document_title: South Carolina in the American Civil War

question_text: who was the president when south carolina seceded

text: Background[edit]

text: The white population of the state had strongly supported the institution of slavery since the 18th century. Political leaders such as Democrats John Calhoun and Preston Brooks had inflamed regional and national passions in support of the institution, and many pro-slavery voices had cried for secession. On the outbreak of war, South Carolina had the highest percentage of slaves of any U.S. state at 57% of its population enslaved; 46% of its white families owned at least one slave.

text: For decades, South Carolinian political leaders had promoted regional passions with threats of nullification and secession in the name of southern states' rights and protection of the interests of the slave power.

text: Alfred P. Aldrich, a South Carolinian politician from Barnwell, stated that declaring secession would be necessary if a Republican candidate were to win the 1860 U.S. presidential election, stating that it was the only way for the state to preserve slavery and diminish the influence of the anti-slavery Republican Party, which, were its goals of abolition realized, would result in the "destruction of the South":

text: If the Republican party with its platform of principles, the main feature of which is the abolition of slavery and, therefore, the destruction of the South, carries the country at the next Presidential election, shall we remain in the Union, or form a separate Confederacy? This is the great, grave issue. It is not who shall be President, it is not which party shall rule – it is a question of political and social existence.

text: In a January 1860 speech, South Carolinian congressman Laurence Massillon Keitt, summed up this view in an oratory condemning the Republican Party for its anti-slavery views, claiming that slavery was not morally wrong, but rather, justified:

text: The anti-slavery party contends that slavery is wrong in itself, and the Government is a consolidated national democracy. We of the South contend that slavery is right...

text: Later that year, in December, Keitt would state that South Carolina's declaring of secession was the direct result of slavery:

text: Our people have come to this on the question of slavery.

text: Secession[edit]

text: On November 9, 1860 the South Carolina General Assembly passed a "Resolution to Call the Election of Abraham Lincoln as U.S. President a Hostile Act" and stated its intention to declare secession from the United States.[4]

text: In December 1860, amid the secession crisis, former South Carolinian congressman John McQueen wrote to a group of civic leaders in Richmond, Virginia, regarding the reasons as to why South Carolina was contemplating secession from the Union. In the letter, McQueen claimed that U.S. president-elect Abraham Lincoln supported equality and civil rights for African Americans as well as the abolition of slavery, and thus South Carolina, being opposed to such measures, was compelled to secede:

text: I have never doubted what Virginia would do when the alternatives present themselves to her intelligent and gallant people, to choose between an association with her sisters and the dominion of a people, who have chosen their leader upon the single idea that the African is equal to the Anglo-Saxon, and with the purpose of placing our slaves on equality with ourselves and our friends of every condition! and if we of South Carolina have aided in your deliverance from tyranny and degradation, as you suppose, it will only the more assure us that we have performed our duty to ourselves and our sisters in taking the first decided step to preserve an inheritance left us by an ancestry whose spirit would forbid its being tarnished by assassins. We, of South Carolina, hope soon to great you in a Southern Confederacy, where white men shall rule our destinies, and from which we may transmit to our posterity the rights, privileges and honor left us by our ancestors.

text: South Carolinian religious leader James Henley Thornwell also espoused a similar view to McQueen's, stating that slavery was justified under the Christian religion, and thus, those who viewed slavery as being immoral were opposed to Christianity:

text: The parties in the conflict are not merely abolitionists and slaveholders. They are atheists, socialists, communists, red republicans, Jacobins on the one side, and friends of order and regulated freedom on the other. In one word, the world is the battleground – Christianity and Atheism the combatants; and the progress of humanity at stake.

text: Other religious institutions in South Carolina also expressed support for slavery. The Southern Presbyterian of S.C. declared that:

text: Anti-slavery is essentially infidel. It wars upon the Bible, on the Church of Christ, on the truth of God, on the souls of men.

text: On November 10, 1860 the S.C. General Assembly called for a "Convention of the People of South Carolina" to consider secession. Delegates were to be elected on December 6.[7] The secession convention convened in Columbia on December 17 and voted unanimously, 169-0, to declare secession from the United States. The convention then adjourned to Charleston to draft an ordinance of secession. When the ordinance was adopted on December 20, 1860, South Carolina became the first slave state in the south to declare that it had seceded from the United States.[8][9] James Buchanan, the United States president, declared the ordinance illegal but did not act to stop it.

text: A committee of the convention also drafted a Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina which was adopted on December 24.[10] The secession declaration stated the primary reasoning behind South Carolina's declaring of secession from the Union, which was described as:

text: ...increasing hostility on the part of the non-slaveholding States to the Institution of Slavery ...

text: The declaration also claims that secession was declared as a result of the refusal of free states to enforce the Fugitive Slave Acts. Although the declaration does argue that secession is justified on the grounds of U.S. "encroachments upon the reserved rights of the States," the grievances that the declaration goes on to list are mainly concerned with the property of rights of slave holders. Broadly speaking, the declaration argues that the U.S. Constitution was framed to establish each State "as an equal" in the Union, with "separate control over its own institutions", such as "the right of property in slaves."

text: We affirm that these ends for which this Government was instituted have been defeated, and the Government itself has been made destructive of them by the action of the non-slaveholding States. Those States have assumed the right of deciding upon the propriety of our domestic institutions; and have denied the rights of property established in fifteen of the States and recognized by the Constitution; they have denounced as sinful the institution of Slavery; they have permitted the open establishment among them of societies, whose avowed object is to disturb the peace and to eloign the property of the citizens of other States. They have encouraged and assisted thousands of our slaves to leave their homes; and those who remain, have been incited by emissaries, books and pictures to servile insurrection.

text: A repeated concern is runaway slaves. The declaration argues that parts of the U.S. Constitution were specifically written to ensure the return of slaves who had escaped to other states, and quotes the 4th Article: "No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up, on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due." The declaration goes on to state that this stipulation of the Constitution was so important to the original signers, "that without it that compact [the Constitution] would not have been made." Laws from the "General Government" upheld this stipulation "for many years," the declaration says, but "an increasing hostility on the part of the non-slaveholding States to the Institution of Slavery has led to a disregard of their obligations." Because the constitutional agreement had been "deliberately broken and disregarded by the non-slaveholding States," the consequence was that "South Carolina is released from her obligation" to be part of the Union.

text: A further concern was Lincoln's recent election to the presidency, whom they claimed desired to see slavery on "the course of ultimate extinction":

text: A geographical line has been drawn across the Union, and all the States north of that line have united in the election of a man to the high office of President of the United States whose opinions and purposes are hostile to slavery. He is to be entrusted with the administration of the Common Government, because he has declared that that "Government cannot endure permanently half slave, half free," and that the public mind must rest in the belief that Slavery is in the course of ultimate extinction.[11]

text: The South Carolinian secession declaration of December 1860 also channeled some elements from the U.S. Declaration of Independence from July 1776. However, the South Carolinian version omitted the phrases that "all men are created equal", "that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights", and mentions of the "consent of the governed". Professor and historian Harry V. Jaffa noted these omissions as significant in his 2000 book, A New Birth of Freedom: Abraham Lincoln and the Coming of the Civil War:

text: South Carolina cites, loosely, but with substantial accuracy, some of the language of the original Declaration. That Declaration does say that it is the right of the people to abolish any form of government that becomes destructive of the ends for which it was established. But South Carolina does not repeat the preceding language in the earlier document: 'We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal'...

text: Jaffa states that South Carolina omitted references to human equality and consent of the governed, as due to their racist and pro-slavery views, secessionist South Carolinians did not believe in those ideals:

text: [G]overnments are legitimate only insofar as their "just powers" are derived "from the consent of the governed." All of the foregoing is omitted from South Carolina's declaration, for obvious reasons. In no sense could it have been said that the slaves in South Carolina were governed by powers derived from their consent. Nor could it be said that South Carolina was separating itself from the government of the Union because that government had become destructive of the ends for which it was established. South Carolina in 1860 had an entirely different idea of what the ends of government ought to be from that of 1776 or 1787. That difference can be summed up in the difference between holding slavery to be an evil, if possibly a necessary evil, and holding it to be a positive good.

text: On December 25, the day following South Carolina's declaration of secession, a South Carolinian convention delivered an "Address to the Slaveholding States":

text: We prefer, however, our system of industry, by which labor and capital are identified in interest, and capital, therefore, protects labor–by which our population doubles every twenty years–by which starvation is unknown, and abundance crowns the land–by which order is preserved by unpaid police, and the most fertile regions of the world, where the white man cannot labor, are brought into usefulness by the labor of the African, and the whole world is blessed by our own productions. ... We ask you to join us, in forming a Confederacy of Slaveholding States.

text: "Slavery, not states' rights, birthed the Civil War,"[14] argues sociologist James W. Loewen. Writing of South Carolina's Declaration of Secession, Loewen writes that

text: South Carolina was further upset that New York no longer allowed "slavery transit." In the past, if Charleston gentry wanted to spend August in the Hamptons, they could bring their cook along. No longer — and South Carolina's delegates were outraged. In addition, they objected that New England states let black men vote and tolerated abolitionist societies. According to South Carolina, states should not have the right to let their citizens assemble and speak freely when what they said threatened slavery. Other seceding states echoed South Carolina. "Our position is thoroughly identified with the institution of slavery — the greatest material interest of the world," proclaimed Mississippi in its own secession declaration, passed Jan. 9, 1861. "Its labor supplies the product which constitutes by far the largest and most important portions of the commerce of the earth. . . . A blow at slavery is a blow at commerce and civilization."

text: The state adopted the palmetto flag as its banner, a slightly modified version of which is used as its current state flag.[15] South Carolina after secession was frequently called the "Palmetto Republic".[16]

text: After South Carolina declared its secession, former congressman James L. Petigru famously remarked, "South Carolina is too small for a republic and too large for an insane asylum."[17] Soon afterwards, South Carolina began preparing for a presumed U.S. military response while working to convince other southern states to secede as well and join in a confederacy of southern states.

text: On February 4, 1861, in Montgomery, Alabama, a convention consisting of delegates from South Carolina, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia, and Louisiana met to form a new constitution and government modeled on that of the United States.[18] On February 8, 1861, South Carolina officially joined the Confederacy. According to one South Carolinian newspaper editor:

text: The South is now in the formation of a Slave Republic...

text: South Carolina's declaring of secession was supported by the state's religious figures, who claimed that it was consistent with the tenets of their religion:

text: The triumphs of Christianity rest this very hour upon slavery; and slavery depends on the triumphs of the South... This war is the servant of slavery.

text: American Civil War[edit]

text: Fort Sumter[edit]

text: Six days after secession, on the day after Christmas, Major Robert Anderson, commander of the U.S. troops in Charleston, withdrew his men to the island fortress of Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor. South Carolina militia swarmed over the abandoned mainland batteries and trained their guns on the island. Sumter was the key position for preventing a naval attack upon Charleston, so secessionists were determined not to allow U.S. forces to remain there indefinitely. More importantly, South Carolina's claim of independence would look empty if U.S. forces controlled its largest harbor. On January 9, 1861, the U.S. ship Star of the West approached to resupply the fort. Cadets from The Citadel, The Military College of South Carolina fired upon the Star of the West, striking the ship three times and causing it to retreat back to New York.

text: Mississippi declared its secession several weeks after South Carolina, and five other states of the lower South soon followed. Both the outgoing Buchanan administration and President-elect Lincoln denied that any state had a right to secede. On February 4, a congress of the seven seceding states met in Montgomery, Alabama, and approved a new constitution for the Confederate States of America. South Carolina entered the Confederacy on February 8, 1861, fewer than six weeks after declaring itself the independent State of South Carolina.

text: Upper Southern slave states such as Virginia and North Carolina, which had initially voted against secession, called a peace conference, to little effect. Meanwhile, Virginian orator Roger Pryor barreled into Charleston and proclaimed that the only way to get his state to join the Confederacy was for South Carolina to instigate war with the United States. The obvious place to start was right in the midst of Charleston Harbor.

text: On April 10, the Mercury reprinted stories from New York papers that told of a naval expedition that had been sent southward toward Charleston. Lincoln advised the governor of South Carolina that the ships were sent to resupply the fort, not to reinforce it. The Carolinians could no longer wait if they hoped to take the fort before the U.S. Navy arrived. About 6,000 men were stationed around the rim of the harbor, ready to take on the 60 men in Fort Sumter. At 4:30 a.m. on April 12, after two days of intense negotiations, and with Union ships approaching the harbor, the firing began. Students from The Citadel were among those firing the first shots of the war, though Edmund Ruffin is usually credited with firing the first shot. Thirty-four hours later, Anderson's men raised the white flag and were allowed to leave the fort with colors flying and drums beating, saluting the U.S. flag with a 50-gun salute before taking it down. During this salute, one of the guns exploded, killing a young soldier—the only casualty of the bombardment and the first casualty of the war.

text: In December 1861, South Carolina received $100,000 from Georgia after a disastrous fire in Charleston.

text: Fort Wagner[edit]

text: Fort Wagner was the scene of two battles. The First Battle of Fort Wagner, occurred on July 11, 1863. Only 12 Confederate soldiers were killed, as opposed to the Union's 339 losses.[21]

text: The Second Battle of Fort Wagner, a week later, is better known. This was the Union attack on July 18, 1863, led by the 54th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry, one of the first major American military units made up of black soldiers. Colonel Robert Gould Shaw led the 54th Massachusetts on foot while they charged, and was killed in the assault.[21]

text: Although a tactical defeat, the publicity of the battle of Fort Wagner led to further action for black troops in the Civil War, and it spurred additional recruitment that gave the Union Army a further numerical advantage in troops over the South.[21]

text: The Union besieged the fort after the unsuccessful assault. By August 25, Union entrenchments were close enough to attempt an assault on the Advanced Rifle Pits, 240 yards in front of the Battery, but this attempt was defeated. A second attempt, by the 24th Mass. Inf., on August 26 was successful. After enduring almost 60 days of heavy shelling, the Confederates abandoned it on the night of September 6–7, 1863. withdrawing all operable cannons and the garrison.[21][22]

text: The war ends[edit]

text: The Confederacy was at a disadvantage in number, weaponry, and supplies. Union ships sailed south and blocked off one port after another. As early as November, Union troops occupied the Sea Islands in the Beaufort area, establishing an important base for the men and ships who would obstruct the ports at Charleston and Savannah. When the plantation owners, many of which had already gone off with the Confederate army elsewhere, fled the area, the Sea Island slaves became the first "freedmen" of the war, and the Sea Islands became the laboratory for Union plans to educate the African Americans for their eventual role as full American citizens Despite South Carolina's important role in the start of the war, and a long unsuccessful attempt to take Charleston from 1863 onward, few military engagements occurred within the state's borders until 1865, when Sherman's Army, having already completed its March to the Sea in Savannah, marched to Columbia and leveled most of the town, as well as a number of towns along the way and afterward. South Carolina lost 12,922 men to the war, 23% of its male white population of fighting age, and the highest percentage of any state in the nation. Sherman's 1865 march through the Carolinas resulted in the burning of Columbia and numerous other towns. The destruction his troops wrought upon South Carolina was even worse than in Georgia, because many of his men bore a particular grudge against the state and its citizens, who they blamed for starting the war. One of Sherman's men declared, "Here is where treason began and, by God, here is where it shall end!"[23] Poverty would mark the state for generations to come.

text: In January 1865, the Charleston Courier newspaper condemned suggestions that the Confederacy abandon slavery were it to help in gaining independence, stating that such suggestions were "folly":

text: To talk of maintaining our independence while we abolish slavery is simply to talk folly.

text: On February 21, 1865, with the Confederate forces finally evacuated from Charleston, the black 54th Massachusetts Regiment marched through the city. At a ceremony at which the U.S. flag was once again raised over Fort Sumter, former fort commander Robert Anderson was joined on the platform by two men: African American Union hero Robert Smalls and the son of Denmark Vesey.

text: Battles in South Carolina[edit]

text:
Battle of Fort Sumter
Battle of Port Royal
Battle of Secessionville
Battle of Simmon's Bluff
First Battle of Charleston Harbor
Second Battle of Charleston Harbor
Second Battle of Fort Sumter
First Battle of Fort Wagner
Battle of Grimball's Landing
Second Battle of Fort Wagner (Morris Island)
Battle of Honey Hill
Battle of Tulifinny
Battle of Rivers' Bridge
Battle of Anderson County
Battle of Brattonsville
Battle of Broxton's Bridge
Battle of Cheraw
Battle of Gamble's Hotel (The Columns)
Battle of Aiken


document_title: La Liga

question_text: la liga standings how many games in a season

root

text: La Liga

text: Competition format[edit]

text: The competition format follows the usual double round-robin format. During the course of a season, which lasts from August to May, each club plays every other club twice, once at home and once away, for a total of 38 matchdays. Teams receive three points for a win, one point for a draw, and no points for a loss. Teams are ranked by total points, with the highest-ranked club at the end of the season crowned champion.

tag: p

text: Promotion and relegation[edit]

text: A system of promotion and relegation exists between the Primera División and the Segunda División. The three lowest placed teams in La Liga are relegated to the Segunda División, and the top two teams from the Segunda División promoted to La Liga, with an additional club promoted after a series of play-offs involving the third, fourth, fifth and sixth placed clubs. Below is a complete record of how many teams played in each season throughout the league's history;

text:
1929–1934: 10 clubs
1934–1941: 12 clubs
1941–1950: 14 clubs
1950–1971: 16 clubs
1971–1987: 18 clubs
1987–1995: 20 clubs
1995–1997: 22 clubs
1997–present: 20 clubs

tag: table

text: Ranking of clubs on equal points[edit]

text: If points are equal between two or more clubs, the rules are:[5]

text:
If all clubs involved have played each other twice:

If the tie is between two clubs, then the tie is broken using the goal difference for the two matches those clubs have played against each other (without away goals rule)
If the tie is between more than two clubs, then the tie is broken using the games the clubs have played against each other:

a) head-to-head points
b) head-to-head goal difference
c) head-to-head goals scored

If two legged games between all clubs involved have not been played, or the tie is not broken by the rules above, it is broken using:

a) total goal difference
b) total goals scored

If the tie is still not broken, the winner will be determined by Fair Play scales.[6] These are:

yellow card, 1 point
doubled yellow card/ejection, 2 points
direct red card, 3 points
suspension or disqualification of coach, executive or other club personnel (outside referees' decisions), 5 points
misconduct of the supporters: mild 5 points, serious 6 points, very serious 7 points
stadium closure, 10 points
if the Competition Committee removes a penalty, the points are also removed

If the tie is still not broken, it will be resolved with a tie-break match in a neutral stadium.

tag: ul

text: Qualifying for European competitions[edit]

text: The top teams in La Liga qualify for the UEFA Champions League. The first, second, third and fourth placed teams directly enter the group stage of UEFA Champions League. Teams placed fifth and sixth play in the UEFA Europa League, along with the cup winners. If both teams in the cup final finish in the top six, an additional berth in the Europa League is given to the team that finishes in seventh.

text: History[edit]

text: Foundation[edit]

text: In April 1927, José María Acha, a director at Arenas Club de Getxo, first proposed the idea of a national league in Spain. After much debate about the size of the league and who would take part, the Real Federación Española de Fútbol eventually agreed on the ten teams who would form the first Primera División in 1929. Real Madrid, Barcelona, Athletic Bilbao, Real Sociedad, Arenas Club de Getxo and Real Unión were all selected as previous winners of the Copa del Rey. Atlético Madrid, Espanyol and Europa qualified as Copa del Rey runners-up and Racing de Santander qualified through a knockout competition. Only three of the founding clubs, Real Madrid, Barcelona and Athletic Bilbao, have never been relegated from the Primera División.

text: The 1930s[edit]

text: Although Barcelona won the very first Liga in 1929 and Real Madrid won their first titles in 1932 and 1933, it was Athletic Bilbao that set the early pace winning Primera División in 1930, 1931, 1934 and 1936. They were also runners-up in 1932 and 1933. In 1935, Real Betis, then known as Betis Balompié, won their only title to date. Primera División was suspended during the Spanish Civil War.

text: In 1937, the teams in the Republican area of Spain, with the notable exception of the two Madrid clubs, competed in the Mediterranean League and Barcelona emerged as champions. Seventy years later, on 28 September 2007, Barcelona requested the RFEF to recognise that title as a Liga title. This action was taken after RFEF was asked to recognise Levante FC's Copa de la España Libre win as equivalent to Copa del Rey trophy. Nevertheless, the governing body of Spanish football has not made an outright decision yet.

text: The 1940s[edit]

text: When the Primera División resumed after the Spanish Civil War, it was Atlético Aviación (nowadays Atlético Madrid), Valencia, and Sevilla that initially emerged as the strongest clubs. Atlético were only awarded a place during the 1939–40 season as a replacement for Real Oviedo, whose ground had been damaged during the war. The club subsequently won their first Liga title and retained it in 1941. While other clubs lost players to exile, execution, and as casualties of the war, the Atlético team was reinforced by a merger. The young, pre-war squad of Valencia had also remained intact and in the post-war years matured into champions, gaining three Liga titles in 1942, 1944, and 1947. They were also runners-up in 1948 and 1949. Sevilla also enjoyed a brief golden era, finishing as runners-up in 1940 and 1942 before winning their only title to date in 1946. By the latter part of the decade, Barcelona began to emerge as a force when they were crowned champions in 1945, 1948 and 1949.

text: Alfredo Di Stéfano, Puskás, Kubala and Suárez[edit]

text: Although Atlético Madrid, previously known as Atlético Aviación, were champions in 1950 and 1951 under catenaccio mastermind Helenio Herrera, the 1950s saw the beginning of the Barcelona/Real Madrid dominance. During the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s, there were strict limits imposed on foreign players. In most cases, clubs could only have three foreign players in their squads, meaning that at least eight local players had to play in every game. During the 1950s, however, these rules were circumvented by Real Madrid and Barcelona, who naturalized Alfredo Di Stéfano, Ferenc Puskás, and László Kubala. Inspired by Kubala, Barça won the title in 1952 and 1953. Di Stéfano, Puskás, Raymond Kopa and Francisco Gento formed the nucleus of the Real Madrid team that dominated the second half of the 1950s. Madrid won the first division for the first time as Real Madrid in 1954 and retained its title in 1955. They were winners again in 1957 and 1958, with only Athletic Bilbao interrupting their sequence. During this period, Real Madrid also won an unprecedented five consecutive European Cups. Barcelona, with a team coached by Helenio Herrera and featuring Luis Suárez, won the title in 1959 and 1960.

text: The Madrid years[edit]

text: Between 1961 and 1980, Real Madrid dominated the Primera División, being crowned champions 14 times, although their only European Cup triumph during this era came in 1966, a sharp contrast to their five successive victories in the competition starting with the first final in 1956.

text: This included a five-in-a-row sequence from 1961 to 1965 and two three-in-a-row sequences (1967–1969 and 1978–1980). During this era, only Atlético Madrid offered Real Madrid any serious challenge, adding four more titles to their tally in 1966, 1970, 1973, and 1977. Of the other clubs, only Valencia in 1971 and the Johan Cruyff-inspired Barcelona of 1974 managed to break the dominance of Real Madrid.

text: The 1980s[edit]

text: The Madrid winning sequence was ended more significantly in 1981 when Real Sociedad won their first-ever title. They retained it in 1982 and their two in a row was followed by another by their fellow Basques Athletic Bilbao, who won back-to-back titles in 1983 and 1984. Terry Venables led Barcelona to a solitary title in 1985 before Real Madrid won again another five in a row sequence (1986–1990) with a team guided by Leo Beenhakker and including Hugo Sánchez and the legendary La Quinta del Buitre – Emilio Butragueño, Manolo Sanchís, Martín Vázquez, Míchel and Miguel Pardeza.[citation needed]

text: The 1990s[edit]

text: Johan Cruyff returned to Barcelona as manager in 1988, and assembled the legendary Dream Team. Cruyff introduced players like Pep Guardiola, José Mari Bakero, Txiki Begiristain, Andoni Goikoetxea, Ronald Koeman, Michael Laudrup, Romário and Hristo Stoichkov. This team won Primera División four times between 1991 and 1994 and won the European Cup in 1992. Laudrup then moved to arch-rivals Real Madrid, and helped them end Barcelona's run in 1995. Atlético Madrid won their ninth Primera División title in 1996 before Real Madrid added another Liga trophy to their cabinet in 1997. After the success of Cruyff, another Dutchman – Ajax manager Louis van Gaal – arrived at the Camp Nou, and with the talents of Luís Figo, Luis Enrique, and Rivaldo, Barcelona again won the title in 1998 and 1999.

text: The 2000s[edit]

text: As Primera División entered a new century, the Big Two of Real Madrid and Barcelona found themselves facing new challengers. Between 1993 and 2004, Deportivo La Coruña finished in the top three on ten occasions, a better record than either Real Madrid or Barcelona, and in 2000, under Javier Irureta, they became the ninth team to be crowned champions. Real Madrid won two more Liga titles in 2001 and 2003 and also the UEFA Champions League in 2000 and 2002, and won their 30th league title in 2007 after a three-year drought. They were challenged by a re-emerging Valencia in both competitions. Under the management of Héctor Cúper, Valencia finished as Champions League runners-up in 2000 and 2001. His successor, Rafael Benítez, built on this and led the club to a Liga title in 2002 and winning the double with a league title and the UEFA Cup in 2004. The 2004–05 season saw a resurgent Barcelona, inspired by the brilliant Ronaldinho, win their first title of the new century, in addition to the Liga-Champions League double in 2005–06. With world-class players like Raúl, Ruud van Nistelrooy and Gonzalo Higuaín, Real Madrid won back-to-back La Liga titles in 2006–07 and 2007–08 season. Under Pep Guardiola's Dream Team, powered by La Masia talents such as Lionel Messi, Xavi and Andrés Iniesta, Barcelona added three straight Liga titles (2008–09, 2009–10 and 2010–11).

text: The 2010s[edit]

text: In the 2011–12 season, Real Madrid won its 32nd title under the management of José Mourinho with a record-breaking points tally of 100, a record 121 number of goals scored, most overall (32) and away (16) wins in a single season in La Liga history. Barcelona coach Tito Vilanova matched the 100-point record a year later in 2012–13 while battling terminal cancer. Atlético Madrid won the 2013–14 title, their first in 18 years, and the first title in ten years that Real Madrid or Barcelona had not won. Barcelona won the 2014–15 season as well as the 2015–16 season resulting in 6 titles in 8 years. Real Madrid have brought back the La Liga title under the management of Zinedine Zidane for the 2016–17 season.

text: Teams[edit]

text: A total of 20 teams contest the league in its current season, including the top 17 sides from the 2016–17 season and three promoted from the 2016–17 Segunda División. These are two clubs promoted directly from that division (Levante and Girona), and the winner of the play-offs, Getafe.

text: Stadiums and locations[edit]

text:
Team
Location
Stadium
Capacity

Alavés
Vitoria-Gasteiz
Mendizorrotza
7004198400000000000♠19,840[7]

Athletic Bilbao
Bilbao
San Mamés
7004532890000000000♠53,289[8]

Atlético Madrid
Madrid
Wanda Metropolitano
7004680000000000000♠68,000[9]

Barcelona
Barcelona
Camp Nou
7004993540000000000♠99,354[10]

Celta Vigo
Vigo
Balaídos
7004290000000000000♠29,000[11]

Deportivo La Coruña
A Coruña
Abanca-Riazor
7004329120000000000♠32,912[12]

Eibar
Eibar
Ipurua
7003708300000000000♠7,083[13]

Espanyol
Barcelona
RCDE Stadium
7004405000000000000♠40,500[14]

Getafe
Getafe
Coliseum Alfonso Pérez
7004170000000000000♠17,000[15]

Girona
Girona
Montilivi
7004135000000000000♠13,500[16]

Las Palmas
Las Palmas
Gran Canaria
7004331110000000000♠33,111[17]

Leganés
Leganés
Butarque
7004109220000000000♠10,922[18]

Levante
Valencia
Ciutat de València
7004263540000000000♠26,354[19]

Málaga
Málaga
La Rosaleda
7004300440000000000♠30,044[20]

Real Betis
Seville
Benito Villamarín
7004607200000000000♠60,720[21]

Real Madrid
Madrid
Santiago Bernabéu
7004810440000000000♠81,044[22]

Real Sociedad
San Sebastián
Anoeta
7004320000000000000♠32,000[23]

Sevilla
Seville
Ramón Sánchez Pizjuán
7004427140000000000♠42,714[24]

Valencia
Valencia
Mestalla
7004495000000000000♠49,500[25]

Villarreal
Villarreal
Estadio de la Cerámica
7004248900000000000♠24,890[26]

text: La Liga clubs in Europe[edit]

text: The Primera División is currently first in the UEFA rankings of European leagues based on their performances in European competitions over a five-year period, ahead of Germany's Bundesliga ,England's Premier League and Italy's Serie A in fourth.[27]

text: Real Madrid, Barcelona and Valencia are in the top ten most successful clubs in European football in terms of total European trophies.[citation needed] These three clubs, along with Sevilla and Atlético Madrid, are five of the most successful teams in European competition history; these five are the only Spanish clubs to have won five or more international trophies. Deportivo La Coruña are the sixth-most participating Spanish team in the Champions League — after Real Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia, Atletico Madrid and Sevilla FC — with five Champions League appearances in a row, including a semifinal appearance in 2003–04.[28]

text: In 2005–06, Barcelona won the Champions League and Sevilla won the UEFA Cup, making the La Liga the first league to do the European "double" since 1997. On 25 August 2015, La Liga became the first league to classify five teams for the UEFA Champions League group stage (Atlético Madrid, Barcelona, Real Madrid, Sevilla and Valencia).

text: Champions[edit]

text: Performance by club[edit]

text:
Teams
Winners
Runners-up
Winning seasons

Real Madrid

33

23

1931–32, 1932–33, 1953–54, 1954–55, 1956–57, 1957–58, 1960–61, 1961–62, 1962–63, 1963–64, 1964–65, 1966–67, 1967–68, 1968–69, 1971–72, 1974–75, 1975–76, 1977–78, 1978–79, 1979–80, 1985–86, 1986–87, 1987–88, 1988–89, 1989–90, 1994–95, 1996–97, 2000–01, 2002–03, 2006–07, 2007–08, 2011–12, 2016–17

Barcelona

24

25

1929, 1944–45, 1947–48, 1948–49, 1951–52, 1952–53, 1958–59, 1959–60, 1973–74, 1984–85, 1990–91, 1991–92, 1992–93, 1993–94, 1997–98, 1998–99, 2004–05, 2005–06, 2008–09, 2009–10, 2010–11, 2012–13, 2014–15, 2015–16

Atlético Madrid

10

8

1939–40, 1940–41, 1949–50, 1950–51, 1965–66, 1969–70, 1972–73, 1976–77, 1995–96, 2013–14

Athletic Bilbao

8

7

1929–30, 1930–31, 1933–34, 1935–36, 1942–43, 1955–56, 1982–83, 1983–84

Valencia

6

6

1941–42, 1943–44, 1946–47, 1970–71, 2001–02, 2003–04

Real Sociedad

2

3

1980–81, 1981–82

Deportivo La Coruña

1

5

1999–00

Sevilla

1

4

1945–46

Real Betis

1

0

1934–35

text: All-time La Liga table[edit]

text: The All-time La Liga table[29] is an overall record of all match results, points, and goals of every team that has played in La Liga since its inception in 1929. The table is accurate as of the end of the 2016–17 season.[30] Teams in bold are part of the 2017–18 La Liga.

text:
Pos
Team
S
Pts
GP
W
D
L
GF
GA
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
T
Debut
Since/
Last App
Best

1
Real Madrid
86
4385
2762
1647
552
563
5947
3140
33
23
8
8
3
4
79
1929
1929
1

2
Barcelona
86
4262
2762
1581
560
621
5900
3114
24
25
12
12
4
6
83
1929
1929
1

3
Atlético Madrid
80
3442
2614
1241
598
775
4534
3309
10
8
16
9
7
6
56
1929
2002–03
1

4
Valencia
82
3386
2664
1187
616
861
4398
3469
6
6
10
11
10
7
50
1931–32
1987–88
1

5
Athletic Bilbao
86
3368
2762
1209
633
920
4631
3700
8
7
10
5
8
10
49
1929
1929
1

6
Sevilla
73
2819
2408
990
531
887
3680
3373
1
4
4
5
12
6
32
1934–35
2001–02
1

7
Espanyol
82
2792
2626
948
608
1070
3609
3889
–
–
4
5
2
5
16
1929
1994–95
3

8
Real Sociedad
70
2573
2302
864
577
861
3228
3230
2
3
2
5
4
3
19
1929
2010–11
1

9
Zaragoza
58
2109
1986
698
522
766
2683
2847
–
1
4
5
4
4
18
1939–40
2012–13
2

10
Real Betis
51
1884
1728
606
440
682
2159
2492
1
–
2
3
4
4
14
1932–33
2015–16
1

11
Deportivo La Coruña
45
1814
1530
563
392
575
2052
2188
1
5
4
1
–
1
12
1941–42
2014–15
1

12
Celta Vigo
51
1789
1698
586
389
723
2278
2624
–
–
–
2
4
5
11
1939–40
2012–13
4

13
Valladolid
42
1471
1466
463
384
619
1767
2180
–
–
–
1
1
1
3
1948–49
2013–14
4

14
Racing Santander
44
1416
1428
453
336
639
1843
2368
–
1
1
2
–
1
5
1929
2011–12
2

15
Sporting Gijón
43
1389
1458
471
358
629
1753
2152
–
1
1
2
2
1
7
1944–45
2015–16
2

16
Osasuna
37
1351
1318
426
327
565
1500
1834
–
–
–
2
2
2
6
1935–36
2016–17
4

17
Málaga
36
1314
1255
390
330
535
1421
1763
–
–
–
1
–
1
2
1949–50
2008–09
4

18
Oviedo
38
1174
1192
408
292
492
1642
1951
–
–
3
2
2
4
11
1933–34
2000–01
3

19
Mallorca
27
1148
988
333
256
399
1182
1371
–
–
2
–
2
1
5
1960–61
2012–13
3

20
Las Palmas
33
1020
1096
367
242
487
1347
1746
–
1
1
1
1
1
5
1951–52
2015–16
2

21
Villarreal
17
970
646
266
172
208
892
789
–
1
1
2
3
2
9
1998–99
2013–14
2

22
Granada
23
667
742
218
175
349
819
1157
–
–
–
–
–
2
2
1941–42
2016–17
6

23
Rayo Vallecano
17
662
652
189
148
305
760
1088
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1977–78
2015–16
8

24
Elche
21
606
678
203
180
295
750
1022
–
–
–
–
1
1
2
1959–60
2014–15
5

25
Getafe
12
553
456
147
112
197
520
633
–
–
–
–
–
1
1
2004–05
2015–16
6

26
Hércules
20
538
628
184
149
295
716
1050
–
–
–
–
1
4
5
1935–36
2010–11
5

27
Tenerife
13
510
494
155
128
211
619
744
–
–
–
–
2
–
2
1961–62
2009–10
5

28
Murcia
18
445
586
145
143
298
607
992
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1940–41
2007–08
11

29
Alavés
12
421
380
125
81
174
458
623
–
–
–
–
–
1
1
1930–31
2016–17
6

30
Levante
11
416
402
113
95
194
430
632
–
–
–
–
–
1
1
1963–64
2015–16
6

31
Salamanca
12
375
423
123
102
198
422
581
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1974–75
1998–99
7

32
Sabadell
14
353
426
129
95
202
492
720
–
–
–
1
1
–
2
1943–44
1987–88
4

33
Cádiz
12
343
448
104
127
217
393
662
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1977–78
2005–06
12

34
Logroñés
9
293
346
96
92
158
291
489
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1987–88
1996–97
7

35
Castellón
11
285
334
103
79
152
419
588
–
–
–
1
2
–
3
1941–42
1990–91
4

36
Albacete
7
277
270
76
76
118
320
410
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1991–92
2004–05
7

37
Almería
6
242
228
62
56
110
244
366
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2007–08
2014–15
8

38
Córdoba
9
230
282
82
63
137
285
430
–
–
–
–
1
–
1
1962–63
2014–15
5

39
Compostela
4
190
160
52
45
63
199
241
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1994–95
1997–98
10

40
Recreativo
5
188
186
50
46
90
202
296
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1978–79
2008–09
8

41
Burgos CF
6
168
204
59
50
95
216
310
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1971–72
1979–80
12

42
Pontevedra
6
150
180
53
44
83
165
221
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1963–64
1969–70
7

43
Numancia
4
148
152
37
37
78
155
253
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1999–00
2008–09
17

44
Eibar
3
132
114
35
27
52
139
167
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2014–15
2014–15
10

45
Arenas
7
107
130
43
21
66
227
308
–
–
1
–
3
–
4
1929
1934–35
3

46
Real Burgos
3
96
114
26
44
44
101
139
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1990–91
1992–93
9

47
Gimnàstic
4
91
116
34
16
66
181
295
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1947–48
2006–07
7

48
Extremadura
2
83
80
20
23
37
62
117
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1996–97
1998–99
17

49
Mérida
2
81
80
19
24
37
70
115
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1995–96
1997–98
19

50
Alcoyano
4
76
108
30
16
62
145
252
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1945–46
1950–51
10

51
Jaén
3
71
90
29
13
48
121
183
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1953–54
1957–58
14

52
Real Unión
4
56
72
21
14
37
153
184
–
–
–
–
–
1
1
1929
1931–32
6

53
AD Almería
2
52
68
17
18
33
71
116
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1979–80
1980–81
10

54
Europa
3
42
54
18
6
30
97
131
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1929
1930–31
8

55
Lleida
2
40
68
13
14
41
70
182
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1950–51
1993–94
16

56
Leganés
1
35
38
8
11
19
36
55
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2016–17
2016–17
17

57
Xerez
1
34
38
8
10
20
38
66
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2009–10
2009–10
20

58
Condal
1
22
30
7
8
15
37
57
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1956–57
1956–57
16

59
Atlético Tetuán
1
19
30
7
5
18
51
85
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1951–52
1951–52
16

60
Cultural Leonesa
1
14
30
5
4
21
34
65
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1955–56
1955–56
15

61
Girona
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2017–18
2017–18
–

text: League or status at 2017–18:

text:
2017–18 La Liga

2017–18 Segunda División

2017–18 Segunda División B

2017–18 Tercera División

2017–18 Divisiones Regionales

To be determined

Clubs that no longer exist

text: Players[edit]

text: Eligibility of non-EU players[edit]

text: In La Liga, players can claim citizenship from the nation their ancestors came from. If a player does not have European ancestry, he can claim Spanish citizenship after playing in Spain for five years. Sometimes, this can lead to a triple-citizenship situation; for example, Leo Franco, who was born in Argentina, is of Italian heritage yet can claim a Spanish passport, having played in La Liga for over five years.

text: In addition, players from the ACP countries — countries in Africa, the Caribbean, and the Pacific that are signatories to the Cotonou Agreement — are not counted against non-EU quotas due to the Kolpak ruling.

text: Individual awards[edit]

text: Until the season 2008–09, no official awards for individuals in La Liga existed. Following[clarification needed] the 2008–09 season, the Liga de Fútbol Profesional (LFP) governing body sanctioned LFP Awards to player individuals. Additional awards relating to La Liga are distributed, some are sanctioned by the LFP or the Royal Spanish Football Federation (RFEF) and therefore not regarded as official.[clarification needed]

text: The most notable of these are four awarded by Spain's biggest sports paper, Marca, namely the Pichichi Trophy, awarded to the top scorer of the season; the Ricardo Zamora Trophy for the goalkeeper with the least "goals-to-games" ratio; the Trofeo Alfredo di Stéfano, for the player judged to be the best overall player in the division; and the Zarra Trophy, awarded to the Spanish domestic player with the highest goal total in La Liga.

text: Since the 2013–14 season, La Liga also awards the monthly Manager of the Month and Player of the Month awards.

text: Transfers[edit]

text: The first La Liga player to be involved in a transfer which broke the world record was Luis Suárez in 1961, who moved from Barcelona to Internazionale for £152,000. Twelve years later, Johan Cruyff was the first player to join a La Liga club for a record fee, £922,000 from Ajax to Barcelona. In 1982, Barcelona again set the record by signing Diego Maradona from Boca Juniors for £5 million.[31] Real Betis set the world record in 1998 when they signed Denílson from São Paulo for £21.5 million.[32]

text: Four of the last six world transfer records (in euro) have been set by Real Madrid, signing Luís Figo,[33] Zinedine Zidane,[34] Cristiano Ronaldo[35] (plus a deal for Kaká days before Ronaldo[36] which fell just below a world record due to the way the fee was calculated)[37] and finally Gareth Bale, who was bought for £85.3 million (€103.4 million / $140 million) from Tottenham Hotspur in 2013.[38]

text: The Brazilian forward Neymar was the subject of an expensive and complicated transfer arrangement when he joined Barcelona from Santos in 2013,[39][40] and his outgoing transfer to Paris Saint-Germain in 2017 set a new world record fee at €222m (via his 'buyout clause').[41] Barcelona soon invested a large chunk of this money in a replacement, Ousmane Dembélé, whose deal – €105m – was the second most expensive ever before Philippe Coutinho's transfer to Barcelona for €142m. [42] [43]

text: Player records[edit]

text: Top scorers[edit]

text:
Rank
Nat
Name
Club
Years
Goals
Apps
Ratio

1

Lionel Messi
Barcelona
2004–
369
406
0.9

2

Cristiano Ronaldo
Real Madrid
2009–
297
284
1

3

Telmo Zarra
Athletic Bilbao
1940–1955
251
278
0.9

4

Hugo Sánchez
Atlético Madrid, Real Madrid & Rayo Vallecano
1981–1994
234
347
0.7

5

Raúl
Real Madrid
1994–2010
228
550
0.4

6

Alfredo Di Stéfano
Real Madrid & Espanyol
1953–1966
227
329
0.7

7

César Rodríguez
Granada, Barcelona, Cultural Leonesa & Elche
1939–1955
223
353
0.6

8

Quini
Sporting Gijón & Barcelona
1970–1987
219
448
0.5

9

Pahiño
Celta, Real Madrid & Deportivo
1943–1956
210
278
0.8

10

Edmundo Suárez
Valencia & Alcoyano
1939–1950
195
231
0.8

text: Most appearances[edit]

text:
Rank
Nat
Name
Years
Apps
Goals

1

Andoni Zubizarreta
1981–1998
622
0

2

Raúl
1994–2010
550
228

3

Eusebio Sacristán
1983–2002
543
36

4

Francisco Buyo
1980–1997
542
0

5

Manuel Sanchís
1983–2001
523
32

6

Iker Casillas
1999–2015
510
0

7

Xavi
1998–2015
505
58

8

Miquel Soler
1983–2003
504
12

9

Fernando Hierro
1987–2003
497
104

10

José Mari Bakero
1980–1997
483
139

text: Sponsors[edit]

text:
Banco Santander
Nike, Inc
El Corte Inglés
TAG Heuer
EA Sports
Samsung
Sportium
STIHL
Mazda
Mahou
Allianz
Groupe Danone
Marqués del Atrio
Kalise Menorquina
Solán de Cabras


document_title: Lithium

question_text: where does most of the world's lithium come from

question_tokens: where does most of the world 's lithium come from

text: Lithium

text: Properties[edit]

text: Atomic and physical[edit]

text: Like the other alkali metals, lithium has a single valence electron that is easily given up to form a cation.[5] Because of this, lithium is a good conductor of heat and electricity as well as a highly reactive element, though it is the least reactive of the alkali metals. Lithium's low reactivity is due to the proximity of its valence electron to its nucleus (the remaining two electrons are in the 1s orbital, much lower in energy, and do not participate in chemical bonds).[5]

text: Lithium metal is soft enough to be cut with a knife. When cut, it possesses a silvery-white color that quickly changes to gray as it oxidizes to lithium oxide.[5] While it has one of the lowest melting points among all metals (180 °C), it has the highest melting and boiling points of the alkali metals.[6]

text: Lithium has a very low density (0.534 g/cm3), comparable with pine wood. It is the least dense of all elements that are solids at room temperature; the next lightest solid element (potassium, at 0.862 g/cm3) is more than 60% denser. Furthermore, apart from helium and hydrogen, it is less dense than any liquid element, being only two thirds as dense as liquid nitrogen (0.808 g/cm3).[7] Lithium can float on the lightest hydrocarbon oils and is one of only three metals that can float on water, the other two being sodium and potassium.

text: Lithium's coefficient of thermal expansion is twice that of aluminium and almost four times that of iron.[8] Lithium is superconductive below 400 μK at standard pressure[9] and at higher temperatures (more than 9 K) at very high pressures (>20 GPa).[10] At temperatures below 70 K, lithium, like sodium, undergoes diffusionless phase change transformations. At 4.2 K it has a rhombohedral crystal system (with a nine-layer repeat spacing); at higher temperatures it transforms to face-centered cubic and then body-centered cubic. At liquid-helium temperatures (4 K) the rhombohedral structure is prevalent.[11] Multiple allotropic forms have been identified for lithium at high pressures.[12]

text: Lithium has a mass specific heat capacity of 3.58 kilojoules per kilogram-kelvin, the highest of all solids.[13][14] Because of this, lithium metal is often used in coolants for heat transfer applications.[13]

text: Chemistry and compounds[edit]

text: Lithium reacts with water easily, but with noticeably less vigor than other alkali metals. The reaction forms hydrogen gas and lithium hydroxide in aqueous solution.[5] Because of its reactivity with water, lithium is usually stored in a hydrocarbon sealant, often petroleum jelly. Though the heavier alkali metals can be stored in more dense substances, such as mineral oil, lithium is not dense enough to be fully submerged in these liquids.[15] In moist air, lithium rapidly tarnishes to form a black coating of lithium hydroxide (LiOH and LiOH·H2O), lithium nitride (Li3N) and lithium carbonate (Li2CO3, the result of a secondary reaction between LiOH and CO2).[16]

text: When placed over a flame, lithium compounds give off a striking crimson color, but when it burns strongly the flame becomes a brilliant silver. Lithium will ignite and burn in oxygen when exposed to water or water vapors.[17] Lithium is flammable, and it is potentially explosive when exposed to air and especially to water, though less so than the other alkali metals. The lithium-water reaction at normal temperatures is brisk but nonviolent because the hydrogen produced does not ignite on its own. As with all alkali metals, lithium fires are difficult to extinguish, requiring dry powder fire extinguishers (Class D type). Lithium is one of the few metals that react with nitrogen under normal conditions.[18][19]

text:
Lithium has a diagonal relationship with magnesium, an element of similar atomic and ionic radius. Chemical resemblances between the two metals include the formation of a nitride by reaction with N2, the formation of an oxide (Li
2O) and peroxide (Li
2O
2) when burnt in O2, salts with similar solubilities, and thermal instability of the carbonates and nitrides.[16][20] The metal reacts with hydrogen gas at high temperatures to produce lithium hydride (LiH).[21]

text:
Other known binary compounds include halides (LiF, LiCl, LiBr, LiI), sulfide (Li
2S), superoxide (LiO
2), and carbide (Li
2C
2). Many other inorganic compounds are known in which lithium combines with anions to form salts: borates, amides, carbonate, nitrate, or borohydride (LiBH
4). Lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH
4) is commonly used as a reducing agent in organic synthesis.

text: Multiple organolithium reagents are known in which there is a direct bond between carbon and lithium atoms, effectively creating a carbanion. These are extremely powerful bases and nucleophiles. In many of these organolithium compounds, the lithium ions tend to aggregate into high-symmetry clusters by themselves, which is relatively common for alkali cations.[22] LiHe, a very weakly interacting van der Waals compound, has been detected at very low temperatures.[23]

text: Isotopes[edit]

text: Naturally occurring lithium is composed of two stable isotopes, 6Li and 7Li, the latter being the more abundant (92.5% natural abundance).[5][15][24] Both natural isotopes have anomalously low nuclear binding energy per nucleon (compared to the neighboring elements on the periodic table, helium and beryllium); lithium is the only low numbered element that can produce net energy through nuclear fission. The two lithium nuclei have lower binding energies per nucleon than any other stable nuclides other than deuterium and helium-3.[25] As a result of this, though very light in atomic weight, lithium is less common in the Solar System than 25 of the first 32 chemical elements.[3] Seven radioisotopes have been characterized, the most stable being 8Li with a half-life of 838 ms and 9Li with a half-life of 178 ms. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are shorter than 8.6 ms. The shortest-lived isotope of lithium is 4Li, which decays through proton emission and has a half-life of 7.6 × 10−23 s.[26]

text: 7Li is one of the primordial elements (or, more properly, primordial nuclides) produced in Big Bang nucleosynthesis. A small amount of both 6Li and 7Li are produced in stars, but are thought to be "burned" as fast as produced.[27] Additional small amounts of lithium of both 6Li and 7Li may be generated from solar wind, cosmic rays hitting heavier atoms, and from early solar system 7Be and 10Be radioactive decay.[28] While lithium is created in stars during stellar nucleosynthesis, it is further burned. 7Li can also be generated in carbon stars.[29]

text: Lithium isotopes fractionate substantially during a wide variety of natural processes,[30] including mineral formation (chemical precipitation), metabolism, and ion exchange. Lithium ions substitute for magnesium and iron in octahedral sites in clay minerals, where 6Li is preferred to 7Li, resulting in enrichment of the light isotope in processes of hyperfiltration and rock alteration. The exotic 11Li is known to exhibit a nuclear halo. The process known as laser isotope separation can be used to separate lithium isotopes, in particular 7Li from 6Li.[31]

text: Nuclear weapons manufacture and other nuclear physics applications are a major source of artificial lithium fractionation, with the light isotope 6Li being retained by industry and military stockpiles to such an extent that it has caused slight but measurable change in the 6Li to 7Li ratios in natural sources, such as rivers. This has led to unusual uncertainty in the standardized atomic weight of lithium, since this quantity depends on the natural abundance ratios of these naturally-occurring stable lithium isotopes, as they are available in commercial lithium mineral sources.[32]

text: Both stable isotopes of lithium can be laser cooled and were used to produce the first quantum degenerate Bose-Fermi mixture.[33]

text: Occurrence[edit]

text: Astronomical[edit]

text: According to modern cosmological theory, lithium—in both stable isotopes (lithium-6 and lithium-7)—was one of the 3 elements synthesized in the Big Bang.[34] Though the amount of lithium generated in Big Bang nucleosynthesis is dependent upon the number of photons per baryon, for accepted values the lithium abundance can be calculated, and there is a "cosmological lithium discrepancy" in the Universe: older stars seem to have less lithium than they should, and some younger stars have much more.[35] The lack of lithium in older stars is apparently caused by the "mixing" of lithium into the interior of stars, where it is destroyed,[36] while lithium is produced in younger stars. Though it transmutes into two atoms of helium due to collision with a proton at temperatures above 2.4 million degrees Celsius (most stars easily attain this temperature in their interiors), lithium is more abundant than current computations would predict in later-generation stars.[15]

text: Though it was one of the three first elements to be synthesized in the Big Bang, lithium, together with beryllium and boron, is markedly less abundant than other elements. This is a result of the low temperature necessary to destroy lithium, and a lack of common processes to produce it.[38]

text: Lithium is also found in brown dwarf substellar objects and certain anomalous orange stars. Because lithium is present in cooler, less-massive brown dwarfs, but is destroyed in hotter red dwarf stars, its presence in the stars' spectra can be used in the "lithium test" to differentiate the two, as both are smaller than the Sun.[15][39][40] Certain orange stars can also contain a high concentration of lithium. Those orange stars found to have a higher than usual concentration of lithium (such as Centaurus X-4) orbit massive objects—neutron stars or black holes—whose gravity evidently pulls heavier lithium to the surface of a hydrogen-helium star, causing more lithium to be observed.[15]

text: Terrestrial[edit]

text:
Lithium mine production (2016), reserves and resources in tonnes according to USGS[41]

Country
Production
Reserves[note 1]
Resources

 Argentina
5,700
2,000,000
9,000,000

 Australia
14,300
1,600,000
2,000,000+

 Austria
-
-
100,000+

 Bolivia
-
-
9,000,000

 Brazil
200
48,000
200,000

 Canada (2010)
480
180,000
2,000,000

 Chile
12,000
7,500,000
7,500,000+

 DR Congo
-
-
1,000,000

 Mexico
-
-
200,000

 People's Republic of China
2,000
3,200,000
7,000,000

 Portugal
200
60,000
N/A

 Russia
-
-
1,000,000

 Serbia
-
-
1,000,000

 United States
W[note 2]
38,000
6,900,000

 Zimbabwe
900
23,000
100,000+

World total
32,500
14,000,000
46,900,000

text: Although lithium is widely distributed on Earth, it does not naturally occur in elemental form due to its high reactivity.[5] The total lithium content of seawater is very large and is estimated as 230 billion tonnes, where the element exists at a relatively constant concentration of 0.14 to 0.25 parts per million (ppm),[42][43] or 25 micromolar;[44] higher concentrations approaching 7 ppm are found near hydrothermal vents.[43]

text: Estimates for the Earth's crustal content range from 20 to 70 ppm by weight.[16] In keeping with its name, lithium forms a minor part of igneous rocks, with the largest concentrations in granites. Granitic pegmatites also provide the greatest abundance of lithium-containing minerals, with spodumene and petalite being the most commercially viable sources.[16] Another significant mineral of lithium is lepidolite.[45] A newer source for lithium is hectorite clay, the only active development of which is through the Western Lithium Corporation in the United States.[46] At 20 mg lithium per kg of Earth's crust,[47] lithium is the 25th most abundant element.

text: According to the Handbook of Lithium and Natural Calcium, "Lithium is a comparatively rare element, although it is found in many rocks and some brines, but always in very low concentrations. There are a fairly large number of both lithium mineral and brine deposits but only comparatively few of them are of actual or potential commercial value. Many are very small, others are too low in grade."[48]

text: The US Geological Survey estimates that in 2010, Chile had the largest reserves by far (7.5 million tonnes)[49] and the highest annual production (8,800 tonnes). One of the largest reserve bases[note 1] of lithium is in the Salar de Uyuni area of Bolivia, which has 5.4 million tonnes. Other major suppliers include Australia, Argentina and China.[41][50] As of 2015 Czech Geological Survey considered the entire Ore Mountains in the Czech Republic as lithium province. Five deposits are registered, one near Cínovec (cs) is considered as potentially economic deposit with 160 000 tonnes of lithium.[51]

text: In June 2010, The New York Times reported that American geologists were conducting ground surveys on dry salt lakes in western Afghanistan believing that large deposits of lithium are located there. "Pentagon officials said that their initial analysis at one location in Ghazni Province showed the potential for lithium deposits as large as those of Bolivia, which now has the world's largest known lithium reserves."[52] These estimates are "based principally on old data, which was gathered mainly by the Soviets during their occupation of Afghanistan from 1979–1989". Stephen Peters, the head of the USGS's Afghanistan Minerals Project, said that he was unaware of USGS involvement in any new surveying for minerals in Afghanistan in the past two years. 'We are not aware of any discoveries of lithium,' he said."[53]

text: Lithia ("lithium brine") is associated with tin mining areas in Cornwall, England and an evaluation project from 400-metre deep test boreholes is under consideration. If successful the hot brines will also provide geothermal energy to power the lithium extraction and refining process.[54]

text: Biological[edit]

text: Lithium is found in trace amount in numerous plants, plankton, and invertebrates, at concentrations of 69 to 5,760 parts per billion (ppb). In vertebrates the concentration is slightly lower, and nearly all vertebrate tissue and body fluids contain lithium ranging from 21 to 763 ppb.[43] Marine organisms tend to bioaccumulate lithium more than terrestrial organisms.[55] Whether lithium has a physiological role in any of these organisms is unknown.[43]

text: History[edit]

text: Petalite (LiAlSi4O10) was discovered in 1800 by the Brazilian chemist and statesman José Bonifácio de Andrada e Silva in a mine on the island of Utö, Sweden.[56][57][58][59] However, it was not until 1817 that Johan August Arfwedson, then working in the laboratory of the chemist Jöns Jakob Berzelius, detected the presence of a new element while analyzing petalite ore.[60][61][62][63] This element formed compounds similar to those of sodium and potassium, though its carbonate and hydroxide were less soluble in water and more alkaline.[64] Berzelius gave the alkaline material the name "lithion/lithina", from the Greek word λιθoς (transliterated as lithos, meaning "stone"), to reflect its discovery in a solid mineral, as opposed to potassium, which had been discovered in plant ashes, and sodium, which was known partly for its high abundance in animal blood. He named the metal inside the material "lithium".[5][58][63]

text: Arfwedson later showed that this same element was present in the minerals spodumene and lepidolite.[65][58] In 1818, Christian Gmelin was the first to observe that lithium salts give a bright red color to flame.[58][66] However, both Arfwedson and Gmelin tried and failed to isolate the pure element from its salts.[58][63][67] It was not isolated until 1821, when William Thomas Brande obtained it by electrolysis of lithium oxide, a process that had previously been employed by the chemist Sir Humphry Davy to isolate the alkali metals potassium and sodium.[15][67][68][69][70] Brande also described some pure salts of lithium, such as the chloride, and, estimating that lithia (lithium oxide) contained about 55% metal, estimated the atomic weight of lithium to be around 9.8 g/mol (modern value ~6.94 g/mol).[71] In 1855, larger quantities of lithium were produced through the electrolysis of lithium chloride by Robert Bunsen and Augustus Matthiessen.[58][72] The discovery of this procedure led to commercial production of lithium in 1923 by the German company Metallgesellschaft AG, which performed an electrolysis of a liquid mixture of lithium chloride and potassium chloride.[58][73][74]

text: The production and use of lithium underwent several drastic changes in history. The first major application of lithium was in high-temperature lithium greases for aircraft engines and similar applications in World War II and shortly after. This use was supported by the fact that lithium-based soaps have a higher melting point than other alkali soaps, and are less corrosive than calcium based soaps. The small demand for lithium soaps and lubricating greases was supported by several small mining operations, mostly in the US.

text: The demand for lithium increased dramatically during the Cold War with the production of nuclear fusion weapons. Both lithium-6 and lithium-7 produce tritium when irradiated by neutrons, and are thus useful for the production of tritium by itself, as well as a form of solid fusion fuel used inside hydrogen bombs in the form of lithium deuteride. The US became the prime producer of lithium between the late 1950s and the mid 1980s. At the end, the stockpile of lithium was roughly 42,000 tonnes of lithium hydroxide. The stockpiled lithium was depleted in lithium-6 by 75%, which was enough to affect the measured atomic weight of lithium in many standardized chemicals, and even the atomic weight of lithium in some "natural sources" of lithium ion which had been "contaminated" by lithium salts discharged from isotope separation facilities, which had found its way into ground water.[32][75]

text: Lithium was used to decrease the melting temperature of glass and to improve the melting behavior of aluminium oxide when using the Hall-Héroult process.[76][77] These two uses dominated the market until the middle of the 1990s. After the end of the nuclear arms race, the demand for lithium decreased and the sale of Department of Energy stockpiles on the open market further reduced prices.[75] In the mid 1990s, several companies started to extract lithium from brine which proved to be a less expensive than underground or open-pit mining. Most of the mines closed or shifted their focus to other materials because only the ore from zoned pegmatites could be mined for a competitive price. For example, the US mines near Kings Mountain, North Carolina closed before the beginning of the 21st century.

text: The development of lithium ion batteries increased the demand for lithium and became the dominant use in 2007.[78] With the surge of lithium demand in batteries in the 2000s, new companies have expanded brine extraction efforts to meet the rising demand.[79][80]

text: Production[edit]

text: Lithium production has greatly increased since the end of World War II. The metal is separated from other elements in igneous minerals. The metal is produced through electrolysis from a mixture of fused 55% lithium chloride and 45% potassium chloride at about 450 °C.[81]

text: As of 2015, most of the world's lithium production is in South America, where lithium-containing brine is extracted from underground pools and concentrated by solar evaporation. The standard extraction technique is to evaporate water from brine. Each batch takes from 18 to 24 months.[82]

text: In 1998, the price of lithium was about 95 USD/kg (or 43 USD/lb).[83]

text: Reserves[edit]

text: Worldwide identified reserves in 2008 were estimated by the US Geological Survey (USGS) to be 13 million tonnes,[41] though an accurate estimate of world lithium reserves is difficult.[84][85] One reason for this is that most lithium classification schemes are developed for solid ore deposits, whereas brine is a fluid that is problematic to treat with the same classification scheme due to varying concentrations and pumping effects.[86] The world has been estimated to contain about 15 million tonnes of lithium reserves, while 65 million tonnes of known resources are reasonable. A total of 75% of everything can typically be found in the ten largest deposits of the world.[87] Another study noted that 83% of the geological resources of lithium are located in six brine, two pegmatite, and two sedimentary deposits.[88]

text: Deposits are found in South America throughout the Andes mountain chain. Chile is the leading producer, followed by Argentina. Both countries recover lithium from brine pools. According to USGS, Bolivia's Uyuni Desert has 5.4 million tonnes of lithium.[89][90]

text: In the US, lithium is recovered from brine pools in Nevada.[13] Half the world's known reserves are located in Bolivia along the central eastern slope of the Andes. In 2009, Bolivia negotiated with Japanese, French, and Korean firms to begin extraction.[89] A deposit discovered in 2013 in Wyoming's Rock Springs Uplift is estimated to contain 228,000 tons. Additional deposits in the same formation were estimated to be as much as 18 million tons.[91]

text: Opinions differ about potential growth. A 2008 study concluded that "realistically achievable lithium carbonate production will be sufficient for only a small fraction of future PHEV and EV global market requirements", that "demand from the portable electronics sector will absorb much of the planned production increases in the next decade", and that "mass production of lithium carbonate is not environmentally sound, it will cause irreparable ecological damage to ecosystems that should be protected and that LiIon propulsion is incompatible with the notion of the 'Green Car'".[50]

text: According to a 2011 study conducted at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and the University of California, Berkeley, the currently estimated reserve base of lithium should not be a limiting factor for large-scale battery production for electric vehicles because an estimated 1 billion 40 kWh Li-based batteries could be built with current reserves[92] - about 10 kg of lithium per car.[93] Another 2011 study by researchers from the University of Michigan and Ford Motor Company found sufficient resources to support global demand until 2100, including the lithium required for the potential widespread transportation use. The study estimated global reserves at 39 million tons, and total demand for lithium during the 90-year period analyzed at 12–20 million tons, depending on the scenarios regarding economic growth and recycling rates.[94]

text: On June 9, 2014, the Financialist stated that demand for lithium was growing at more than 12% a year. According to Credit Suisse, this rate exceeds projected availability by 25%. The publication compared the 2014 lithium situation with oil, whereby "higher oil prices spurred investment in expensive deepwater and oil sands production techniques"; that is, the price of lithium will continue to rise until more expensive production methods that can boost total output receive the attention of investors.[95]

text: Pricing[edit]

text: After the 2007 financial crisis, major suppliers such as Sociedad Química y Minera (SQM) dropped lithium carbonate pricing by 20%.[96] Prices rose in 2012. A 2012 Business Week article outlined the oligopoly in the lithium space: "SQM, controlled by billionaire Julio Ponce, is the second-largest, followed by Rockwood, which is backed by Henry Kravis’s KKR & Co., and Philadelphia-based FMC". Global consumption may jump to 300,000 metric tons a year by 2020 from about 150,000 tons in 2012, to match the demand for lithium batteries that has been growing at about 25% a year, outpacing the 4% to 5% overall gain in lithium production.[97]

text: Extraction[edit]

text: Lithium salts are extracted from water in mineral springs, brine pools, and brine deposits.

text: Lithium is present in seawater, but commercially viable methods of extraction have yet to be developed.[82]

text: Another potential source of lithium is the leachates of geothermal wells, which are carried to the surface.[98] Recovery of lithium has been demonstrated in the field; the lithium is separated by simple filtration.[99] The process and environmental costs are primarily those of the already-operating well; net environmental impacts may thus be positive.[100]

text: Uses[edit]

text: Ceramics and glass[edit]

text: Lithium oxide is widely used as a flux for processing silica, reducing the melting point and viscosity of the material and leading to glazes with improved physical properties including low coefficients of thermal expansion. Worldwide, this is one of the largest use for lithium compounds.[101][102] Glazes containing lithium oxides are used for ovenware. Lithium carbonate (Li2CO3) is generally used in this application because it converts to the oxide upon heating.[103]

text: Electrical and electronics[edit]

text: Late in the 20th century, lithium became an important component of battery electrolytes and electrodes, because of its high electrode potential. Because of its low atomic mass, it has a high charge- and power-to-weight ratio. A typical lithium-ion battery can generate approximately 3 volts per cell, compared with 2.1 volts for lead-acid or 1.5 volts for zinc-carbon cells. Lithium-ion batteries, which are rechargeable and have a high energy density, should not be confused with lithium batteries, which are disposable (primary) batteries with lithium or its compounds as the anode.[104][105] Other rechargeable batteries that use lithium include the lithium-ion polymer battery, lithium iron phosphate battery, and the nanowire battery.

text: Lubricating greases[edit]

text: The third most common use of lithium is in greases. Lithium hydroxide is a strong base and, when heated with a fat, produces a soap made of lithium stearate. Lithium soap has the ability to thicken oils, and it is used to manufacture all-purpose, high-temperature lubricating greases.[13][106][107]

text: Metallurgy[edit]

text: Lithium (e.g. as lithium carbonate) is used as an additive to continuous casting mould flux slags where it increases fluidity,[108][109] a use which accounts for 5% of global lithium use (2011).[41] Lithium compounds are also used as additives (fluxes) to foundry sand for iron casting to reduce veining.[110]

text: Lithium (as lithium fluoride) is used as an additive to aluminium smelters (Hall–Héroult process), reducing melting temperature and increasing electrical resistance,[111] a use which accounts for 3% of production (2011).[41]

text: When used as a flux for welding or soldering, metallic lithium promotes the fusing of metals during the process[112] and eliminates the forming of oxides by absorbing impurities.[citation needed] Alloys of the metal with aluminium, cadmium, copper and manganese are used to make high-performance aircraft parts (see also Lithium-aluminium alloys).[113]

text: Silicon nano-welding[edit]

text: Lithium has been found effective in assisting the perfection of silicon nano-welds in electronic components for electric batteries and other devices.[114]

text: Other chemical and industrial uses[edit]

text: Pyrotechnics[edit]

text: Lithium compounds are used as pyrotechnic colorants and oxidizers in red fireworks and flares.[13][116]

text: Air purification[edit]

text: Lithium chloride and lithium bromide are hygroscopic and are used as desiccants for gas streams.[13] Lithium hydroxide and lithium peroxide are the salts most used in confined areas, such as aboard spacecraft and submarines, for carbon dioxide removal and air purification. Lithium hydroxide absorbs carbon dioxide from the air by forming lithium carbonate, and is preferred over other alkaline hydroxides for its low weight.

text: Lithium peroxide (Li2O2) in presence of moisture not only reacts with carbon dioxide to form lithium carbonate, but also releases oxygen.[117][118] The reaction is as follows:

text: Some of the aforementioned compounds, as well as lithium perchlorate, are used in oxygen candles that supply submarines with oxygen. These can also include small amounts of boron, magnesium, aluminum, silicon, titanium, manganese, and iron.[119]

text: Optics[edit]

text: Lithium fluoride, artificially grown as crystal, is clear and transparent and often used in specialist optics for IR, UV and VUV (vacuum UV) applications. It has one of the lowest refractive indexes and the furthest transmission range in the deep UV of most common materials.[120] Finely divided lithium fluoride powder has been used for thermoluminescent radiation dosimetry (TLD): when a sample of such is exposed to radiation, it accumulates crystal defects which, when heated, resolve via a release of bluish light whose intensity is proportional to the absorbed dose, thus allowing this to be quantified.[121] Lithium fluoride is sometimes used in focal lenses of telescopes.[13][122]

text: The high non-linearity of lithium niobate also makes it useful in non-linear optics applications. It is used extensively in telecommunication products such as mobile phones and optical modulators, for such components as resonant crystals. Lithium applications are used in more than 60% of mobile phones.[123]

text: Organic and polymer chemistry[edit]

text: Organolithium compounds are widely used in the production of polymer and fine-chemicals. In the polymer industry, which is the dominant consumer of these reagents, alkyl lithium compounds are catalysts/initiators.[124] in anionic polymerization of unfunctionalized olefins.[125][126][127] For the production of fine chemicals, organolithium compounds function as strong bases and as reagents for the formation of carbon-carbon bonds. Organolithium compounds are prepared from lithium metal and alkyl halides.[128]

text: Many other lithium compounds are used as reagents to prepare organic compounds. Some popular compounds include lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH4), lithium triethylborohydride, n-Butyllithium and tert-butyllithium are commonly used as extremely strong bases called superbase.

text: Military applications[edit]

text: Metallic lithium and its complex hydrides, such as Li[AlH4], are used as high-energy additives to rocket propellants.[15] Lithium aluminum hydride can also be used by itself as a solid fuel.[129]

text: The Mark 50 torpedo stored chemical energy propulsion system (SCEPS) uses a small tank of sulfur hexafluoride gas, which is sprayed over a block of solid lithium. The reaction generates heat, creating steam to propel the torpedo in a closed Rankine cycle.[130]

text: Lithium hydride containing lithium-6 is used in thermonuclear weapons, where it serves as fuel for the fusion stage of the bomb.[131]

text: Nuclear[edit]

text: Lithium-6 is valued as a source material for tritium production and as a neutron absorber in nuclear fusion. Natural lithium contains about 7.5% lithium-6 from which large amounts of lithium-6 have been produced by isotope separation for use in nuclear weapons.[132] Lithium-7 gained interest for use in nuclear reactor coolants.[133]

text: Lithium deuteride was the fusion fuel of choice in early versions of the hydrogen bomb. When bombarded by neutrons, both 6Li and 7Li produce tritium — this reaction, which was not fully understood when hydrogen bombs were first tested, was responsible for the runaway yield of the Castle Bravo nuclear test. Tritium fuses with deuterium in a fusion reaction that is relatively easy to achieve. Although details remain secret, lithium-6 deuteride apparently still plays a role in modern nuclear weapons as a fusion material.[134]

text: Lithium fluoride, when highly enriched in the lithium-7 isotope, forms the basic constituent of the fluoride salt mixture LiF-BeF2 used in liquid fluoride nuclear reactors. Lithium fluoride is exceptionally chemically stable and LiF-BeF2 mixtures have low melting points. In addition, 7Li, Be, and F are among the few nuclides with low enough thermal neutron capture cross-sections not to poison the fission reactions inside a nuclear fission reactor.[note 3][135]

text: In conceptualized (hypothetical) nuclear fusion power plants, lithium will be used to produce tritium in magnetically confined reactors using deuterium and tritium as the fuel. Naturally occurring tritium is extremely rare, and must be synthetically produced by surrounding the reacting plasma with a 'blanket' containing lithium where neutrons from the deuterium-tritium reaction in the plasma will fission the lithium to produce more tritium:

text: Lithium is also used as a source for alpha particles, or helium nuclei. When 7Li is bombarded by accelerated protons 8Be is formed, which undergoes fission to form two alpha particles. This feat, called "splitting the atom" at the time, was the first fully man-made nuclear reaction. It was produced by Cockroft and Walton in 1932.[136][137]

text: In 2013, the US Government Accountability Office said a shortage of lithium-7 critical to the operation of 65 out of 100 American nuclear reactors “places their ability to continue to provide electricity at some risk”. The problem stems from the decline of US nuclear infrastructure. The equipment needed to separate lithium-6 from lithium-7 is mostly a cold war leftover. The US shut down most of this machinery in 1963, when it had a huge surplus of separated lithium, mostly consumed during the twentieth century. The report said it would take five years and $10 million to $12 million to reestablish the ability to separate lithium-6 from lithium-7.[138]

text: Reactors that use lithium-7 heat water under high pressure and transfer heat through heat exchangers that are prone to corrosion. The reactors use lithium to counteract the corrosive effects of boric acid, which is added to the water to absorb excess neutrons.[138]

text: Medicine[edit]

text: Lithium is useful in the treatment of bipolar disorder.[139] Lithium salts may also be helpful for related diagnoses, such as schizoaffective disorder and cyclic major depression. The active part of these salts is the lithium ion Li+.[139] They may increase the risk of developing Ebstein's cardiac anomaly in infants born to women who take lithium during the first trimester of pregnancy.[140]

text: Lithium has also been researched as a possible treatment for cluster headaches.[141]

text: Biological role[edit]

text: Primary food sources of lithium are grains and vegetables, and, in some areas, drinking water also contains significant amounts.[142] Human intake varies depending on location and diet.

text: Lithium was first detected in human organs and fetal tissues in the late 19th century. In humans there are no defined lithium deficiency diseases, but low lithium intakes from water supplies were associated with increased rates of suicides, homicides and the arrest rates for drug use and other crimes. The biochemical mechanisms of action of lithium appear to be multifactorial and are intercorrelated with the functions of several enzymes, hormones and vitamins, as well as with growth and transforming factors. Evidence now appears to be sufficient to accept lithium as essential; a provisional RDA of 1,000 µg/day is suggested for a 70 kg adult.[142][143]

text: Precautions[edit]

text:
NFPA 704
fire diamond

3
2
2
W

Fire diamond hazard sign for lithium metal[144]

text: Lithium is corrosive and requires special handling to avoid skin contact. Breathing lithium dust or lithium compounds (which are often alkaline) initially irritate the nose and throat, while higher exposure can cause a buildup of fluid in the lungs, leading to pulmonary edema. The metal itself is a handling hazard because contact with moisture produces the caustic lithium hydroxide. Lithium is safely stored in non-reactive compounds such as naphtha.[145]

text: Regulation[edit]

text: Some jurisdictions limit the sale of lithium batteries, which are the most readily available source of lithium for ordinary consumers. Lithium can be used to reduce pseudoephedrine and ephedrine to methamphetamine in the Birch reduction method, which employs solutions of alkali metals dissolved in anhydrous ammonia.[146][147]

text: Carriage and shipment of some kinds of lithium batteries may be prohibited aboard certain types of transportation (particularly aircraft) because of the ability of most types of lithium batteries to fully discharge very rapidly when short-circuited, leading to overheating and possible explosion in a process called thermal runaway. Most consumer lithium batteries have built-in thermal overload protection to prevent this type of incident, or are otherwise designed to limit short-circuit currents. Internal shorts from manufacturing defect or physical damage can lead to spontaneous thermal runaway.[148][149]


document_title: If Loving You Is Wrong

question_text: who plays marcy on if loving you is wrong

text: If Loving You Is Wrong

text: Overview[edit]

text: If Loving You Is Wrong is loosely based on Perry's 2014 film The Single Moms Club. Actress Zulay Henao reprised her movie role of Esperanza, although her character and storyline was rebooted for the TV series. It was officially ordered straight-to-series on January 9, 2014.[3][4][5] It premiered on September 9, 2014, on the Oprah Winfrey Network (OWN), and the first half of the first season finale aired on November 4, 2014.[5][6][7]

text: The series premiere was the highest-rated in OWN history, setting a new record over The Haves and the Have Nots. The second half of the first season aired on March 24, 2015. On February 27, 2015, the series was renewed for a second season with 22 more episodes. The second season premiered on September 22, 2015. The second half premiered on March 15, 2016. OWN renewed the series for a third season. The third season of the series premiered on September 13, 2016.[8] The second half of season 3 premiered on March 21, 2017. On August 29, 2017, OWN announced the show's return for the fourth season, which premiered on September 19, 2017. The second half of season 4 premiered on January 10, 2018 and ended with the season finale on March 7, 2018.

text: Cast and characters[edit]

text: Main cast[edit]

text:
Amanda Clayton as Alex Montgomery, a housewife who is married to businessman, Brad. She has two children with him, Peter and Paisley, after which he had a vasectomy. She was caught having an affair with her next door neighbor, Randall, which ends her friendship with Randall's wife Marcie and prompts Brad to leave her. She gave birth to a third child, a son, who is Randall's son, born from their affair.[5]
Matt Cook as Joey Blackman, Natalie's oldest son who was released from jail. Somewhat naïve in a lot of things while getting used to being out of jail, and is often hovered over by his mother with whom he works with at her place of business, Burger Fast.
Edwina Findley as Kelly Issacs, a single and working mother to a young son named Justice. She is being pursued by a man named Travis, despite his being engaged to someone he met while in Haiti.[5]
Tiffany Haddish as Jackie (Season 1), Natalie's loyal assistant at Burger Fast. A very business-savvy woman.
Heather Hemmens as Marcie Holmes, a real estate agent and Randall's unhappy wife, who is angry with Alex for her affair with Randall. Gets even with both of them by embarking on a revenge affair with Brad. She demands that Randall divorce her; he refuses because he still loves her, but also loves Alex.[5] In the third season, it is revealed that Marcie is pregnant, but with Brad's child. Although in the Season 3 finale, it is revealed that Randall may be the father of her baby.
Zulay Henao as Esperanza Willis, ex-wife of Edward, a 911 dispatcher for the city of Maxine. Mother of a daughter named Mika with Edward. When she began dating Julius, he immediately became a target of Edward's rage and jealousy, which is later justified as he is the relative of a drug-cartel leader, which constantly places her and Mika in danger.[5]
April Parker Jones as Natalie Henning, a single working mother of four kids who manages a fast food place called Burger Fast. Often hovers over her oldest son, Joey. She is engaged to Lushion who is a Maxine Police Department Officer he is also the father of their son, Frank.[5]
Eltony Williams as Dr. Randall Holmes, Marcie's estranged husband, a psychologist. He has an affair with Alex, which destroys both his marriage to Marcie and his friendship with Brad. With the affair out in the second season premiere he is attacked by both Eddie and Brad. Later that night Brad destroys Randall's boat and comes at him with an axe and the two begin to fight as Brad pulls out a gun and shots are fired. In season three Randall gets a dose of his own medicine when he finds Marcie and Brad begin a revenge affair and having sex in his shed where he had his affair with Alex. He refuses to divorce Marcie, because he wants to have both women in his life. In the season three finale it was revealed that Randall is not the father of Alex's newborn baby boy. Due to a paternity glitch, Randall is unaware that he is still the father of Alex's baby and soon Marcie's unborn one.[5]
Aiden Turner as Brad Montgomery, a former Royal Marine who fought in Iraq with Alex's cousin, Eddie and later became a businessman and married Alex. Now a businessman who was unaware of his wife's affair with his friend, Randall until the second season premiere. He gets into a fight with Randall, demolishes his boat and nearly kills him. He eventually leaves Alex and he begins a revenge affair with Marcie. Brad is the father of Peter and Paisley his children with Alex, Brad had a vasectomy after Paisley's birth, which gives credence to Randall being the father of Alex's newborn son.[5]
Joel Rush as Edward “Eddie” Willis, Esperanza's ex, Alex's cousin and Brad's friend. A former U.S. Marine and a very corrupt police officer for the city of Maxine. He has a daughter named Mika with Esperanza. He still intends to control her life although he himself is remarried and has kids with a woman named Yolanda, who would eventually leave him as well. Later revealed that he is still in love with Esperanza, which drives him to behave the way he does, and is also a recovering cocaine addict.[5]
Octavio Pizano as Julius Escada Jr., Esperanza's new boyfriend, a target of the jealous Edward's rage, in this case, justifiably, as he is the relative of a Drug-Cartel leader, and Edward is concerned for the safety of Esperanza and, more importantly, his daughter, Mika.[5]
Charles Malik Whitfield as Lushion Morgan, Natalie's fiancé and the father of her youngest son, Frankie. He's a rookie cop with Eddie, who has a hostile working relationship with him, due to his corrupt ways. However, he still has enough loyalty to save him from a drive by shooting.[5]
Jay Hunter as Ian Glenn is a criminal defense attorney, partner at firm & friend of Lushion. Ian is recruited to be Kelly's attorney but hits a road block. Ian is also looking for a new home & recruits Marcie as his real estate agent & an instant attraction begins.
Denzel Wells as Travis Cain (Seasons 1–4), Kelly's love interest, who is away on a relief mission in Haiti. Upon his return, he reveals that he got engaged to another woman while in Haiti and left Kelly. However, he has second thoughts, and ends his engagement. He then pursues Kelly anew, although she is very disinterested. During the third and fourth seasons, he becomes very angry and hostile towards Kelly. He is shot and killed by Kelly later in season 4.
Ryan Haake as Steven Simmons is Eddie & Lushions boss and secretly and FBI agent. Steven becomes attracted to Esperanza, hence creating a volatile relationship with her child's father Eddie.
Dawan Owens as Quan (Seasons 1–3), Joey's old running buddy who is not liked by Lushion and Natalie, and at times, Joey himself. In season 3 he is killed during a shoot-out with Joey, who was seriously injured but survives.
Donovan Christie Jr. as Larry, An attorney who helps Marcie in her legal battles against Randall. It is revealed he was a previous college mate and friend of Randall's, in which they both share a dark secret behind close doors. They had a perverse, sexual and sadistic past as swingers. However Larry has a strong insatiable fetish for BDSM. Although it is not revealed if the two have ever been intimate with each other, but they both have made numerous innuendo remarks towards each other.

text: Recurring cast[edit]

text:
Brianne Davis as Yolanda (Season 1), Edward's new wife who would, like Esperanza did, leave him. An alcoholic, she absolutely despises Esperanza, and the two women often quarrel. Has two children (one an unnamed older daughter) with Edward, and is Mika's stepmother.[9]
Claudette Ortiz as Claudia (Season 2), a new addition to the 911 emergency service who is also the half-sister of Quan.
Jasmine Guy as Mattaline Cain (Season 1), Travis' mother who did not approve of Kelly, but later accepts her.
Marie L. Burke (Season 1)/Judi Blair (Seasons 2–3) as Faun, daughter of Mr. Kym, owner of Burger Fast. Faun is friendly with Joey, who develops a love interest in him and works at Burger Fast with Natalie and Jackie.
Clayton Landey as Captain Daniel Mackey (Seasons 1–2), the immediate superior of Edward and Lushion and the head of the Maxine Police Department.
Sharon Conley as Sally (Season 1), owner of the 911 operatation station and Esperanza's supervisor
Celine Areu as Mika Willis, the daughter of Eddie and Esperanza.
Chase Wainscott as Peter Montgomery, the son and oldest child of Brad and Alex.
Ashlyn Areu as Paisley Montgomery, the daughter and youngest child of Brad and Alex.
Timmy Richardson as Justice Issacs, the son of Kelly.
Donielle T. Hansley Jr. as Frank Morgan, the youngest son of Natalie and Lushion.
Trevante Rhodes as Ramsey Walters (Season 2), Kelly's new neighbor, to whom she is attracted. In the third season, it is revealed that he is dead after Travis had killed him.
Chris V. Pipkin as Pete Davis (Seasons 2−3), a rookie cop who works under Lushion and takes it upon himself to investigates Ben's shooting.
Andrea Frye as Louise Holmes (Seasons 2–3), Randall's mother. who tries to be a peacemaker for Marcie and Randall.
Jordan Wiseley as Ben Bryant (Season 2–3), a drug addict and rookie cop who works under Eddie.

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired

First aired
Last aired

1
20
September 9, 2014 (2014-09-09)
May 26, 2015 (2015-05-26)

2
22
September 22, 2015 (2015-09-22)
May 24, 2016 (2016-05-24)

3
22
September 13, 2016 (2016-09-13)
May 30, 2017 (2017-05-30)

4
18
September 19, 2017 (2017-09-19)
March 7, 2018 (2018-03-07)


document_title: Walton family

question_text: how much money does the walmart family have

text: Walton family

text: The Walton family is an American family whose collective fortune makes them the richest family in the United States[1] and among the richest in the world.[2][3][4][5]  The majority of their wealth derives from the heritage of Bud and Sam Walton, who were the co-founders of the world's largest retailer, Walmart.[6] The three most prominent living members (Jim, Rob and Alice) have consistently been in the top twenty of the Forbes 400 since 2001, as were John (d. 2005) and Helen (d. 2007) prior to their deaths. Christy Walton took her husband John's place in that ranking after his death.

text: As of  December 2014[update], the Waltons collectively owned 50.8 percent of the company.[7] In May 2018, the annual Sunday Times Rich List indicated the Walton family's wealth is at $US174.9 billion.[8]

text: Walton family fortune[edit]

text: The Walton family fortune breaks down as follows:

text:
Jim Walton $48.4 billion[9]
S. Robson Walton $48.2 billion[10]
Alice Walton $48.1 billion[11]
Lukas Walton $15.6 billion[12]
Ann Walton Kroenke $6.6 billion[13]
Christy Walton $6.7 billion[14]

text: Nancy Walton Laurie $5.7 billion[15]