document_title: The Hateful Eight

question_text: what year is the hateful eight set in

question_tokens: what year is the hateful eight set in

text: The Hateful Eight

text: Plot[edit]

text: Years after the Civil War, bounty hunter Major Marquis Warren is transporting three dead bounties to the town of Red Rock, Wyoming. He hitches a ride on a stagecoach driven by O.B. Jackson. Aboard is John Ruth, a bounty hunter known for bringing in outlaws alive to see them hang; handcuffed to him is fugitive Daisy Domergue, whom Ruth is escorting to Red Rock. Ruth is suspicious of anyone who might steal his claim to the bounty. Ruth and Warren bond over Warren's personal letter from Abraham Lincoln.

text: Former Lost-Causer militiaman Chris Mannix, who claims he is traveling to Red Rock as the town's new sheriff, persuades Ruth and Warren to let him on the stagecoach. Warren and Ruth form an alliance to protect each other's bounties. Mannix and Warren almost come to blows over their controversial war records.

text: The group seeks refuge from a blizzard at Minnie's Haberdashery, a stagecoach lodge. They are greeted by Bob, a Mexican, who says the owner, Minnie, is visiting her mother. The other lodgers are Oswaldo Mobray, a hangman; Joe Gage, a quiet cowboy traveling to visit his mother; and Sanford Smithers, a former Confederate general traveling to put his missing son to rest. Suspicious, Ruth disarms all but Warren. As the group eats, Mannix surmises that Warren's Lincoln letter is a forgery. Warren admits this, saying the letter buys him leeway with whites, outraging Ruth. Warren leaves a gun next to Smithers and provokes him into reaching for it by telling Smithers he tortured, raped, and killed Smithers' son. When Smithers pulls a gun, Warren shoots him as revenge for Smithers' execution of black soldiers at the Battle of Baton Rouge.

text: While everyone is distracted by the confrontation, someone seen only by Daisy poisons the brewing coffee. Ruth and O.B. drink it, causing them to vomit blood, killing O.B. The dying Ruth attacks Daisy, but she kills him with his own gun. Warren disarms Daisy, holds the men at gunpoint and leaves her cuffed to Ruth's corpse. Warren is joined by Mannix, whom Warren trusts because he nearly drank the poisoned coffee. Warren executes Bob, deducing that he is an impostor who killed the lodge owners, as Minnie hates Mexicans and would never leave one to care for the lodge. When Warren threatens to execute Daisy, Gage admits that he poisoned the coffee. A man hiding in the cellar shoots Warren in the genitals. Mobray draws a concealed gun and shoots Mannix, who returns fire, wounding Mobray and forcing Gage against the wall.

text: Hours earlier, Bob, Mobray, Gage, and a fourth man, Jody, arrive at Minnie's Haberdashery. They murder Minnie and five other bystanders, leaving only Smithers. Jody, Daisy's brother, tells Smithers they plan to ambush Ruth to rescue Daisy; his gang will spare Smithers if he keeps quiet, as they deduce that an extra lodger makes the setup more believable. The bandits dispose of the bodies, hide the evidence, and conceal guns around the lodge. As Ruth's stagecoach arrives, Jody hides in the cellar.

text: In the present, Mannix and Warren, both seriously wounded, hold Daisy, Gage, and the dying Mobray at gunpoint. They force Jody out of the cellar by threatening to kill Daisy. Jody surrenders and Warren executes him. Daisy claims fifteen of her brother's men are waiting in Red Rock to kill Mannix and ransack the town; if Mannix kills Warren and allows her to escape, the gang will spare him and let him claim the bounties of the deceased except her brother.

text: As Daisy and Mobray taunt Warren, Warren shoots Daisy in the foot and Mobray in the leg; Mobray soon dies from his wounds. Gage draws a hidden revolver but is shot dead by Mannix and Warren. Warren tries to shoot Daisy but is out of bullets. Mannix calls Daisy's bluff and rejects her offer, but faints from blood loss. Daisy hacks off Ruth's handcuffed arm and frees herself. As she reaches for a gun, Mannix regains consciousness, shoots, and wounds her. Warren persuades Mannix to hang her from the rafters in honor of Ruth. Afterward, as the two men lie dying, Mannix reads aloud Warren's forged Lincoln letter.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Samuel L. Jackson as Major Marquis Warren
Kurt Russell as John Ruth
Jennifer Jason Leigh as Daisy Domergue
Walton Goggins as Sheriff Chris Mannix
Demián Bichir as Bob
Tim Roth as Oswaldo Mobray
Michael Madsen as Joe Gage
Bruce Dern as General Sandy Smithers
James Parks as O.B.
Dana Gourrier as Minnie Mink
Zoë Bell as Six-Horse Judy
Lee Horsley as Ed
Channing Tatum as Jody

text: Production[edit]

text: In November 2013, writer-director Quentin Tarantino said he was working on a new film, another Western. He stated that it would not be a sequel to Django Unchained,[6] though he later admitted that his first attempt at the story was as a sequel in novel form titled Django in White Hell, but he quickly realized that Django's character did not fit the story.[7] On January 12, 2014, the film's title was announced as The Hateful Eight.[8] The film was inspired by the 1960s Western TV series Bonanza, The Virginian and The High Chaparral. Tarantino said:

text: Twice per season, those shows would have an episode where a bunch of outlaws would take the lead characters hostage. They would come to the Ponderosa and hold everybody hostage, or go to Judge Garth's place—Lee J. Cobb played him—in The Virginian and take hostages. There would be a guest star like David Carradine, Darren McGavin, Claude Akins, Robert Culp, Charles Bronson, or James Coburn. I don't like that storyline in a modern context, but I love it in a Western, where you would pass halfway through the show to find out if they were good or bad guys, and they all had a past that was revealed. I thought, 'What if I did a movie starring nothing but those characters? No heroes, no Michael Landons. Just a bunch of nefarious guys in a room, all telling backstories that may or may not be true. Trap those guys together in a room with a blizzard outside, give them guns, and see what happens.[9]

text: Production would most likely have begun in mid 2014, but after the script leaked online in January 2014, Tarantino considered publishing it as a novel instead.[10] He said he had given the script to a few trusted colleagues, including Bruce Dern, Tim Roth, and Michael Madsen.[11][12] This version of the script featured a different ending in which Warren and Mannix attempt to kill Gage in revenge by forcing him to drink the poisoned coffee, sparking a firefight in which every character is killed.[13] Tarantino described his vision for the character of Daisy Domergue as a "Susan Atkins of the Wild West".[14]

text: On April 19, 2014, Tarantino directed a live reading of the leaked script at the United Artists Theater in the Ace Hotel Los Angeles. The event was organized by the Film Independent at Los Angeles County Museum of Art (LACMA) as part of the Live Read series and introduced by Elvis Mitchell.[15] Tarantino explained that they would read the first draft of the script, and he added that he was writing two new drafts with a different ending. The actors who joined Tarantino included Samuel L. Jackson, Kurt Russell, Amber Tamblyn, James Parks, Walton Goggins, Zoë Bell, James Remar, Dana Gourrier, Dern, Roth and Madsen.[16]

text: Casting[edit]

text: On September 23, 2014, it was revealed that Viggo Mortensen was in discussion with Tarantino for a role in the film.[17] On October 9, 2014, Jennifer Jason Leigh was added to the cast to play Daisy Domergue.[18] On November 5, 2014, it was announced that Channing Tatum was eyeing a major role in the film.[19] Later the same day, The Weinstein Company confirmed the cast in a press release, which would include Samuel L. Jackson, Jennifer Jason Leigh, Kurt Russell, Tim Roth, Demián Bichir, Walton Goggins, Michael Madsen, and Bruce Dern. Tatum's casting was also confirmed.[20]

text: Later on January 23, 2015, TWC announced an ensemble cast of supporting members, including James Parks, Dana Gourrier, Zoë Bell, Gene Jones, Keith Jefferson, Lee Horsley, Craig Stark, and Belinda Owino.[21]

text: In the earlier public reading of the first script, the role of Daisy Domergue had been read by Amber Tamblyn, and the role of Bob, a Frenchman rather than a Mexican, was read by Denis Ménochet;[16] at the reading, the role of Jody was read by James Remar. Regarding the cast, Tarantino has said, "This is a movie where [bigger movie stars] wouldn't work. It needs to be an ensemble where nobody is more important than anybody else."[22]

text: Filming[edit]

text: On September 26, 2014, the state of Colorado had signed to fund the film's production with $5 million, and the complete film would be shot in Southwest Colorado.[23] A 900-acre ranch was issued to the production for the filming. There was a meeting on October 16, and the county's planning commission issued a permit for the construction of a temporary set.[23] Principal photography began on December 8, 2014, in Colorado on the Schmid Ranch near Telluride.[24][25][26][27] The film's special make-up effects were created by Greg Nicotero, known for his work on the AMC series The Walking Dead.[28]

text: Guitar incident[edit]

text: The guitar destroyed by Russell's character was not a prop but an antique 1870s Martin guitar lent by the Martin Guitar Museum. According to sound producer Mark Ulano, the guitar was supposed to have been switched with a copy to be destroyed, but this was not communicated to Russell; everyone on the set was "pretty freaked out" at the guitar's destruction, and Leigh's reaction was genuine, though "Tarantino was in a corner of the room with a funny curl on his lips, because he got something out of it with the performance."[29] Museum director Dick Boak said that the museum was not told that the script included a scene that called for a guitar being smashed, and determined that it was irreparable. The insurance remunerated the purchase value of the guitar. As a result of the incident, the museum no longer lends guitars to film productions.[30]

text: Cinematography[edit]

text: Cinematographer Robert Richardson, who also worked with Tarantino on Kill Bill, Inglourious Basterds, and Django Unchained, filmed The Hateful Eight on 70 mm film, using Ultra Panavision 70 and Kodak Vision 3 film stocks: 5219, 5207, 5213 and 5203. It is the widest release in 70 mm film since Ron Howard's Far and Away in 1992.[31] The film uses Panavision anamorphic lenses with an aspect ratio of 2.76:1, a very widescreen image that was used on some films in the 1950s and 1960s.[32] The filmmakers also avoided any use of a digital intermediate in the 70mm roadshow release, which was color-timed photochemically by FotoKem, and the dailies were screened in 70mm.[33] The wide digital release and a handful of 35mm prints were struck from a digital intermediate, done by Yvan Lucas at Shed/Santa Monica.

text: Post-production[edit]

text: Tarantino edited two versions of the film, one for the roadshow version and the other for general release. The roadshow version runs for three hours and two minutes, including six minutes of extra footage plus an overture and intermission, and has alternate takes of some scenes. Tarantino created two versions as he felt some of the footage he shot for 70mm would not play well on smaller screens.[34] Classifications from the British Board of Film Classification confirm that the time difference between the Roadshow (187 minutes) and the DCP (167 minutes) releases is 20 minutes.[2][3]

text: Music[edit]

text: Tarantino announced at the 2015 Comic-Con that Ennio Morricone would compose the score for The Hateful Eight; it is the first Western scored by Morricone in 34 years, since Buddy Goes West, and Tarantino's first film to use an original score.[35][36] Tarantino had previously used Morricone's music in Kill Bill, Death Proof, Inglourious Basterds, and Django Unchained, and Morricone also wrote an original song, "Ancora Qui", for the latter.[37] Morricone had previously made statements that he would "never work" with Tarantino after Django Unchained, but ultimately changed his mind and agreed to score The Hateful Eight.[38] According to Variety, Morricone composed the score without even seeing the film.[39]

text: The soundtrack was announced on November 19, 2015, for a December 18 release from Decca Records. Ennio Morricone composed 50 minutes of original music for The Hateful Eight. In addition to Morricone's original score, the soundtrack includes dialogue excerpts from the film, "Apple Blossom" by The White Stripes from their De Stijl album, "Now You're All Alone" by David Hess from The Last House on the Left and "There Won't Be Many Coming Home" by Roy Orbison from The Fastest Guitar Alive.[40]

text: Tarantino confirmed that the film would use three unused tracks from Morricone's original soundtrack for the 1982 John Carpenter film The Thing—"Eternity", "Bestiality" and "Despair"—as Morricone was pressed for time while creating the score.[41] The final film also uses Morricone's "Regan's Theme" from the 1977 John Boorman film Exorcist II: The Heretic.

text: Morricone's score won several awards including a special award from New York Film Critics Circle. The score won a Golden Globe for Best Original Score.[42] It also took the 2015 Academy Award for Best Motion Picture Score, Morricone's first after several career nominations.

text: The acoustic song played by Leigh's character Domergue on a Martin guitar is the traditional Australian folk ballad "Jim Jones at Botany Bay", which dates from the early 19th-century and was first published by Charles McAlister in 1907.[43] The rendition in the film includes lines which were not in MacAlister's version.[44] The film's trailer used Welshly Arms' cover of "Hold On, I'm Coming", although this is not used in the film itself.[45]

text: The soundtrack was released under the Third Man Records label, which is operated by musician Jack White.

text: Release[edit]

text: On September 3, 2014, The Weinstein Company (TWC) acquired the worldwide distribution rights to the film for a fall 2015 release.[46] TWC would sell the film worldwide, but Tarantino asked to personally approve the global distributors for the film.[47] In preparation for its release, Tarantino arranged for approximately 100[48] theaters worldwide to be retrofitted with anamorphic equipped 70 mm film projectors, in order to display the film as he intended.[32][49] The film was released on December 25, 2015, as a roadshow presentation in 70 mm film format theaters.[50] The film was initially scheduled to be released in digital theaters on January 8, 2016.

text: On December 14, The Hollywood Reporter announced that the film would see wide release on December 31, 2015, while still screening the 70 mm version.[51] The release date was moved to December 30, 2015, to meet demand.[52] On July 11, 2015, Tarantino and the cast of the film appeared at Comic-Con to promote the film.[35] In the UK, where the film was distributed by Entertainment Film Distributors, the sole 70mm print in the country opened at the Odeon Leicester Square on January 8 in a roadshow presentation, with the digital general release version opening the same day at other cinemas, except Cineworld, who refused to book the film after failing to reach an agreement to show the 70mm print.[53]

text: On March 15, 2016, The Hateful Eight was released in the United States on Digital HD, and on Blu-ray and DVD on March 29, 2016.[citation needed]

text: Piracy[edit]

text: On December 20, 2015, screener copies of The Hateful Eight and numerous other Oscar contenders, including Carol, The Revenant, Brooklyn, Creed, and Straight Outta Compton, were uploaded to many websites. The FBI linked the case to co-CEO Andrew Kosove of Alcon Entertainment. Kosove responded that he had "never seen this DVD", and that "it never touched his hands."[54]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: The Hateful Eight grossed $54.1 million in the U.S. and Canada, and $101.6 million in other countries, for worldwide gross of $155.7 million against a budget of around $44 million.[4]

text: The film opened in the US with a limited release on December 25, 2015, and over the weekend grossed $4.9 million from 100 theaters ($46,107 per screen), finishing 10th at the box office.[55] It had its wide release on December 30, grossing $3.5 million on its first day.[56] The film went on to gross $15.7 million in its opening weekend, finishing third at the box office behind Star Wars: The Force Awakens ($90.2 million) and Daddy's Home ($29.2 million).[57]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: The film critics aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the film an approval rating of 75% based on 296 reviews and an average rating of 7.3/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "The Hateful Eight offers another well-aimed round from Quentin Tarantino's signature blend of action, humor, and over-the-top violence—all while demonstrating an even stronger grip on his filmmaking craft."[58] On Metacritic, the film holds a weighted average score of 68 out of 100, based on 51 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[59] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.[56]

text: James Berardinelli wrote that The Hateful Eight "is a high-wire thriller, full of masterfully executed twists, captivating dialogue, and a wildly entertaining narrative that gallops along at a pace to make three hours evaporate in an instant. Best film of the year? Yes."[60] Telegraph critic Robbie Collin wrote: "The Hateful Eight is a parlour-room epic, an entire nation in a single room, a film steeped in its own filminess but at the same time vital, riveting and real. Only Tarantino can do this, and he’s done it again."[61] Guardian critic Peter Bradshaw gave the film five out of five, and wrote that it was "intimate yet somehow weirdly colossal, once again releasing [Tarantino's] own kind of unwholesome crazy-funny-violent nitrous oxide into the cinema auditorium for us all to inhale ... "Thriller" is a generic label which has lost its force. But The Hateful Eight thrills."[62] A.V. Club critic Ignatiy Vishnevetsky gave the film a grade of A- and wrote that "with a script that could easily be a stage play, The Hateful Eight is about as close as this pastiche artist is likely to get to the classical tradition."[63]

text: In contrast, Owen Gleiberman of the BBC said, "I'm not alone in thinking that it's Tarantino's worst film – a sluggish, unimaginative dud, brimming with venom but not much cleverness."[64] Donald Clarke, writing in The Irish Times, wrote, "What a shame the piece is so lacking in character and narrative coherence. What a shame so much of it is so gosh-darn boring."[65] A. O. Scott in The New York Times said, "Some of the film's ugliness...seems dumb and ill-considered, as if Mr. Tarantino's intellectual ambition and his storytelling discipline had failed him at the same time."[66] Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter praised the film's production design, idiosyncratic dialogue, and "lip-smackingly delicious" performances, but felt the film was overlong and that Morricone's score was put to too limited use.[67]

text: Police boycott[edit]

text: In October 2015, Tarantino attended a Black Lives Matter rally and publicly commented on police brutality in the United States, saying, "When I see murders, I do not stand by... I have to call a murder a murder, and I have to call the murderers the murderers." Tarantino's comments received national media attention and several police groups in the United States pledged to boycott The Hateful Eight and his other films. New York City Police Benevolent Association president Patrick J. Lynch said: "With nearly one million law enforcement officers in this country who have families and friends who support them, the impact that police have economically on a product or project is immense. The law enforcement boycott of cop-hater Quentin Tarantino's movie is one demonstration of that economic power."[68] Tarantino responded that he was not a "cop hater" and would not be intimidated by the calls for a boycott.[69][70]

text: Richard Johnson of the New York Post called The Hateful Eight a "box-office disaster, and the police officers who boycotted the movie are taking credit".[68] However, Forbes rebutted this claim in an article titled "No, Police Boycotts Against Quentin Tarantino didn't cause Hateful Eight to Flop", writing that the film, while not as commercially successful as some of Tarantino's other films, was not a "box-office disaster" and cast doubt on claims that a boycott had a strong effect on sales.[71]

text: Race issues[edit]

text: Tarantino told GQ that race issues were part of his creative process and were inescapable, saying: "I wasn’t trying to bend over backwards in any way, shape, or form to make it socially relevant. But once I finished the script, that’s when all the social relevancy started."[72] He told the Telegraph he wrote The Hateful Eight to reflect America's fraught racial history, with the splitting of the cabin into northern and southern sides and a speech about the perils of "frontier justice".[73] A. O. Scott of The New York Times observed that the film rejects the Western genre's tradition of ignoring America's racial history, but felt its handling of race issues was "dumb and ill-considered", and wrote: "Tarantino doesn’t make films that are 'about race' so much as he tries to burrow into the bowels of American racism with his camera and his pen. There is no way to do that and stay clean."[66]

text: Gender issues[edit]

text: Some critics expressed unease at the treatment of the Daisy Domergue character, who is the subject of repeated physical and verbal abuse and finally lynched in a sequence which, according to Matt Zoller Seitz of RogerEbert.com, "lingers on Daisy's death with near-pornographic fascination".[74][75][76] A.O. Scott felt the film "mutates from an exploration of racial animus into an orgy of elaborately justified misogyny".[66] Laura Bogart regarded the treatment of Daisy as a "betrayal" of the positive female characters in previous Tarantino films such as Kill Bill.[77] Juliette Peers wrote that "compared to the stunning twists and inversions of norms that Tarantino's other works offer when presenting female characters, The Hateful Eight's sexual politics seem bleakly conservative. Daisy is feisty and highly intelligent, yet the plotline is arbitrarily stacked against her."[76]

text: Conversely, Courtney Bissonette of Bust praised Tarantino's history of female characters and wrote of Daisy's treatment: "This is equality, man, and it’s more feminist to think that a criminal is getting treated the same despite her gender. They don't treat her like a fairy princess because she is a woman, they treat her like a killer because she is a killer."[78] Sophie Besl of Bitch Flicks argued that Daisy received no special treatment as a woman, is never sexually objectified, and has agency over her own actions (including killing her captor). She defended the hanging scene as in the filmic tradition of villains "getting what's coming to [them]", and that equivalent scenes with male villains in previous Tarantino films raised no objections.[79] However, Matthew Stogdon felt that as Daisy's crimes are not explained, her status as a criminal deserving execution is not established, breaking the narrative rule of "show, don't tell".[80]

text: Walton Goggins described the lynching as symbolic of a positive step to erase racism: "I see it as very uplifting, as very hopeful, and as a big step in the right direction, as a celebration, as a changing of one heart and one mind."[81] However, Sasha Stone, writing for Awards Daily, felt it was implausible for Daisy to "represent, somehow, all of the evil of the South, all of the racism, all of the injustice. She's a tiny thing. There is no point in the film, or maybe one just barely, when Daisy inflicts any violence upon anyone – and by then it could be argued that she is only desperately trying to defend herself. She is handcuffed to Kurt Russell, needing his permission to speak and eat, and then punched brutally in the face whenever she says anything."[82]

text: Tarantino intended the violence against Daisy to be shocking and wanted the audience's allegiances to shift during the story. He said: "Violence is hanging over every one of those characters like a cloak of night. So I'm not going to go, 'OK, that's the case for seven of the characters, but because one is a woman, I have to treat her differently.' I'm not going to do that."[83] Producer Harvey Weinstein felt the allegations of sexism were "fishing for stupidity".[83]

text: Accolades[edit]


document_title: Oil painting

question_text: what type of paper is used for oil painting

root

text: Oil painting

text: Techniques[edit]

text: Traditional oil painting techniques often begin with the artist sketching the subject onto the canvas with charcoal or thinned paint. Oil paint is usually mixed with linseed oil, artist grade mineral spirits, or other solvents to make the paint thinner, faster or slower-drying. (Because these solvents thin the oil in the paint, they can also be used to clean paint brushes.) A basic rule of oil paint application is 'fat over lean', meaning that each additional layer of paint should contain more oil than the layer below to allow proper drying. If each additional layer contains less oil, the final painting will crack and peel. This rule does not ensure permanence; it is the quality and type of oil that leads to a strong and stable paint film. There are many other media that can be used with the oil, including cold wax, resins, and varnishes. These additional media can aid the painter in adjusting the translucency of the paint, the sheen of the paint, the density or 'body' of the paint, and the ability of the paint to hold or conceal the brushstroke. These aspects of the paint are closely related to the expressive capacity of oil paint.

tag: p

text: Traditionally, paint was transferred to the painting surface using paintbrushes, but there are other methods, including using palette knives and rags. Oil paint remains wet longer than many other types of artists' materials, enabling the artist to change the color, texture or form of the figure. At times, the painter might even remove an entire layer of paint and begin anew. This can be done with a rag and some turpentine for a time while the paint is wet, but after a while the hardened layer must be scraped. Oil paint dries by oxidation, not evaporation, and is usually dry to the touch within a span of two weeks (some colors dry within days). It is generally dry enough to be varnished in six months to a year.

text: History[edit]

text: Although the history of tempera (pigment mixed with either egg whites or egg yolks, then painted on a plastered section) and related media in Europe indicates that oil painting was discovered there independently, there is evidence that oil painting was used earlier in Afghanistan.[2][3][4][5] Outdoor surfaces and surfaces like shields—both those used in tournaments and those hung as decorations—were more durable when painted in oil-based media than when painted in the traditional tempera paints.

text: Most Renaissance sources, in particular Vasari, credited northern European painters of the 15th century, and Jan van Eyck in particular, with the "invention" of painting with oil media on wood panel supports ("support" is the technical term for the underlying backing of a painting). However, Theophilus (Roger of Helmarshausen?) clearly gives instructions for oil-based painting in his treatise, On Various Arts, written in 1125. At this period, it was probably used for painting sculptures, carvings and wood fittings, perhaps especially for outdoor use. However, early Netherlandish painting in the 15th century was the first to make oil the usual painting medium, and explore the use of layers and glazes, followed by the rest of Northern Europe, and only then Italy.

text: Early works were still panel paintings on wood, but around the end of the 15th century canvas became more popular as the support, as it was cheaper, easier to transport, allowed larger works, and did not require complicated preliminary layers of gesso (a fine type of plaster). Venice, where sail-canvas was easily available, was a leader in the move to canvas. Small cabinet paintings were also made on metal, especially copper plates. These supports were more expensive but very firm, allowing intricately fine detail. Often printing plates from printmaking were reused for this purpose. The popularity of oil spread through Italy from the North, starting in Venice in the late 15th century. By 1540, the previous method for painting on panel (tempera) had become all but extinct, although Italians continued to use chalk-based fresco for wall paintings, which was less successful and durable in damper northern climates.

text: Ingredients[edit]

text: The linseed oil itself comes from the flax seed, a common fiber crop. Linen, a "support" for oil painting (see relevant section), also comes from the flax plant. Safflower oil or the walnut or poppyseed oil are sometimes used in formulating lighter colors like white because they "yellow" less on drying than linseed oil, but they have the slight drawback of drying more slowly and may not provide the strongest paint film. Linseed oil tends to dry yellow and can change the hue of the color.

text: Recent advances in chemistry have produced modern water miscible oil paints that can be used and cleaned up with water. Small alterations in the molecular structure of the oil creates this water miscible property.

text: An even newer type of paint, heat-set "oils" (which are actually thermoplastic) remain liquid until heated to 265–280 °F (130–138 °C) for about 15 minutes. Since the paint otherwise never dries, cleanup is not needed (except when one wants to use a different color with the same brush). Although not technically true oils (the medium is an unidentified "non-drying synthetic oily liquid, embedded with a heat sensitive curing agent"), the paintings made with this paint resemble oil paintings and are usually shown as such.[1]

text: Supports for oil painting[edit]

text: Traditional artists' canvas is made from linen, but less expensive cotton fabric has gained popularity. The artist first prepares a wooden frame called a "stretcher" or "strainer". The difference between the two names is that stretchers are slightly adjustable, while strainers are rigid and lack adjustable corner notches. The canvas is then pulled across the wooden frame and tacked or stapled tightly to the back edge. Then the artist applies a "size" to isolate the canvas from the acidic qualities of the paint. Traditionally, the canvas was coated with a layer of animal glue (modern painters will use rabbit skin glue) as the size and primed with lead white paint, sometimes with added chalk. Panels were prepared with a gesso, a mixture of glue and chalk.

text: Modern acrylic "gesso" is made of titanium dioxide with an acrylic binder. It is frequently used on canvas, whereas real gesso is not suitable for canvas. The artist might apply several layers of gesso, sanding each smooth after it has dried. Acrylic gesso is very difficult to sand. One manufacturer makes a "sandable" acrylic gesso, but it is intended for panels only and not canvas. It is possible to make the gesso a particular color, but most store-bought gesso is white. The gesso layer, depending on its thickness, will tend to draw the oil paint into the porous surface. Excessive or uneven gesso layers are sometimes visible in the surface of finished paintings as a change that's not from the paint.

text: Standard sizes for oil paintings were set in France in the 19th century. The standards were used by most artists, not only the French, as it was—and evidently still is—supported by the main suppliers of artists' materials. Size 0 (toile de 0) to size 120 (toile de 120) is divided in separate "runs" for figures (figure), landscapes (paysage) and marines (marine) that more or less preserve the diagonal. Thus a 0 figure corresponds in height with a paysage 1 and a marine 2.[6]

text: Although surfaces like linoleum, wooden panel, paper, slate, pressed wood, Masonite, and cardboard have been used, the most popular surface since the 16th century has been canvas, although many artists used panel through the 17th century and beyond. Panel is more expensive, heavier, harder to transport, and prone to warp or split in poor conditions. For fine detail, however, the absolute solidity of a wooden panel has an advantage.

text: Process[edit]

text: Oil paint is made by mixing pigments of colors with an oil medium. Different colors are made, or purchased premixed, before painting begins, but further shades of color are usually obtained by mixing small quantities together as the painting process is underway. An artist's palette, traditionally a thin wood board held in the hand, is used for holding and mixing paints of different colors. Pigments may be any number of natural or synthetic substances with color, such as sulphides for yellow or cobalt salts for blue. Traditional pigments were based on minerals or plants, but many have proven unstable over long periods of time; the appearance of many old paintings today is very different from the original. Modern pigments often use synthetic chemicals. The pigment is mixed with oil, usually linseed, but other oils may be used. The various oils dry differently, which creates assorted effects.

text: Traditionally, artists mixed their own paints from raw pigments that they often ground themselves and medium. This made portability difficult and kept most painting activities confined to the studio. This changed in the 1800s, when tubes of oil paint became widely available following the American portrait painter John Goffe Rand's invention of the squeezable or collapsible metal tube in 1841 (the year of Claude Monet's birth). Artists could mix colors quickly and easily, which enabled, for the first time, relatively convenient plein air painting (a common approach in French Impressionism).

text: A brush is most commonly employed by the artist to apply the paint, often over a sketched outline of their subject (which could be in another medium). Brushes are made from a variety of fibers to create different effects. For example, brushes made with hog bristle might be used for bolder strokes and impasto textures. Fitch hair and mongoose hair brushes are fine and smooth, and thus answer well for portraits and detail work. Even more expensive are red sable brushes (weasel hair). The finest quality brushes are called "kolinsky sable"; these brush fibers are taken from the tail of the Siberian weasel. This hair keeps a superfine point, has smooth handling, and good memory (it returns to its original point when lifted off the canvas), known to artists as a brush's "snap." Floppy fibers with no snap, such as squirrel hair, are generally not used by oil painters.

text: In the past few decades, many synthetic brushes have been marketed. These are very durable and can be quite good, as well as cost efficient. Brushes come in many sizes and are used for different purposes. The type of brush also makes a difference. For example, a "round" is a pointed brush used for detail work. "Flat" brushes are used to apply broad swaths of color. "Bright" is a flat brush with shorter brush hairs. "Filbert" is a flat brush with rounded corners. "Egbert" is a very long, and rare, filbert brush. The artist might also apply paint with a palette knife, which is a flat metal blade. A palette knife may also be used to remove paint from the canvas when necessary. A variety of unconventional tools, such as rags, sponges, and cotton swabs, may be used to apply or remove paint. Some artists even paint with their fingers.

text: Most oil painters paint in layers known as "glazes", a method also simply called "indirect painting". This method was first perfected through an adaptation of the egg tempera painting technique, and was applied by the Flemish painters in Northern Europe with pigments ground in linseed oil. More recently, this approach has been called the "mixed technique" or "mixed method". The first coat (the underpainting) is laid down, often painted with egg tempera or turpentine-thinned paint. This layer helps to "tone" the canvas and to cover the white of the gesso. Many artists use this layer to sketch out the composition. This first layer can be adjusted before proceeding further, an advantage over the "cartooning" method used in fresco technique. After this layer dries, the artist might then proceed by painting a "mosaic" of color swatches, working from darkest to lightest. The borders of the colors are blended together when the "mosaic" is completed, and then left to dry before applying details.

text: Artists in later periods, such as the Impressionist era (late 19th century), often expanded on this wet-on-wet method, blending the wet paint on the canvas without following the Renaissance-era approach of layering and glazing. This method is also called "alla prima". This method was created due to the advent of painting outdoors, instead of inside a studio, because while outside, an artist did not have the time to let each layer of paint dry before adding a new layer. Several contemporary artists use a combination of both techniques to add bold color (wet-on-wet) and obtain the depth of layers through glazing.

text: When the image is finished and has dried for up to a year, an artist often seals the work with a layer of varnish that is typically made from dammar gum crystals dissolved in turpentine. Such varnishes can be removed without disturbing the oil painting itself, to enable cleaning and conservation. Some contemporary artists decide not to varnish their work, preferring the surface unvarnished.

text: Examples of famous works[edit]

text:
Arnolfini Portrait, Jan van Eyck, 1434 (on panel)

La donna velata, Raphael, 1516

The Rape of Europa, Titian, 1562

The Raising of the Cross, Peter Paul Rubens, 1610–11

The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp, Rembrandt, 1632

Innocent X, Velázquez, c 1650

The Milkmaid, Johannes Vermeer, 1658-1660

The Toilet of Venus, François Boucher, 1751

The Blue Boy, Thomas Gainsborough, 1770

Battle of Somosierra, Piotr Michałowski, 1837

Woman with a Parasol - Madame Monet and Her Son, Claude Monet, 1875

Bal du moulin de la Galette, Pierre-Auguste Renoir 1876

Portrait of Dr. Gachet, Vincent van Gogh, 1890

The Cardplayers, Paul Cézanne, 1892

The Old Guitarist, Pablo Picasso, 1903

Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, Pablo Picasso, 1907

Composition VII, Wassily Kandinsky, 1913

Bella with White Collar, Marc Chagall, 1917

tag: ul


document_title: Samsung Gear Fit 2

question_text: when was the samsung gear fit 2 released

text: Samsung Gear Fit 2

text:
Samsung Gear Fit 2

Developer
Samsung Electronics

Manufacturer
Samsung Electronics

Product family
Samsung Gear

Type
fitness wristband, smartwatch

Release date
June 2, 2016 (2016-06-02)

Operating system
Tizen[1]

CPU
1 GHz

Storage
4 GB

Display
Curved AMOLED, 38 mm (1.5 in) diagonal, 216 x 432 pixel[1]

Weight
200mAh lithium-ion battery

Predecessor
Samsung Gear Fit

Website
samsung.com

tag: table

text: The Samsung Gear Fit2 is a fitness wristband made by Samsung Electronics. Unveiled in June 2016, the Gear Fit2 is the successor to the Samsung Gear Fit released in 2014.

text: In comparison to the Gear Fit, The new wristband has an updated design, built-in GPS, and the ability to automatically recognize certain activities, an increasingly common feature in fitness bands and watches.[2] The Gear Fit2 also features a Barometer and Heart Rate Monitor. It is compatible with Android phones running OS 4.4 or later with 1.5 GB of RAM.[3]


document_title: Slide rule

question_text: who invented slide rule and in what year

question_tokens: who invented slide rule and in what year

text: Slide rule

text: Basic concepts[edit]

text: In its most basic form, the slide rule uses two logarithmic scales to allow rapid multiplication and division of numbers. These common operations can be time-consuming and error-prone when done on paper. More elaborate slide rules allow other calculations, such as square roots, exponentials, logarithms, and trigonometric functions.

text: Scales may be grouped in decades, which are numbers ranging from 1 to 10 (i.e. 10n to 10n+1). Thus single decade scales C and D range from 1 to 10 across the entire width of the slide rule while double decade scales A and B range from 1 to 100 over the width of the slide rule.

text: In general, mathematical calculations are performed by aligning a mark on the sliding central strip with a mark on one of the fixed strips, and then observing the relative positions of other marks on the strips. Numbers aligned with the marks give the approximate value of the product, quotient, or other calculated result.

text: The user determines the location of the decimal point in the result, based on mental estimation. Scientific notation is used to track the decimal point in more formal calculations. Addition and subtraction steps in a calculation are generally done mentally or on paper, not on the slide rule.

text: Most slide rules consist of three linear strips of the same length, aligned in parallel and interlocked so that the central strip can be moved lengthwise relative to the other two. The outer two strips are fixed so that their relative positions do not change.

text: Some slide rules ("duplex" models) have scales on both sides of the rule and slide strip, others on one side of the outer strips and both sides of the slide strip (which can usually be pulled out, flipped over and reinserted for convenience), still others on one side only ("simplex" rules). A sliding cursor with a vertical alignment line is used to find corresponding points on scales that are not adjacent to each other or, in duplex models, are on the other side of the rule. The cursor can also record an intermediate result on any of the scales.

text: Operation[edit]

text: Multiplication[edit]

text:
A logarithm transforms the operations of multiplication and division to addition and subtraction according to the rules

log

(
x
y
)
=
log

(
x
)
+
log

(
y
)

{\displaystyle \log(xy)=\log(x)+\log(y)}

 and

log

(
x

/

y
)
=
log

(
x
)
−
log

(
y
)

{\displaystyle \log(x/y)=\log(x)-\log(y)}

. Moving the top scale to the right by a distance of

log

(
x
)

{\displaystyle \log(x)}

, by matching the beginning of the top scale with the label

x

{\displaystyle x}

 on the bottom, aligns each number

y

{\displaystyle y}

, at position

log

(
y
)

{\displaystyle \log(y)}

 on the top scale, with the number at position

log

(
x
)
+
log

(
y
)

{\displaystyle \log(x)+\log(y)}

 on the bottom scale. Because

log

(
x
)
+
log

(
y
)
=
log

(
x
y
)

{\displaystyle \log(x)+\log(y)=\log(xy)}

, this position on the bottom scale gives

x
y

{\displaystyle xy}

, the product of

x

{\displaystyle x}

 and

y

{\displaystyle y}

. For example, to calculate 3×2, the 1 on the top scale is moved to the 2 on the bottom scale. The answer, 6, is read off the bottom scale where 3 is on the top scale. In general, the 1 on the top is moved to a factor on the bottom, and the answer is read off the bottom where the other factor is on the top. This works because the distances from the "1" are proportional to the logarithms of the marked values:

text: Operations may go "off the scale;" for example, the diagram above shows that the slide rule has not positioned the 7 on the upper scale above any number on the lower scale, so it does not give any answer for 2×7. In such cases, the user may slide the upper scale to the left until its right index aligns with the 2, effectively dividing by 10 (by subtracting the full length of the C-scale) and then multiplying by 7, as in the illustration below:

text: Here the user of the slide rule must remember to adjust the decimal point appropriately to correct the final answer. We wanted to find 2×7, but instead we calculated (2/10)×7=0.2×7=1.4. So the true answer is not 1.4 but 14. Resetting the slide is not the only way to handle multiplications that would result in off-scale results, such as 2×7; some other methods are:

text:
Use the double-decade scales A and B.
Use the folded scales. In this example, set the left 1 of C opposite the 2 of D. Move the cursor to 7 on CF, and read the result from DF.
Use the CI inverted scale. Position the 7 on the CI scale above the 2 on the D scale, and then read the result off of the D scale below the 1 on the CI scale. Since 1 occurs in two places on the CI scale, one of them will always be on-scale.
Use both the CI inverted scale and the C scale. Line up the 2 of CI with the 1 of D, and read the result from D, below the 7 on the C scale.
Using a circular slide rule.

tag: ol

text: Method 1 is easy to understand, but entails a loss of precision. Method 3 has the advantage that it only involves two scales.

text: Division[edit]

text: The illustration below demonstrates the computation of 5.5/2. The 2 on the top scale is placed over the 5.5 on the bottom scale. The 1 on the top scale lies above the quotient, 2.75. There is more than one method for doing division, but the method presented here has the advantage that the final result cannot be off-scale, because one has a choice of using the 1 at either end.

text: Other operations[edit]

text: In addition to the logarithmic scales, some slide rules have other mathematical functions encoded on other auxiliary scales. The most popular were trigonometric, usually sine and tangent, common logarithm (log10) (for taking the log of a value on a multiplier scale), natural logarithm (ln) and exponential (ex) scales. Some rules include a Pythagorean scale, to figure sides of triangles, and a scale to figure circles. Others feature scales for calculating hyperbolic functions. On linear rules, the scales and their labeling are highly standardized, with variation usually occurring only in terms of which scales are included and in what order:

text:
A, B
two-decade logarithmic scales, used for finding square roots and squares of numbers

C, D
single-decade logarithmic scales

K
three-decade logarithmic scale, used for finding cube roots and cubes of numbers

CF, DF
"folded" versions of the C and D scales that start from π rather than from unity; these are convenient in two cases. First when the user guesses a product will be close to 10 but is not sure whether it will be slightly less or slightly more than 10, the folded scales avoid the possibility of going off the scale. Second, by making the start π rather than the square root of 10, multiplying or dividing by π (as is common in science and engineering formulas) is simplified.

CI, DI, CIF, DIF
"inverted" scales, running from right to left, used to simplify 1/x steps

S
used for finding sines and cosines on the C (or D) scale

T, T1, T2
used for finding tangents and cotangents on the C and CI (or D and DI) scales

ST, SRT
used for sines and tangents of small angles and degree–radian conversion

L
a linear scale, used along with the C and D scales for finding base-10 logarithms and powers of 10

LLn
a set of log-log scales, used for finding logarithms and exponentials of numbers

Ln
a linear scale, used along with the C and D scales for finding natural (base e) logarithms and

e

x

{\displaystyle e^{x}}

text: The scales on the front and back of a Keuffel and Esser (K&E) 4081-3 slide rule

text: The Binary Slide Rule manufactured by Gilson in 1931 performed an addition and subtraction function limited to fractions.[12]

text: Roots and powers[edit]

text:
There are single-decade (C and D), double-decade (A and B), and triple-decade (K) scales. To compute

x

2

{\displaystyle x^{2}}

, for example, locate x on the D scale and read its square on the A scale. Inverting this process allows square roots to be found, and similarly for the powers 3, 1/3, 2/3, and 3/2. Care must be taken when the base, x, is found in more than one place on its scale. For instance, there are two nines on the A scale; to find the square root of nine, use the first one; the second one gives the square root of 90.

text:
For

x

y

{\displaystyle x^{y}}

 problems, use the LL scales. When several LL scales are present, use the one with x on it. First, align the leftmost 1 on the C scale with x on the LL scale. Then, find y on the C scale and go down to the LL scale with x on it. That scale will indicate the answer. If y is "off the scale," locate

x

y

/

2

{\displaystyle x^{y/2}}

 and square it using the A and B scales as described above. Alternatively, use the rightmost 1 on the C scale, and read the answer off the next higher LL scale. For example, aligning the rightmost 1 on the C scale with 2 on the LL2 scale, 3 on the C scale lines up with 8 on the LL3 scale.

text: Trigonometry[edit]

text: The S, T, and ST scales are used for trig functions and multiples of trig functions, for angles in degrees.

text:
For angles from around 5.7 up to 90 degrees, sines are found by comparing the S scale with C (or D) scale; though on many closed-body rules the S scale relates to the A scale instead, and what follows must be adjusted appropriately. The S scale has a second set of angles (sometimes in a different color), which run in the opposite direction, and are used for cosines. Tangents are found by comparing the T scale with the C (or D) scale for angles less than 45 degrees. For angles greater than 45 degrees the CI scale is used. Common forms such as

k
sin

x

{\displaystyle k\sin x}

 can be read directly from x on the S scale to the result on the D scale, when the C-scale index is set at k. For angles below 5.7 degrees, sines, tangents, and radians are approximately equal, and are found on the ST or SRT (sines, radians, and tangents) scale, or simply divided by 57.3 degrees/radian. Inverse trigonometric functions are found by reversing the process.

text: Many slide rules have S, T, and ST scales marked with degrees and minutes (e.g. some Keuffel and Esser models, late-model Teledyne-Post Mannheim-type rules). So-called decitrig models use decimal fractions of degrees instead.

text: Logarithms and exponentials[edit]

text: Base-10 logarithms and exponentials are found using the L scale, which is linear. Some slide rules have a Ln scale, which is for base e. Logarithms to any other base can be calculated by reversing the procedure for calculating powers of a number. For example, log2 values can be determined by lining up either leftmost or rightmost 1 on the C scale with 2 on the LL2 scale, finding the number whose logarithm is to be calculated on the corresponding LL scale, and reading the log2 value on the C scale.

text: Addition and subtraction[edit]

text: Slide rules are not typically used for addition and subtraction, but it is nevertheless possible to do so using two different techniques.[13]

text: The first method to perform addition and subtraction on the C and D (or any comparable scales) requires converting the problem into one of division. For addition, the quotient of the two variables plus one times the divisor equals their sum:

text: For subtraction, the quotient of the two variables minus one times the divisor equals their difference:

text: This method is similar to the addition/subtraction technique used for high-speed electronic circuits with the logarithmic number system in specialized computer applications like the Gravity Pipe (GRAPE) supercomputer and hidden Markov models.

text: The second method utilizes a sliding linear L scale available on some models. Addition and subtraction are performed by sliding the cursor left (for subtraction) or right (for addition) then returning the slide to 0 to read the result.

text: Physical design[edit]

text: Standard linear rules[edit]

text: The width of the slide rule is quoted in terms of the nominal width of the scales. Scales on the most common "10-inch" models are actually 25 cm, as they were made to metric standards, though some rules offer slightly extended scales to simplify manipulation when a result overflowed. Pocket rules are typically 5 inches. Models a couple of metres wide were sold to be hung in classrooms for teaching purposes.[14]

text: Typically the divisions mark a scale to a precision of two significant figures, and the user estimates the third figure. Some high-end slide rules have magnifier cursors that make the markings easier to see. Such cursors can effectively double the accuracy of readings, permitting a 10-inch slide rule to serve as well as a 20-inch.

text: Various other conveniences have been developed. Trigonometric scales are sometimes dual-labeled, in black and red, with complementary angles, the so-called "Darmstadt" style. Duplex slide rules often duplicate some of the scales on the back. Scales are often "split" to get higher accuracy.

text: Circular slide rules[edit]

text: Circular slide rules come in two basic types, one with two cursors (left), and another with a free dish and one cursor (right). The dual cursor versions perform multiplication and division by holding a fast angle between the cursors as they are rotated around the dial. The onefold cursor version operates more like the standard slide rule through the appropriate alignment of the scales.

text: The basic advantage of a circular slide rule is that the widest dimension of the tool was reduced by a factor of about 3 (i.e. by π). For example, a 10 cm circular would have a maximum precision approximately equal to a 31.4 cm ordinary slide rule. Circular slide rules also eliminate "off-scale" calculations, because the scales were designed to "wrap around"; they never have to be reoriented when results are near 1.0—the rule is always on scale. However, for non-cyclical non-spiral scales such as S, T, and LL's, the scale width is narrowed to make room for end margins.[15]

text: Circular slide rules are mechanically more rugged and smoother-moving, but their scale alignment precision is sensitive to the centering of a central pivot; a minute 0.1 mm off-centre of the pivot can result in a 0.2 mm worst case alignment error. The pivot, however, does prevent scratching of the face and cursors. The highest accuracy scales are placed on the outer rings. Rather than "split" scales, high-end circular rules use spiral scales for more complex operations like log-of-log scales. One eight-inch premium circular rule had a 50-inch spiral log-log scale.

text: The main disadvantages of circular slide rules are the difficulty in locating figures along a dish, and limited number of scales. Another drawback of circular slide rules is that less-important scales are closer to the center, and have lower precisions. Most students learned slide rule use on the linear slide rules, and did not find reason to switch.

text: One slide rule remaining in daily use around the world is the E6B. This is a circular slide rule first created in the 1930s for aircraft pilots to help with dead reckoning. With the aid of scales printed on the frame it also helps with such miscellaneous tasks as converting time, distance, speed, and temperature values, compass errors, and calculating fuel use. The so-called "prayer wheel" is still available in flight shops, and remains widely used. While GPS has reduced the use of dead reckoning for aerial navigation, and handheld calculators have taken over many of its functions, the E6B remains widely used as a primary or backup device and the majority of flight schools demand that their students have some degree of proficiency in its use.

text: Proportion wheels are simple circular slide rules used in graphic design to broaden or slim images and photographs. Lining up the desired values on the emmer and inner wheels (which correspond to the original and desired sizes) will display the proportion as a percentage in a small window. They are not as common since the advent of computerized layout, but are still made and used.

text: In 1952, Swiss watch company Breitling introduced a pilot's wristwatch with an integrated circular slide rule specialized for flight calculations: the Breitling Navitimer. The Navitimer circular rule, referred to by Breitling as a "navigation computer", featured airspeed, rate/time of climb/descent, flight time, distance, and fuel consumption functions, as well as kilometer—nautical mile and gallon—liter fuel amount conversion functions.

text:
A simple circular slide rule, made by Concise Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan, with only inverse, square, and cubic scales. On the reverse is a handy list of 38 metric/imperial conversion factors.

A Russian circular slide rule built like a pocket watch that works as single cursor slide rule since the two needles are ganged together.

A two-scale slide rule built into a ring.

Pickett circular slide rule with two cursors. (4.25 in/10.9 cm width) Reverse has additional scale and one cursor.

Breitling Navitimer wristwatch with circular slide rule

text: Cylindrical slide rules[edit]

text: There are two main types of cylindrical slide rules: those with helical scales such as the Fuller, the Otis King and the Bygrave slide rule, and those with bars, such as the Thacher and some Loga models. In either case, the advantage is a much longer scale, and hence potentially greater precision, than afforded by a straight or circular rule.

text:
Otis King Model K

Thacher slide rule, circa 1890

text: Materials[edit]

text: Traditionally slide rules were made out of hard wood such as mahogany or boxwood with cursors of glass and metal. At least one high precision instrument was made of steel.

text: In 1895, a Japanese firm, Hemmi, started to make slide rules from bamboo, which had the advantages of being dimensionally stable, strong, and naturally self-lubricating. These bamboo slide rules were introduced in Sweden in September, 1933,[16] and probably only a little earlier in Germany. Scales were made of celluloid, plastic, or painted aluminium. Later cursors were acrylics or polycarbonates sliding on Teflon bearings.

text: All premium slide rules had numbers and scales engraved, and then filled with paint or other resin. Painted or imprinted slide rules were viewed as inferior because the markings could wear off. Nevertheless, Pickett, probably America's most successful slide rule company, made all printed scales. Premium slide rules included clever catches so the rule would not fall apart by accident, and bumpers to protect the scales and cursor from rubbing on tabletops. The recommended cleaning method for engraved markings is to scrub lightly with steel-wool.[citation needed] For painted slide rules, use diluted commercial window-cleaning fluid and a soft cloth.[citation needed]

text: History[edit]

text: The slide rule was invented around 1620–1630, shortly after John Napier's publication of the concept of the logarithm. In 1620 Edmund Gunter of Oxford developed a calculating device with a single logarithmic scale; with additional measuring tools it could be used to multiply and divide.[17] In c. 1622, William Oughtred of Cambridge combined two handheld Gunter rules to make a device that is recognizably the modern slide rule.[18] Like his contemporary at Cambridge, Isaac Newton, Oughtred taught his ideas privately to his students. Also like Newton, he became involved in a vitriolic controversy over priority, with his one-time student Richard Delamain and the prior claims of Wingate. Oughtred's ideas were only made public in publications of his student William Forster in 1632 and 1653.

text: In 1677, Henry Coggeshall created a two-foot folding rule for timber measure, called the Coggeshall slide rule, expanding the slide rule's use beyond mathematical inquiry.

text: In 1722, Warner introduced the two- and three-decade scales, and in 1755 Everard included an inverted scale; a slide rule containing all of these scales is usually known as a "polyphase" rule.

text: In 1815, Peter Mark Roget invented the log log slide rule, which included a scale displaying the logarithm of the logarithm. This allowed the user to directly perform calculations involving roots and exponents. This was especially useful for fractional powers.

text: In 1821, Nathaniel Bowditch, described in the American Practical Navigator a "sliding rule" that contained scales trigonometric functions on the fixed part and a line of log-sines and log-tans on the slider used to solve navigation problems.

text: In 1845, Paul Cameron of Glasgow introduced a nautical slide rule capable of answering navigation questions, including right ascension and declination of the sun and principal stars.[19]

text: Modern form[edit]

text: A more modern form of slide rule was created in 1859 by French artillery lieutenant Amédée Mannheim, "who was fortunate in having his rule made by a firm of national reputation and in having it adopted by the French Artillery." It was around this time that engineering became a recognized profession, resulting in widespread slide rule use in Europe–but not in the United States. There, Edwin Thacher's cylindrical rule took hold after 1881. The duplex rule was invented by William Cox in 1891, and was produced by Keuffel and Esser Co. of New York.[20][21]

text: Astronomical work also required precise computations, and, in 19th-century Germany, a steel slide rule about two meters long was used at one observatory. It had a microscope attached, giving it accuracy to six decimal places[citation needed].

text: Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, the slide rule was the symbol of the engineer's profession in the same way the stethoscope is that of the medical profession.[citation needed]

text: German rocket scientist Wernher von Braun bought two Nestler slide rules in the 1930s. Ten years later he brought them with him when he moved to the U.S. after World War II to work on the American space effort. Throughout his life he never used any other slide rule. He used his two Nestlers while heading the NASA program that landed a man on the moon in July 1969.[22]

text: Aluminium Pickett-brand slide rules were carried on Project Apollo space missions. The model N600-ES owned by Buzz Aldrin that flew with him to the moon on Apollo 11 was sold at auction in 2007.[23] The model N600-ES taken along on Apollo 13 in 1970 is owned by the National Air and Space Museum.[24]

text: Some engineering students and engineers carried ten-inch slide rules in belt holsters, a common sight on campuses even into the mid-1970s. Until the advent of the pocket digital calculator, students also might keep a ten- or twenty-inch rule for precision work at home or the office[25] while carrying a five-inch pocket slide rule around with them.

text: In 2004, education researchers David B. Sher and Dean C. Nataro conceived a new type of slide rule based on prosthaphaeresis, an algorithm for rapidly computing products that predates logarithms. However, there has been little practical interest in constructing one beyond the initial prototype.[26]

text: Specialized calculators[edit]

text: Slide rules have often been specialized to varying degrees for their field of use, such as excise, proof calculation, engineering, navigation, etc., but some slide rules are extremely specialized for very narrow applications. For example, the John Rabone & Sons 1892 catalog lists a "Measuring Tape and Cattle Gauge", a device to estimate the weight of a cow from its measurements.

text: There were many specialized slide rules for photographic applications; for example, the actinograph of Hurter and Driffield was a two-slide boxwood, brass, and cardboard device for estimating exposure from time of day, time of year, and latitude.

text: Specialized slide rules were invented for various forms of engineering, business and banking. These often had common calculations directly expressed as special scales, for example loan calculations, optimal purchase quantities, or particular engineering equations. For example, the Fisher Controls company distributed a customized slide rule adapted to solving the equations used for selecting the proper size of industrial flow control valves.[27]

text: Pilot balloon slide rules were used by meteorologists in weather services to determine the upper wind velocities from an ascending hydrogen or helium filled pilot balloon.[28]

text: In World War II, bombardiers and navigators who required quick calculations often used specialized slide rules. One office of the U.S. Navy actually designed a generic slide rule "chassis" with an aluminium body and plastic cursor into which celluloid cards (printed on both sides) could be placed for special calculations. The process was invented to calculate range, fuel use and altitude for aircraft, and then adapted to many other purposes.

text: The E6-B is a circular slide rule used by pilots and navigators.

text: Circular slide rules to estimate ovulation dates and fertility are known as wheel calculators.[29]

text:
John Rabone & Sons 1892 Cattle Gauge

Hurter and Driffield's actinograph

Cryptographic slide rule used by the Swiss Army between 1914 and 1940

text: Decline[edit]

text: The importance of the slide rule began to diminish as electronic computers, a new but rare resource in the 1950s, became more widely available to technical workers during the 1960s. (See History of computing hardware (1960s–present).)

text: Computers also changed the nature of calculation. With slide rules, a great emphasis was put on working the algebra to get expressions into the most computable form. Users would simply approximate or drop small terms to simplify a calculation. FORTRAN allowed complicated formulas to be implemented without such reformulation. Numerical integration was often easier than trying to find closed-form solutions for difficult problems. The young engineer asking for computer time to solve a problem that could have been done by a few swipes on the slide rule became a humorous cliché.

text: Another step away from slide rules was the introduction of relatively inexpensive electronic desktop scientific calculators. The first included the Wang Laboratories LOCI-2,[30][31] introduced in 1965, which used logarithms for multiplication and division; and the Hewlett-Packard HP 9100A, introduced in 1968.[32] Both of these were programmable and provided exponential and logarithmic functions; the HP had trigonometric functions (sine, cosine, and tangent) and hyperbolic trigonometric functions as well. The HP used the CORDIC (coordinate rotation digital computer) algorithm,[33] which allows for calculation of trigonometric functions using only shift and add operations. This method facilitated the development of ever smaller scientific calculators.

text: As with mainframe computing, the availability of these machines did not significantly affect the ubiquitous use of the slide rule until cheap hand held scientific electronic calculators became available in the mid-1970s. at which point, it rapidly declined. The pocket-sized Hewlett-Packard HP-35 scientific calculator was the first handheld device of its type, but it cost US$395 in 1972. This was justifiable for some engineering professionals but too expensive for most students. By 1975, basic four-function electronic calculators could be purchased for less than $50, and, by 1976, the TI-30 scientific calculator was sold for less than $25.

text: Compared to electronic digital calculators[edit]

text: Most people find slide rules difficult to learn and use. Even during their heyday, they never caught on with the general public.[34] Addition and subtraction are not well-supported operations on slide rules and doing a calculation on a slide rule tends to be slower than on a calculator.[35] This led engineers to take mathematical shortcuts favoring operations that were easy on a slide rule, creating inaccuracies and mistakes.[36] On the other hand, the spatial, manual operation of slide rules cultivates in the user an intuition for numerical relationships and scale that people who have used only digital calculators often lack.[37] A slide rule will also display all the terms of a calculation along with the result, thus eliminating uncertainty about what calculation was actually performed.

text: A slide rule requires the user to separately compute the order of magnitude of the answer in order to position the decimal point in the results. For example, 1.5 × 30 (which equals 45) will show the same result as 1,500,000 × 0.03 (which equals 45,000). This separate calculation is less likely to lead to extreme calculation errors, but forces the user to keep track of magnitude in short-term memory (which is error-prone), keep notes (which is cumbersome) or reason about it in every step (which distracts from the other calculation requirements).

text: The typical arithmetic precision of a slide rule is about three significant digits, compared to many digits on digital calculators. As order of magnitude gets the greatest prominence when using a slide rule, users are less likely to make errors of false precision.

text: When performing a sequence of multiplications or divisions by the same number, the answer can often be determined by merely glancing at the slide rule without any manipulation. This can be especially useful when calculating percentages (e.g. for test scores) or when comparing prices (e.g. in dollars per kilogram). Multiple speed-time-distance calculations can be performed hands-free at a glance with a slide rule. Other useful linear conversions such as pounds to kilograms can be easily marked on the rule and used directly in calculations.

text: Being entirely mechanical, a slide rule does not depend on grid electricity or batteries. However, mechanical imprecision in slide rules that were poorly constructed or warped by heat or use will lead to errors.

text: Many sailors keep slide rules as backups for navigation in case of electric failure or battery depletion on long route segments. Slide rules are still commonly used in aviation, particularly for smaller planes. They are being replaced only by integrated, special purpose and expensive flight computers, and not general-purpose calculators. The E6B circular slide rule used by pilots has been in continuous production and remains available in a variety of models. Some wrist watches designed for aviation use still feature slide rule scales to permit quick calculations. The Citizen Skyhawk AT is a notable example.[38]

text: The slide rule today[edit]

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text: Even today, some people prefer a slide rule over an electronic calculator as a practical computing device. Others keep their old slide rules out of a sense of nostalgia, or collect them as a hobby.[39]

text: A popular collectible model is the Keuffel & Esser Deci-Lon, a premium scientific and engineering slide rule available both in a ten-inch (25 cm) "regular" (Deci-Lon 10) and a five-inch "pocket" (Deci-Lon 5) variant. Another prized American model is the eight-inch (20 cm) Scientific Instruments circular rule. Of European rules, Faber-Castell's high-end models are the most popular among collectors.

text: Although a great many slide rules are circulating on the market, specimens in good condition tend to be expensive. Many rules found for sale on online auction sites are damaged or have missing parts, and the seller may not know enough to supply the relevant information. Replacement parts are scarce, expensive, and generally available only for separate purchase on individual collectors' web sites. The Keuffel and Esser rules from the period up to about 1950 are particularly problematic, because the end-pieces on the cursors, made of celluloid, tend to chemically break down over time.

text: There are still a handful of sources for brand new slide rules. The Concise Company of Tokyo, which began as a manufacturer of circular slide rules in July 1954,[40] continues to make and sell them today. In September 2009, on-line retailer ThinkGeek introduced its own brand of straight slide rules, described as "faithful replica[s]" that are "individually hand tooled".[41] These are no longer available in 2012.[42] In addition, Faber-Castell has a number of slide rules still in inventory, available for international purchase through their web store.[43] Proportion wheels are still used in graphic design.

text: Various slide rule simulator apps are available for Android and iOS-based smart phones and tablets.