), used as fuel in nuclear reactors.
Yttrium barium copper oxide (YBa2Cu3O7−x), another high temperature superconductor.
Zinc oxide (ZnO), which is a semiconductor, and used in the construction of varistors.
Zirconium dioxide (zirconia), which in pure form undergoes many phase changes between room temperature and practical sintering temperatures, can be chemically "stabilized" in several different forms. Its high oxygen ion conductivity recommends it for use in fuel cells and automotive oxygen sensors. In another variant, metastable structures can impart transformation toughening for mechanical applications; most ceramic knife blades are made of this material.
Partially stabilised zirconia (PSZ) is much less brittle than other ceramics and is used for metal forming tools, valves and liners, abrasive slurries, kitchen knives and bearings subject to severe abrasion.[9]

text: Ceramic products[edit]

text: By usage[edit]

text: For convenience, ceramic products are usually divided into four main types; these are shown below with some examples:

text:
Structural, including bricks, pipes, floor and roof tiles
Refractories, such as kiln linings, gas fire radiants, steel and glass making crucibles
Whitewares,  including tableware, cookware, wall tiles, pottery products and sanitary ware[10]
Technical, also known as engineering, advanced, special, and fine ceramics. Such items include:
gas burner nozzles
ballistic protection, vehicle armour
nuclear fuel uranium oxide pellets
biomedical implants
coatings of jet engine turbine blades
ceramic disk brake
missile nose cones
bearing (mechanical)
tiles used in the Space Shuttle program

text: Ceramics made with clay[edit]

text:
Frequently, the raw materials of modern ceramics do not include clays.[11]
Those that do are classified as follows:

text:
Earthenware, fired at lower temperatures than other types
Stoneware, vitreous or semi-vitreous
Porcelain, which contains a high content of kaolin
Bone china

text: Classification of ceramics[edit]

text: Ceramics can also be classified into three distinct material categories:

text:
Oxides: alumina, beryllia, ceria, zirconia
Nonoxides: carbide, boride, nitride, silicide
Composite materials: particulate reinforced, fiber reinforced, combinations of oxides and nonoxides.

text: Each one of these classes can develop unique material properties because ceramics tend to be crystalline.

text: Applications[edit]

text:
Knife blades: the blade of a ceramic knife will stay sharp for much longer than that of a steel knife, although it is more brittle and can snap.
Carbon-ceramic brake disks for vehicles are resistant to brake fade at high temperatures.
Advanced composite ceramic and metal matrices have been designed for most modern armoured fighting vehicles because they offer superior penetrating resistance against shaped charges (such as HEAT rounds) and kinetic energy penetrators.
Ceramics such as alumina and boron carbide have been used in ballistic armored vests to repel high-velocity rifle fire. Such plates are known commonly as small arms protective inserts, or SAPIs. Similar material is used to protect the cockpits of some military airplanes, because of the low weight of the material.
Ceramics can be used in place of steel for ball bearings. Their higher hardness means they are much less susceptible to wear and typically last for triple the lifetime of a steel part. They also deform less under load, meaning they have less contact with the bearing retainer walls and can roll faster. In very high speed applications, heat from friction during rolling can cause problems for metal bearings, which are reduced by the use of ceramics. Ceramics are also more chemically resistant and can be used in wet environments where steel bearings would rust. In some cases, their electricity-insulating properties may also be valuable in bearings. Two drawbacks to ceramic bearings are a significantly higher cost and susceptibility to damage under shock loads.
In the early 1980s, Toyota researched production of an adiabatic engine using ceramic components in the hot gas area. The ceramics would have allowed temperatures of over 3000 °F (1650 °C). The expected advantages would have been lighter materials and a smaller cooling system (or no need for one at all), leading to a major weight reduction. The expected increase of fuel efficiency of the engine (caused by the higher temperature, as shown by Carnot's theorem) could not be verified experimentally; it was found that the heat transfer on the hot ceramic cylinder walls was higher than the transfer to a cooler metal wall as the cooler gas film on the metal surface works as a thermal insulator. Thus, despite all of these desirable properties, such engines have not succeeded in production because of costs for the ceramic components and the limited advantages. (Small imperfections in the ceramic material with its low fracture toughness lead to cracks, which can lead to potentially dangerous equipment failure.) Such engines are possible in laboratory settings, but mass production is not feasible with current technology.[citation needed]
Work is being done in developing ceramic parts for gas turbine engines. Currently, even blades made of advanced metal alloys used in the engines' hot section require cooling and careful limiting of operating temperatures. Turbine engines made with ceramics could operate more efficiently, giving aircraft greater range and payload for a set amount of fuel.
Recent advances have been made in ceramics which include bioceramics, such as dental implants and synthetic bones. Hydroxyapatite, the natural mineral component of bone, has been made synthetically from a number of biological and chemical sources and can be formed into ceramic materials. Orthopedic implants coated with these materials bond readily to bone and other tissues in the body without rejection or inflammatory reactions so are of great interest for gene delivery and tissue engineering scaffolds. Most hydroxyapatite ceramics are very porous and lack mechanical strength, and are used to coat metal orthopedic devices to aid in forming a bond to bone or as bone fillers. They are also used as fillers for orthopedic plastic screws to aid in reducing the inflammation and increase absorption of these plastic materials. Work is being done to make strong, fully dense nanocrystalline hydroxyapatite ceramic materials for orthopedic weight bearing devices, replacing foreign metal and plastic orthopedic materials with a synthetic, but naturally occurring, bone mineral. Ultimately, these ceramic materials may be used as bone replacements or with the incorporation of protein collagens, synthetic bones.
Durable actinide-containing ceramic materials have many applications such as in nuclear fuels for burning excess Pu and in chemically-inert sources of alpha irradiation for power supply of unmanned space vehicles or to produce electricity for microelectronic devices. Both use and disposal of radioactive actinides require their immobilisation in a durable host material. Nuclear waste long-lived radionuclides such as actinides are immobilised using chemically-durable crystalline materials based on polycrystalline ceramics and large single crystals.[12]

text: High-tech ceramic is used in watchmaking for producing watch cases. The material is valued by watchmakers for its light weight, scratch resistance, durability and smooth touch. IWC is one of the brands that initiated the use of ceramic in watchmaking.[13]

text: Ceramics in archaeology[edit]

text: Ceramic artifacts have an important role in archaeology for understanding the culture, technology and behavior of peoples of the past. They are among the most common artifacts to be found at an archaeological site, generally in the form of small fragments of broken pottery called sherds. Processing of collected sherds can be consistent with two main types of analysis: technical and traditional.

text: Traditional analysis involves sorting ceramic artifacts, sherds and larger fragments into specific types based on style, composition, manufacturing and morphology. By creating these typologies it is possible to distinguish between different cultural styles, the purpose of the ceramic and technological state of the people among other conclusions. In addition, by looking at stylistic changes of ceramics over time is it possible to separate (seriate) the ceramics into distinct diagnostic groups (assemblages). A comparison of ceramic artifacts with known dated assemblages allows for a chronological assignment of these pieces.[14]

text: The technical approach to ceramic analysis involves a finer examination of the composition of ceramic artifacts and sherds to determine the source of the material and through this the possible manufacturing site. Key criteria are the composition of the clay and the temper used in the manufacture of the article under study: temper is a material added to the clay during the initial production stage, and it is used to aid the subsequent drying process. Types of temper include shell pieces, granite fragments and ground sherd pieces called 'grog'. Temper is usually identified by microscopic examination of the temper material. Clay identification is determined by a process of refiring the ceramic, and assigning a color to it using Munsell Soil Color notation. By estimating both the clay and temper compositions, and locating a region where both are known to occur, an assignment of the material source can be made. From the source assignment of the artifact further investigations can be made into the site of manufacture.


document_title: United States in World War I

question_text: when did the us get involved in world war 1

root

text: United States in World War I

text: Entry[edit]

text: The American entry into World War I came in April 1917, after more than two and a half years of efforts by President Woodrow Wilson to keep the United States out of the war. Apart from an Anglophile element urging early support for the British, American public opinion reflected that of the president: the sentiment for neutrality was particularly strong among Irish Americans, German Americans and Scandinavian Americans,[2] as well as among church leaders and among women in general. On the other hand, even before World War I had broken out, American opinion had been more negative toward Germany than towards any other country in Europe.[3] Over time, especially after reports of atrocities in Belgium in 1914 and following the sinking of the passenger liner RMS Lusitania in 1915, the American people increasingly came to see Germany as the aggressor in Europe.

tag: p

text: As U.S. President, it was Wilson who made the key policy decisions over foreign affairs: while the country was at peace, the domestic economy ran on a laissez-faire basis, with American banks making huge loans to Britain and France — funds that were in large part used to buy munitions, raw materials and food from across the Atlantic. Until 1917, Wilson made minimal preparations for a land war and kept the United States Army on a small peacetime footing, despite increasing demands for enhanced preparedness. He did however expand the United States Navy.

text: In 1917, with Russia experiencing political upheaval following widespread disillusionment there over the war, and with Britain and France low on credit, Germany appeared to have the upper hand in Europe,[4] while the Ottoman Empire clung to its possessions in the Middle East. In the same year, Germany decided to resume unrestricted submarine warfare against any vessel approaching British waters; this attempt to starve Britain into surrender was balanced against the knowledge that it would almost certainly bring the United States into the war. Germany also made a secret offer to help Mexico regain territories lost in the Mexican–American War in an encoded telegram known as the Zimmermann Telegram, which was intercepted by British Intelligence. Publication of that communique outraged Americans just as German U-boats started sinking American merchant ships in the North Atlantic. Wilson then asked Congress for "a war to end all wars" that would "make the world safe for democracy", and Congress voted to declare war on Germany on April 6, 1917.[5] On December 7, 1917, the U.S. declared war on Austria-Hungary.[6][7] U.S. troops began arriving on the Western Front in large numbers in 1918.

text: Neutrality[edit]

text: After the war began in 1914, the United States proclaimed a policy of neutrality despite president Woodrow Wilson's antipathies against Germany. Early in the war, the United States started to favor the British and their allies.[8] President Wilson aimed to broker a peace and sent his top aide, Colonel House, on repeated missions to the two sides, but each remained so confident of victory that they ignored peace proposals.

text: When the German U-boat U-20 sank the British liner Lusitania on 7 May 1915 with 128 US citizens aboard, Wilson said "America is too proud to fight" and demanded an end to attacks on passenger ships. Germany complied. Wilson repeatedly warned that the US would not tolerate unrestricted submarine warfare in violation of international law and of human rights.[citation needed] Wilson came under pressure from war hawks led by former president Theodore Roosevelt, who denounced German acts as "piracy",[9] and from British delegations under Cecil Spring Rice and Sir Edward Grey. Wilson realized he needed to enter the war in order to shape the peace; indeed in 1919 he was one of those who achieved the establishment of the League of Nations at the Paris Peace Conference.[10] Wilson's Secretary of State, William Jennings Bryan, whose pacifist goals Wilson ignored, resigned in frustration in June 1915. Public opinion reacted with outrage to suspected German sabotage of Black Tom in Jersey City, New Jersey on 30 July 1916, and to the Kingsland explosion on 11 January 1917 in present-day Lyndhurst, New Jersey.[11]

text: Public opinion[edit]

text: American public opinion was divided, with most Americans until early 1917 largely of the opinion that the United States should stay out of the war. Opinion changed gradually, partly in response to German actions in Belgium and the Lusitania, partly as German Americans lost influence, and partly in response to Wilson's position that America had to play a role to make the world safe for democracy.[12]

text: In the general public, there was little if any support for entering the war on the side of Germany. The great majority of German Americans, as well as Scandinavian Americans, wanted the United States to remain neutral; however, at the outbreak of war, thousands of US citizens had tried to enlist in the German army.[13][14] The Irish Catholic community, based in the large cities and often in control of the Democratic Party apparatus, was strongly hostile to helping Britain in any way, especially after the Easter uprising of 1916 in Ireland.[15] Most of the Protestant church leaders in the United States, regardless of their theology, favoured pacifistic solutions whereby the United States would broker a peace.[16] Most of the leaders of the women's movement, typified by Jane Addams, likewise sought pacifistic solutions.[17] The most prominent opponent of war was industrialist Henry Ford, who personally financed and led a peace ship to Europe to try to negotiate among the belligerents; no negotiations resulted.[18]

text: Britain had significant support among intellectuals, Yankees, and families with close ties to Britain.[19] The most prominent leader was Samuel Insull of Chicago, a leading industrialist who had emigrated from England. Insull funded many propaganda efforts, and financed young Americans who wished to fight by joining the Canadian military,[20] Canada at that time being a Dominion of the British Empire.[21]

text: Preparedness movement[edit]

text: By 1915, Americans were paying much more attention to the war. The sinking of the Lusitania aroused furious denunciations of German brutality.[citation needed] By 1915, in Eastern cities a new "Preparedness" movement emerged. It argued that the United States needed to build up immediately strong naval and land forces for defensive purposes; an unspoken assumption was that America would fight sooner or later. The driving forces behind Preparedness were all Republicans, notably General Leonard Wood, ex-president Theodore Roosevelt, and former secretaries of war Elihu Root and Henry Stimson; they enlisted many of the nation's most prominent bankers, industrialists, lawyers and scions of prominent families. Indeed, there emerged an "Atlanticist" foreign policy establishment, a group of influential Americans drawn primarily from upper-class lawyers, bankers, academics, and politicians of the Northeast, committed to a strand of Anglophile internationalism.[22]

text: The Preparedness movement had what political scientists call a "realism" philosophy of world affairs—they believed that economic strength and military muscle were more decisive than idealistic crusades focused on causes like democracy and national self-determination. Emphasizing over and over the weak state of national defences, they showed that the United States' 100,000-man Army, even augmented by the 112,000-strong National Guard, was outnumbered 20 to one by the German army; similarly in 1915, the armed forces of Great Britain and the British Empire, France, Russia, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Ottoman Empire, Italy, Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, Belgium, Japan and Greece were all larger and more experienced than the United States military.[23]

text: They called for UMT or "universal military service" under which the 600,000 men who turned 18 every year would be required to spend six months in military training, and then be assigned to reserve units. The small regular army would primarily be a training agency. Public opinion, however, was not willing to go that far.[24]

text: Both the regular army and the Preparedness leaders had a low opinion of the National Guard, which it saw as politicized, provincial, poorly armed, ill trained, too inclined to idealistic crusading (as against Spain in 1898), and too lacking in understanding of world affairs. The National Guard on the other hand was securely rooted in state and local politics, with representation from a very broad cross section of the US political economy. The Guard was one of the nation's few institutions that (in some northern states) accepted black men on an equal footing with white men.

text: Democrats respond[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: The Democratic party saw the Preparedness movement as a threat. Roosevelt, Root and Wood were prospective Republican presidential candidates. More subtly, the Democrats were rooted in localism that appreciated the National Guard, and the voters were hostile to the rich and powerful in the first place. Working with the Democrats who controlled Congress, Wilson was able to sidetrack the Preparedness forces. Army and Navy leaders were forced to testify before Congress to the effect that the nation's military was in excellent shape.

text: In reality, neither the US Army nor US Navy was in shape for war in terms of manpower, size, military hardware or experience. The Navy had fine ships but Wilson had been using them to threaten Mexico, and the fleet's readiness had suffered. The crews of the Texas and the New York, the two newest and largest battleships, had never fired a gun, and the morale of the sailors was low. The Army and Navy air forces were tiny in size. Despite the flood of new weapons systems unveiled in the war in Europe, the Army was paying scant attention. For example, it was making no studies of trench warfare, poison gas or tanks, and was unfamiliar with the rapid evolution of Aerial warfare. The Democrats in Congress tried to cut the military budget in 1915. The Preparedness movement effectively exploited the surge of outrage over the "Lusitania" in May 1915, forcing the Democrats to promise some improvements to the military and naval forces. Wilson, less fearful of the Navy, embraced a long-term building program designed to make the fleet the equal of the British Royal Navy by the mid-1920s, although this would not come to pass until after World War II.[25] "Realism" was at work here; the admirals were Mahanians and they therefore wanted a surface fleet of heavy battleships second to none—that is, equal to Great Britain. The facts of submarine warfare (which necessitated destroyers, not battleships) and the possibilities of imminent war with Germany (or with Britain, for that matter), were simply ignored.

text: Wilson's decision touched off a firestorm.[26] Secretary of War Lindley Garrison adopted many of the proposals of the Preparedness leaders, especially their emphasis on a large federal reserves and abandonment of the National Guard. Garrison's proposals not only outraged the provincial politicians of both parties, they also offended a strongly held belief shared by the liberal wing of the Progressive movement, that was, that warfare always had a hidden economic motivation. Specifically, they warned the chief warmongers were New York bankers (such as J. P. Morgan) with millions at risk, profiteering munition makers (such as Bethlehem Steel, which made armour, and DuPont, which made powder) and unspecified industrialists searching for global markets to control. Antiwar critics blasted them. These selfish special interests were too powerful, especially, Senator La Follette noted, in the conservative wing of the Republican Party. The only road to peace was disarmament in the eyes of many.

text: National debate[edit]

text: Garrison's plan unleashed the fiercest battle in peacetime history over the relationship of military planning to national goals. In peacetime, War Department arsenals and Navy yards manufactured nearly all munitions that lacked civilian uses, including warships, artillery, naval guns, and shells. Items available on the civilian market, such as food, horses, saddles, wagons, and uniforms were always purchased from civilian contractors.

text: Peace leaders like Jane Addams of Hull House and David Starr Jordan of Stanford University redoubled their efforts, and now turned their voices against the President because he was "sowing the seeds of militarism, raising up a military and naval caste." Many ministers, professors, farm spokesmen and labor union leaders joined in, with powerful support from a band of four dozen southern Democrats in Congress who took control of the House Military Affairs Committee. Wilson, in deep trouble, took his cause to the people in a major speaking tour in early 1916, a warm-up for his reelection campaign that fall.

text: Wilson seemed to have won over the middle classes, but had little impact on the largely ethnic working classes and the deeply isolationist farmers. Congress still refused to budge, so Wilson replaced Garrison as Secretary of War with Newton Baker, the Democratic mayor of Cleveland and an outspoken opponent of preparedness.[27] The upshot was a compromise passed in May 1916, as the war raged on and Berlin was debating whether America was so weak it could be ignored. The Army was to double in size to 11,300 officers and 208,000 men, with no reserves, and a National Guard that would be enlarged in five years to 440,000 men. Summer camps on the Plattsburg model were authorized for new officers, and the government was given $20 million to build a nitrate plant of its own. Preparedness supporters were downcast, the antiwar people were jubilant. The United States would now be too weak to go to war. Colonel Robert L. Bullard privately complained that "Both sides [Britain and Germany] treat us with scorn and contempt; our fool, smug conceit of superiority has been exploded in our faces and deservedly.".[28] The House gutted the naval plans as well, defeating a "big navy" plan by 189 to 183, and scuttling the battleships. The battle of Jutland (May 31/June 1, 1916) saw the main German High Seas Fleet engage in a monumental yet inconclusive clash with the far stronger Grand Fleet of the Royal Navy. Arguing this battle proved the validity of Mahanian doctrine, the navalists took control in the Senate, broke the House coalition, and authorized a rapid three-year buildup of all classes of warships.[citation needed] A new weapons system, naval aviation, received $3.5 million, and the government was authorized to build its own armour-plate factory. The very weakness of American military power encouraged Berlin to start its unrestricted submarine attacks in 1917. It knew this meant war with America, but it could discount the immediate risk because the US Army was negligible and the new warships would not be at sea until 1919 by which time the war would be over, Germany thought, with Germany victorious. The notion that armaments led to war was turned on its head: refusal to arm in 1916 led to war in 1917.

text: War declared[edit]

text: In January 1917, Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare. The German Foreign minister, Arthur Zimmermann invited revolution-torn Mexico to join the war as Germany's ally against the United States in the Zimmermann Telegram. In return, the Germans would send Mexico money and help it recover the territories of Texas, New Mexico and Arizona that Mexico lost during the Mexican–American War 70 years earlier.[29] British intelligence intercepted the telegram and passed the information on to Washington. Wilson released the Zimmerman note to the public and Americans saw it as a casus belli—a cause for war.

text: At first, Wilson tried to maintain neutrality while fighting off the submarines by arming American merchant ships with guns powerful enough to sink German submarines on the surface (but useless when the U-boats were under water). After submarines sank seven US merchant ships, Wilson finally went to Congress calling for a declaration of war on Germany, which Congress voted on April 6, 1917.[30]

text: As a result of the Russian February Revolution in 1917, the Tsar abdicated and was replaced by a Russian Provisional Government. This helped overcome Wilson's reluctance to having the US fight alongside a country ruled by an absolutist monarch. Pleased by the Provisional Government's pro-war stance, the US accorded the new government diplomatic recognition on March 9, 1917.[31]

text: Although the United States declared war on Germany on April 6, 1917, it did not initially declare war on the other Central Powers, a state of affairs that Woodrow Wilson described as an "embarrassing obstacle" in his State of the Union speech.[32] Congress declared war on the Austro-Hungarian Empire on December 7, 1917,[33] but never made declarations of war against the other Central Powers, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire or the various co-belligerents allied with the Central Powers.[34] Thus, the United States remained uninvolved in the military campaigns in central and eastern Europe, the Middle East, the Caucasus, North Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa, Asia and the Pacific.

text: Home front[edit]

text: The home front saw a systematic mobilization of the entire population and the entire economy to produce the soldiers, food supplies, munitions, and money needed to win the war. Although the United States entered the war in 1917, there had been very little planning, or even recognition of the problems that the British and other Allies had to solve on their home fronts. As a result, the level of confusion was high in the first 12 months, then efficiency took control.[35]

text: The war came in the midst of the Progressive Era, when efficiency and expertise were highly valued. Therefore, the federal government set up a multitude of temporary agencies with 500,000 to 1,000,000 new employees to bring together the expertise necessary to redirect the economy into the production of munitions and food necessary for the war, as well as for propaganda purposes.[36]

text: Food[edit]

text: The United States Food Administration under Herbert Hoover launched a massive campaign to teach Americans to economize on their food budgets and grow victory gardens in their backyards, where crops were grown for US soldiers. It managed the nation's food distribution and prices.[37]

text: Propaganda[edit]

text: Crucial to US participation was the sweeping domestic propaganda campaign executed by the Committee on Public Information, overseen by George Creel.[38] The campaign consisted of tens of thousands of government-selected community leaders giving brief carefully scripted pro-war speeches at thousands of public gatherings.[39][40] Along with other branches of government and private vigilante groups like the American Protective League, it also included the general repression and harassment of people either opposed to American entry into the war or of German heritage.[41] Rumors about a German-induced attempt to start uprising among Black Americans caused a wave of lynchings to occur in the Southern United States.[42] Other forms of propaganda included newsreels, photos, large-print posters (designed by several well-known illustrators of the day, including Louis D. Fancher and Henry Reuterdahl), magazine and newspaper articles, and billboards.[43]

text: Children[edit]

text: The nation placed a great importance on the role of children, teaching them patriotism and national service and asking them to encourage war support and educate the public about the importance of the war. The Boy Scouts of America helped distribute war pamphlets, helped sell war bonds, and helped to drive nationalism and support for the war.[44]

text: Army and Navy[edit]

text: The United States as late as 1917 maintained only a small army, and smaller than thirteen of the nations and empires already active in the war. After the passage of the Selective Service Act in 1917, it drafted 4 million men into military service.[45] By the summer of 1918, about 2 million US soldiers had arrived in France, about half of whom eventually saw front-line service; by the Armistice of November 11 approximately 10,000 fresh soldiers were arriving in France daily.[46] In 1917, Congress gave US citizenship to Puerto Ricans when they were drafted to participate in World War I, as part of the Jones Act. In the end, Germany miscalculated the United States' influence on the outcome of the conflict, believing it would be many more months before US troops would arrive and overestimating the effectiveness of U-boats in slowing the American buildup.[47]

text: The United States Navy sent a battleship group to Scapa Flow to join with the British Grand Fleet, destroyers to Queenstown, Ireland and submarines to help guard convoys. Several regiments of Marines were also dispatched to France. The British and French wanted US units used to reinforce their troops already on the battle lines and not to waste scarce shipping on bringing over supplies. The US rejected the first proposition and accepted the second. General John J. Pershing, American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) commander, refused to break up US units to serve as mere reinforcements for British Empire and French units. As an exception, he did allow African-American combat regiments to fight in French divisions. The Harlem Hellfighters fought as part of the French 16th Division, earning a unit Croix de Guerre for their actions at Château-Thierry, Belleau Wood, and Séchault.[48]

text: Impact of US forces on the war[edit]

text: On the battlefields of France in spring 1918, the war-weary Allied armies enthusiastically welcomed the fresh American troops. They arrived at the rate of 10,000 a day,[46] at a time when the Germans were unable to replace their losses. The Americans won a victory at Cantigny, then again in defensive stands at Chateau-Thierry and Belleau Wood. The Americans helped the British Empire, French and Portuguese forces defeat and turned back the powerful final German offensive (Spring Offensive of March to July, 1918), and most importantly, the Americans played a role in the Allied final offensive (Hundred Days Offensive of August to November). However, many American commanders used the same flawed tactics which the British, French, Germans and others had abandoned early in the war, and so many American offensives were not particularly effective. Pershing continued to commit troops to these full- frontal attacks, resulting in high casualties against experienced veteran German and Austrian-Hungarian units. Nevertheless, the infusion of new and fresh US troops greatly strengthened the Allies' strategic position and boosted morale. The Allies achieved victory over Germany on November 11, 1918 after German morale had collapsed both at home and on the battlefield.[49][50]

text: After the war[edit]

text: Britain, France, Italy and America imposed severe economic penalties on Germany in the Treaty of Versailles, and both the British and French empires annexed former German and Ottoman Empire colonies in Africa, the Middle East and the Pacific. Russia was not involved in this because of their withdrawal from the war soon after the Russian revolution in 1917.[citation needed] The United States swiftly pulled its troops out of Europe after Germany had surrendered. Two thirds of the American soldiers participating in the war had returned home already when the Treaty of Versailles was signed. Only a lone U.S. Army unit was left in the European soil at end of the decade.[51] The United States Senate did not ratify the Treaty of Versailles; instead, the United States signed separate peace treaties with Germany, Austria and Hungary in August 1921.[52] The Senate also refused to enter the newly created League of Nations on Wilson's terms, and Wilson rejected the Senate's compromise proposal.


document_title: Optic nerve

question_text: where does the optic nerve exit the eyeball

text: Optic nerve

text: Structure[edit]

text: The optic nerve is the second of twelve paired cranial nerves and is technically part of the central nervous system, rather than the peripheral nervous system because it is derived from an out-pouching of the diencephalon (optic stalks) during embryonic development. As a consequence, the fibers of the optic nerve are covered with myelin produced by oligodendrocytes, rather than Schwann cells of the peripheral nervous system, and are encased within the meninges. Peripheral neuropathies like Guillain–Barré syndrome do not affect the optic nerve. However, most typically the optic nerve is grouped with the other eleven cranial nerves and considered to be part of the peripheral nervous system.

text: The optic nerve is ensheathed in all three meningeal layers (dura, arachnoid, and pia mater) rather than the epineurium, perineurium, and endoneurium found in peripheral nerves. Fiber tracts of the mammalian central nervous system (as opposed to the peripheral nervous system) are incapable of regeneration, and, hence, optic nerve damage produces irreversible blindness. The fibres from the retina run along the optic nerve to nine primary visual nuclei in the brain, from which a major relay inputs into the primary visual cortex.

text: The optic nerve is composed of retinal ganglion cell axons and glial cells. Each human optic nerve contains between 770,000 and 1.7 million nerve fibers,[3] which are axons of the retinal ganglion cells of one retina. In the fovea, which has high acuity, these ganglion cells connect to as few as 5 photoreceptor cells; in other areas of retina, they connect to many thousand photoreceptors.

text: The optic nerve leaves the orbit (eye socket) via the optic canal, running postero-medially towards the optic chiasm, where there is a partial decussation (crossing) of fibres from the temporal visual fields (the nasal hemi-retina) of both eyes. The proportion of decussating fibers varies between species, and is correlated with the degree of binocular vision enjoyed by a species.[4] Most of the axons of the optic nerve terminate in the lateral geniculate nucleus from where information is relayed to the visual cortex, while other axons terminate in the pretectal nucleus and are involved in reflexive eye movements. Other axons terminate in the suprachiasmatic nucleus and are involved in regulating the sleep-wake cycle. Its diameter increases from about 1.6 mm within the eye to 3.5 mm in the orbit to 4.5 mm within the cranial space. The optic nerve component lengths are 1 mm in the globe, 24 mm in the orbit, 9 mm in the optic canal, and 16 mm in the cranial space before joining the optic chiasm. There, partial decussation occurs, and about 53% of the fibers cross to form the optic tracts. Most of these fibres terminate in the lateral geniculate body.[1]

text: Based on this anatomy, the optic nerve may be divided in the four parts as indicated in the image at the top of this section (this view is from above as if you were looking into the orbit after the top of the skull had been removed): 1. the optic head (which is where it begins in the eyeball (globe) with fibers from the retina; 2. orbital part (which is the part within the orbit). 3. intracanicular part (which is the part within a bony canal known as the optic canal); and, 4. cranial part (the part within the cranial cavity, which ends at the optic chiasm).[2]

text: From the lateral geniculate body, fibers of the optic radiation pass to the visual cortex in the occipital lobe of the brain. In more specific terms, fibers carrying information from the contralateral superior visual field traverse Meyer's loop to terminate in the lingual gyrus below the calcarine fissure in the occipital lobe, and fibers carrying information from the contralateral inferior visual field terminate more superiorly, to the cuneus[citation needed].

text: Function[edit]

text: The optic nerve transmits all visual information including brightness perception, color perception and contrast (visual acuity). It also conducts the visual impulses that are responsible for two important neurological reflexes: the light reflex and the accommodation reflex. The light reflex refers to the constriction of both pupils that occurs when light is shone into either eye; the accommodation reflex refers to the swelling of the lens of eye that occurs when one looks at a near object as in reading (lens adjusts to near vision).[1]

text: The eye's blind spot is a result of the absence of photoreceptors in the area of the retina where the optic nerve leaves the eye.[1]

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: Disease[edit]

text: Damage to the optic nerve typically causes permanent and potentially severe loss of vision, as well as an abnormal pupillary reflex, which is diagnostically important. The type of visual field loss will depend on which portions of the optic nerve were damaged. In general:

text:
Damage to the optic nerve anterior to the optic chiasm causes loss of vision in the eye on the same side as the damage.
Damage at the optic chiasm typically causes loss of vision laterally in both visual fields (bitemporal hemianopsia). It may occur with large pituitary tumors pituitary adenoma. (see image on right of Paris seen with bitemporal hemianopsia)

tag: ul

text: Damage to the optic tract, which is behind (posterior) to the chiasm, causes loss of the entire visual field from the side opposite the damage (so if the left optic tract is cut, there is a loss of vision from the entire right visual field).

text: Injury to the optic nerve can be the result of congenital or inheritable problems like Leber's Hereditary Optic Neuropathy, glaucoma, trauma, toxicity, inflammation, ischemia, infection (very rarely), or compression from tumors or aneurysms. By far, the three most common injuries to the optic nerve are from glaucoma, optic neuritis (especially in those younger than 50 years of age), and anterior ischemic optic neuropathy (usually in those older than 50).

text: Glaucoma is a group of diseases involving loss of retinal ganglion cells causing optic neuropathy in a pattern of peripheral vision loss, initially sparing central vision. Glaucoma is associated with increased intraocular pressure that damages the optic nerve as it exits the eyeball. Although glaucoma does eventually damage the optic nerve, it is primarily a disease of eye not of the nerve.

text: Optic neuritis is inflammation of the optic nerve. It is associated with a number of diseases, the most notable one being multiple sclerosis. The patient will likely experience varying vision loss and eye pain. The condition tends to be episodic.

text: Anterior ischemic optic neuropathy is commonly known as "stroke of the optic nerve" and affects the optic nerve head. There is usually a sudden loss of blood supply and nutrients to the optic nerve head (where the nerve exits the eyeball). Vision loss is typically sudden and most commonly occurs upon waking up in the morning. This condition is most common in diabetic patients 40–70 years old.

text: Optic nerve hypoplasia is the underdevelopment of the optic nerve resulting in little to no vision in the affected eye.

text: Tumors, especially those of the pituitary gland, can put pressure on the optic nerve causing various forms of visual loss. Similarly, cerebral aneurysms (swelling of blood vessels) can also affect the nerve.

text: Trauma can cause serious injury to the nerve. Direct optic nerve injury can occur from a penetrating injury to the orbit, but the nerve can also be injured by indirect trauma in which severe head impact or movement stretches or even tears the nerve [1]

text: Ophthalmologists and optometrists can detect and diagnose some optic nerve diseases but neuro-ophthalmologists are often best suited to diagnose and treat diseases of the optic nerve.

text: The International Foundation for Optic Nerve Diseases (IFOND) sponsors research and provides information on a variety of optic nerve disorders.

text: Regeneration[edit]

text: Similar to other CNS tracts, the optic has very limited regenerative potential after injury. However, some new techniques are being developed to increase this potential.[5]

text: Additional images[edit]

text:
MRI scan of human eye showing optic nerve.

The ophthalmic artery and its branches. (optic nerve is yellow)

Superficial dissection of brain-stem. Lateral view.

Dissection of brain-stem. Lateral view.

Scheme showing central connections of the optic nerves and optic tracts.

Nerves of the orbit. Seen from above.

Nerves of the orbit, and the ciliary ganglion. Side view.

The terminal portion of the optic nerve and its entrance into the eyeball, in horizontal section.

Structures of the eye labeled

This image shows another labeled view of the structures of the eye

Optic nerve.Deep dissection.Inferior view.

Optic nerve.Deep dissection.Inferior view.

Optic nerve

Optic nerve

Human brain dura mater (reflections)

Optic nerve

Optic nerve

Optic nerve

Cerebrum.Inferior view.Deep dissection

Cerebral peduncle, optic chasm, cerebral aqueduct. Inferior view. Deep dissection.


document_title: Nichols (surname)

question_text: where did the last name nichols come from

text: Nichols (surname)

text: Nichols is an anglicised form of the Scottish surname relating to Clan MacNeacail, and may refer to:

text:
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A
B
C
D
E
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H
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J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
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U
V
W
X
Y
Z

text: A[edit]

text:
Adam Nichols, British musician
Al Nichols, American baseball player
Allen Nichols, American football player
Anne Nichols, American playwright
Arthur Nichols, Australian politician
Arthur R. Nichols, Minnesota landscape architect
Austin Nichols, American actor

text: B[edit]

text:
Beverley Nichols
Bill Nichols, American film historian
Billy Nichols, American musician, member of B.T. Express
Brian Nichols (1971–present), accused Atlanta courthouse murderer

text: C[edit]

text:
Charles Archibald Nichols (1876–1920), politician from the U.S. state of Michigan
Charles August Nichols (1910–1992), American animator and film director
Charles Augustus Nichols (1869–1953), better known as Kid Nichols, Major League Baseball pitcher and Hall of Famer
Clarina I. H. Nichols
Clement Roy Nichols Scouts Australia Scouting notable, awardee of the Bronze Wolf in 1965

text: D[edit]

text:
Dan Nichols, American Jewish rock musician.
Dandy Nichols (1907–1986), actor
David E. Nichols, American pharmacologist and medicinal chemist
Dave Nichols, musician
Dudley Nichols, (1895–1960), American screenwriter and director

text: E[edit]

text: Ernest Fox Nichols, physicist

text: G[edit]

text:
George Nichols (disambiguation)
George Elwood Nichols (1882–1939), American botanist and ecologist
George Ward Nichols, American journalist
Grace Nichols

text: H[edit]

text:
Herbie Nichols, American jazz composer
Horace Elmo Nichols - Chief Justice of the Georgia Supreme Court, from 1975-1980

text: J[edit]

text:
James Nichols (convicted murderer)
James P. Nichols
Jennifer Nichols
Jesse Clyde Nichols
Joe Nichols
Johanna Nichols
John Nichols (disambiguation), one of several people including

John Nichols (journalist), American journalist and media activist
John Nichols (musician), former member of the indie rock band Low
John Nichols (politician), 1800s American politician
John Nichols (printer), English printer and author
John Nichols (writer)
John B. Nichols
John Bowyer Buchanan Nichols
John G. Nichols
John Noel Nichols, inventor of Vimto cordial
John Treadwell Nichols (1883–1958), an American ichthyologist and ornithologist

Jonathan Nichols (Rhode Island) (1681–1727), colonial deputy governor of Rhode Island
Joy Nichols, Australian radio and stage performer

text: K[edit]

text:
Kathleen Nichols
Kelly Nichols.
Kenneth Nichols, District Engineer of the Manhattan Project
Kid Nichols
Kyra Nichols, former New York City Ballet principal dancer

text: L[edit]

text:
Lawrence T. Nichols, Professor of Sociology at West Virginia University
Larry D. Nichols, puzzle enthusiast and inventor

text: M[edit]

text:
Malcolm Nichols
Marie Hochmuth Nichols
Marisol Nichols
Mark Nichols (disambiguation)
Mary Ann Nichols
Mike Nichols, Academy Award-winning film director
Mike J. Nichols, film editor
Minerva Parker Nichols, an early American female architect
Mitch Nichols, Australian footballer
Morris Nichols: see Stan Nichols
Moses Nichols

text: N[edit]

text:
Nathaniel B. Nichols (1914–1997), American control engineer
Nichelle Nichols (1932–present), singer and actor

text: P[edit]

text: Peter Nichols (1927–present), English writer

text: R[edit]

text:
Rachel Nichols (actress)
Rachel Nichols (journalist)
Red Nichols (1905–1965), jazz cornettist
Reid Nichols (1958 - ), American former Major League Baseball outfielder, now Farm Director/Director of Player Development for the Milwaukee Brewers
Robert Nichols (poet), English poet
Robert Nichols (Texas politician), Texas State Senator
Rob Nichols
Roger Nichols (songwriter)
Roger Nichols (recording engineer)
Roy Nichols
Ross Nichols
Ruth Nichols, Canadian author
Ruth Rowland Nichols (1901–1960), aviator

text: S[edit]

text:
Stan Nichols, English cricketer
Stephen Nichols, American actor

text: T[edit]

text:
Ted Nichols
Terry Nichols (1955–present), convicted Oklahoma City bombing conspirator

text: V[edit]

text: Vincent Gerard Nichols

text: W[edit]

text: William Nichols (disambiguation), several people

text: Z[edit]

text: Zach Nichols, a fictional character in the television series Law & Order: Criminal Intent

text: This page lists people with the surname Nichols. If an internal link intending to refer to a specific person led you to this page, you may wish to change that link by adding the person's given name(s) to the link.

text: Surnames

text: All set index articles


document_title: Total Divas

question_text: when is season 8 of total divas coming out

text: Total Divas

text: Production[edit]

text: Total Divas was revealed in May 2013, as a part of a partnership with E!.[11] It was announced on August 14, 2013, that E! had ordered an additional six episodes to the already eight episode first season, bringing the total episode number up to fourteen episodes.[12] The mid-season finale aired on September 15, 2013, with the season continuing on November 10, 2013.[13] WWE commentator Josh Mathews revealed on November 20, 2013, that Total Divas had been renewed for a second season.[14][15][16][17][18] The second season premiered on March 16, 2014, with Summer Rae joining the cast, replacing JoJo Offerman as she decided to focus more on wrestling.[19]

text: Unlike other WWE programs, most of the performers use their real names instead of their ring names, leading to Cameron, Naomi, Natalya, Jimmy Uso, and Tyson Kidd being referred to as Ariane, Trinity, Nattie, Jon, and TJ respectively. During the first season, Daniel Bryan was similarly credited as Bryan Danielson. Beginning with the second season, performers are credited with both their ring name and real name on lower third graphics where applicable (exceptions include Daniel Bryan now being credited with his ring name even though he is still usually addressed as "Bryan", and Natalya still being credited as just "Nattie"). Summer Rae, Paige, and Alicia Fox along with other performers mentioned or rarely appearing (such as Brodus Clay, Fandango, and Titus O'Neil) are referred to solely by their ring names.

text: On May 19, 2014, E! announced that the third season of Total Divas would premiere on September 7, 2014, with Rosa Mendes joining the cast.[20] On February 24, 2015, Paige announced Total Divas was renewed for a fourth season, with filming commencing at the end of the month.[21] It was then announced at the end of season three, that the fourth season would premiere on July 7, 2015, moving from Sunday to Tuesday nights.[22] On April 1, 2015, E! announced the show had been renewed for a fourth season via a press release. In the press release, it was confirmed that Naomi would return as a series regular with Cameron and Rosa Mendes being removed from the main cast. All of the other Divas would return as series regulars.[23]

text: On September 5, 2015, an online article stated that there could be a strong possibility Total Divas will be renewed for a fifth season. It read that season four will "wrap up this fall" and the new season "won't air till 2016 some time".[24] After the September 22 episode of Total Divas aired, it was announced that the following week's episode would serve as the season finale, rather than a mid-season finale.[25] On September 9, 2015, Naomi revealed on Twitter that she had been taken off the main cast after the season four finale, which aired on September 29.[26] WWE Tough Enough runner-up Mandy Rose joined the cast for season five.[27]

text: Season 5 was announced on October 6, 2015, which started airing on January 19, 2016 with majority of last season's cast returning. Naomi was officially removed from the main cast with Mandy taking her place and Rosa Mendes returning as a series regular.[28][29]

text: Season 6 was officially confirmed on April 18, 2016, by the E! Network with a fall premiere date and the majority of last season's cast returning, along with Naomi returning as a series regular and Renee Young, Lana, and Maryse replacing Rosa Mendes, Alicia Fox, and Mandy Rose. Additionally, the E! Network announced that the Bella Twins (Brie and Nikki) would be getting their own spinoff show also with a fall premiere date, titled Total Bellas, that will be following the lives of the twins and their family.[30][31]

text: On July 7, TJ, Natalya's husband, confirmed via Twitter that he would not be appearing on the upcoming season of Total Divas, making him the first partner of a current cast member to not be featured on the show in a recurring capacity.[32]

text: On January 28, 2017, it was announced that Nikki Bella will serve as an executive producer of the show when the series returns in April 2017.[33]

text: In speculation of the seventh season of Total Divas, on May 16, 2017, it was announced that Eva Marie would not be returning as a series regular, and questions have been raised in regards to Paige remaining on the show. However, Brie, Nikki, Naomi, and Natalya will definitely return as series regulars for the upcoming season. Filming began in June 2017.[34] On June 9, 2017, it was reported that Alexa Bliss and Nia Jax would be joining the upcoming season of Total Divas. However, the rest of the seventh-season cast is still to be announced.[35][36] On June 10, 2017, Renee Young confirmed via Twitter that she will not be returning for the seventh season.[37] In a recent interview, it was confirmed Lana would be returning to the show for the upcoming season, along with her storyline of becoming an independent superstar on the SmackDown Live brand.[38] On June 29, 2017, it was reported that Carmella would be joining the cast and that Paige wouldn't be returning for the upcoming season.[39] On September 20, 2017, E! revealed that the seventh season will premiere on November 1, 2017.[40]

text: On January 8, 2018, WWE announced that The Miz and Maryse would be getting their own spinoff show, set to premiere in 2018 on the USA Network, titled Miz & Mrs., that will be following the personal lives of the couple.[41]

text: On April 4, 2018, speculations arose about the upcoming eighth season of Total Divas, as reports stated that E! cameras had been filming a handful of WWE female superstars in New Orleans during the WrestleMania weekend.[42][43] Paige, who was a part of the main cast from seasons 3 to 6, was also seen being followed by E! cameras, speculating her possible return to the series.[44] On April 13, it was confirmed that Paige would be returning to the series for the eighth season.[45] With these reports, the status of the remaining cast members are left unknown. On May 15, 2018, it was announced that Carmella would not be returning for the show's eighth season.[46] On May 25, Paige and Nia Jax posted a video together using a hash tag indicating they were filming for the show, confirming Nia Jax as a cast member for the upcoming season.[47][48] On May 31, it was reported that Brie and Nikki Bella were seen filming an episode of the upcoming season with cast members Lana, Natalya, and Paige, confirming their involvement with the eighth season.[47]

text: On May 7, 2018, E! and WWE announced that Total Divas had been renewed for seasons 8 and 9. Season 8 is expected to air in fall 2018.[49][50]

text: On July 26, 2018, it was announced that season 8 would premiere on September 19, 2018, and the cast for the season was confirmed to be Brie and Nikki Bella, Natalya, Naomi, Lana, Nia Jax and Paige,[51] while Alexa Bliss and Maryse were confirmed not to be returning.[52]

text: Cast[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Cast member (real name)

Seasons

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8[45]

Brie Bella (Brianna Danielson)

Main

Nikki Bella (Stephanie Nicole Garcia-Colace)

Main

Natalya (Natalie Neidhart-Wilson)

Main

Naomi (Trinity Fatu)

Main

Guest

Main

Cameron (Ariane Andrew)

Main

Recurring

Eva Marie (Natalie Coyle)

Main

JoJo (Joseann Offerman)

Main

Guest

Alicia Fox (Victoria Crawford)

Guest

Main

Recurring

Guest

Renee Young (Renee Paquette)

Guest

Recurring

Main

Guest

Summer Rae (Danielle Moinet)

Main

Recurring

Rosa Mendes (Milena Roucka)

Guest

Main

Recurring

Main

Guest

Paige (Saraya-Jade Bevis)

Main

Main

Lana (Catherine Perry)

Guest

Main

Alexa Bliss (Alexis Kaufman)

Guest

Guest

Main

Carmella (Leah Van Dale)

Guest

Guest

Main

Nia Jax (Savelina Fanene)

Guest

Guest

Main

Mandy Rose (Amanda Saccomanno)

Main

Maryse (Maryse Mizanin)

Main

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
Cast member

Seasons

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8[45]

Daniel Bryan (Brie's husband)

Recurring

TBD

John Cena (Nikki's ex-fiancé)

Recurring

Guest

TBD

Tyson Kidd (Natalya's husband)

Recurring

Recurring

TBD

Jimmy Uso (Naomi's husband)

Recurring

Guest

Recurring

Guest

Recurring

TBD

Vincent Isayan (Cameron's boyfriend)

Recurring

Guest

Jonathan Coyle (Eva Marie's husband)

Recurring

Guest

Mark Carrano (WWE Senior Director of Talent Relations)

Recurring

TBD

Jane Geddes (WWE's former Vice President of Talent Relations)

Recurring

Sandra Gray (WWE's former seamstress)

Recurring

Guest

Kathy Colace-Laurinaitis (Brie & Nikki's mother)

Guest

Recurring

Guest

TBD

Ellie Neidhart (Nattie's mother)

Guest

Recurring

Guest

Recurring

TBD

Jim Neidhart (Nattie's father)

Guest

Recurring

Guest

Recurring

J.J. Garcia (Brie & Nikki's brother)

Guest

Recurring

Guest

TBD

Dolph Ziggler (WWE Superstar)

Guest

Recurring

Guest

Tamina (WWE Superstar)

Guest

Recurring

Guest

Dean Ambrose (Renee's husband)

Guest

Guest

Recurring

Guest

Emma (WWE Superstar)

Guest

Recurring

Guest

Brian Kendrick (Eva's personal trainer & WWE Superstar)

Recurring

Kevin Skaff (Paige's ex-boyfriend)

Recurring

Bobby Schubenski (Rosa's fiancé)

Recurring

Guest

Rusev (Lana's husband)

Recurring

TBD

The Miz (Maryse's husband)

Recurring

text: Episodes[edit]

text: As of  January 31, 2018,[update] 100 episodes of Total Divas have aired.

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text:
Year

Award

Category

Nominee(s)

Result

Ref

2014

Teen Choice Awards

Choice TV: Reality Show

Total Divas

Nominated

[55]

2014

PopSugar Best of 2014 Awards

Best Reality Show

Total Divas

Won

[56]

2016

Teen Choice Awards

Choice Female Athlete

The Bella Twins

Won

[57]

2016

Teen Choice Awards

Choice TV: Reality Show

Total Divas

Nominated

[58]

2017

Teen Choice Awards

Choice Female Athlete

The Bella Twins

Nominated

[59]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Ratings[edit]

text: The series premiered on July 28, 2013, drawing 1.34 million viewers, as well as becoming the series' highest rated premiere to date.[60] The highest rated episode is "Planet Funk is Funked Up" garnering 1.67 million viewers.[61] The lowest rated episode of season one is "Seeing Red" garnering 0.92 million viewers.[62] The season two premiere episode "New Diva On The Block" received 1.07 million viewers.[63] The following episode "The Braniel Bus" had a strong rise in viewers garnering 1.28 million viewers.[64] The lowest rated episode of season two is "Red and Gold" garnering 0.75 million viewers.[65] The season three premiere attracted over 1.2 million viewers and 821K Adults 18-49, the series was up +15% and +17% respectively versus the season 2 premiere, as well as garnered 26,000 tweets and ranked as the #1 ad-supported cable program of the night. The third-season premiere of Total Divas did not post spectacular ratings. It did, however, outdraw last season's opener.[66][67]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: Melissa Camacho of Common Sense Media gave the show 2 stars out of 5.[68] Tom Conroy of Media Life Magazine said the show is uninteresting.[69] Tom Conroy of Media Life Magazine said of the show, "Total Divas feels real-ish. If the stars are doing any damage to their reputations, it's that they appear to be too nice. That might make their fans happy, but viewers expecting a smackdown can and will go elsewhere."[70] Diva-Dirt.com stated "Meet Your New Guilty Pleasure!".[71] Eric Gargiulo of Camel Clutch Blog said "I tuned in to WWE Total Divas expecting to see a scripted reality show in the vein of Hogan Knows Best. Instead I got an interesting look behind the scenes of the WWE and its superstars more in the same vein as Beyond the Mat."[72]