document_title: Zone of proximal development

question_text: the interaction between teacher and students creates a zone of proximal

text: Zone of proximal development

text: Origins[edit]

text: The concept of the zone of proximal development was originally developed by Vygotsky to argue against the use of academic, knowledge-based tests as a means to gauge students' intelligence. He also created ZPD to further develop Jean Piaget's theory of children being lone learners.[5] Vygotsky spent a lot of time studying the impact of school instruction on children and noted that children grasp language concepts quite naturally, but that maths and writing don’t come naturally, that these are concepts taught in schools and tend to come along with some difficulty, while Piaget believed that there was a clear distinction between development and teaching. He said that development is a spontaneous process that is initiated and completed by the children, stemming from their own efforts. Piaget was a proponent of independent thinking and critical of the standard teacher-led instruction that was common practice in schools.[6]

text: Alternatively, Vygotsky saw natural, spontaneous development as important, but not all-important. He believed that children would not advance very far if they were left to discover everything on their own. It's crucial for a child's development that they are able to interact with more knowledgeable others. They would not be able to expand on what they know if this wasn't possible. He noted cultural experiences where children are greatly helped by knowledge and tools handed down from previous generations. Vygotsky noted that good teachers shouldn't present material that is too difficult and “pull the students along.”[6]

text: Vygotsky argued that, rather than examining what a student knows to determine intelligence, it is better to examine his or her ability to solve problems independently and his or her ability to solve problems with an adult's help.[7] He proposed a question: "if two children perform the same on a test, are their levels of development the same?" He concluded that they were not.[8] However, Vygotsky's untimely death interrupted his work on the zone of proximal development, and it remained mostly incomplete.[9]

text: Definition[edit]

text: Since Vygotsky's original conception, the definition for the zone of proximal development has been expanded and modified. The zone of proximal development is an area of learning that occurs when a person is assisted by a teacher or peer with a skill set higher than that of the subject.[1] The person learning the skill set cannot complete it without the assistance of the teacher or peer. The teacher then helps the student attain the skill the student is trying to master, in hopes that the teacher will no longer be needed for that task.[10]

text: Any function within the zone of proximal development matures within a particular internal context that includes not only the function’s actual level but also how susceptible the child is to types of help, the sequence in which these types of help are offered, the flexibility or rigidity of previously formed stereotypes, how willing the child is to collaborate, along with other factors.[11] This context can impact the diagnosis of a function’s potential level of development.[9]

text: Vygotsky stated that we can’t just look at what students are capable of doing on their own; we have to look at what they are capable of doing in a social setting. In many cases students are able to complete a task within a group before they are able to complete it on their own. He notes that the teacher’s job is to move the child’s mind forward step-by-step (after all, teachers can’t teach complex chemical equations to first-graders). At the same time, teachers can’t teach all children equally; they must determine which students are ready for which lessons.[6] An example is the often-used accelerated reading program in schools. Students are assessed and given a reading level and a range. Books rated below their level are easy to read, while books above their level will challenge the student. Sometimes students are not even allowed to check out books from the school library that are outside of their range. Vygotsky argued that a major shortcoming of standardized tests is that they only measure what students are capable of on their own, not in a group setting where their minds are being pushed by other students.[6]

text: In the context of second language learning, the ZPD can be useful to many adult users. Prompted by this fact as well as the finding that adult peers need not necessarily be more capable in order to provide assistance in the ZPD, Vygotsky’s definition has been adapted to better suit the adult L2 developmental context [12]

text: Scaffolding[edit]

text: The concept of the ZPD is widely used to study children's mental development as it relates to education. The ZPD concept is seen as a scaffolding, a structure of "support points" for performing an action.[13] This refers to the help or guidance received from an adult or more competent peer to permit the child to work within the ZPD.[14] Although Vygotsky himself never mentioned the term, scaffolding was first developed by Jerome Bruner, David Wood, and Gail Ross, while applying Vygotsky's concept of ZPD to various educational contexts.[5] According to Wass and Golding, giving students the hardest tasks they can do with scaffolding will lead to the greatest learning gains.[15]

text: Scaffolding is a process through which a teacher or a more competent peer helps the student in his or her ZPD as necessary and tapers off this aid as it becomes unnecessary, much as a scaffold is removed from a building after construction is completed. "Scaffolding [is] the way the adult guides the child's learning via focused questions and positive interactions."[16] This concept has been further developed by Mercedes Chaves Jaime, Ann Brown, among others. Several instructional programs were developed based on this interpretation of the ZPD, including reciprocal teaching and dynamic assessment. In order for scaffolding to work and have an effect, one must start at the child's level of knowledge and build from there.[14]

text: One example of children using ZPD is when they are learning to speak. As their speech develops, it influences the way the child thinks, which in turn also influences the child's manner of speaking.[8] This process opens more doors for the child to expand their vocabulary - as they learn to convey their thoughts in a more effective way, they will receive ore sophisticated feedback, therefore increasing their vocabulary and their speaking skills. Wells gives the example of dancing: when a person is learning how to dance, they look to others around them on the dance floor and imitate their moves. A person does not copy the dance moves exactly, but takes what they can and adds their own personality to it.[17]

text: In mathematics, proximal development uses mathematical exercises for which students have seen one or more worked examples. In secondary school some scaffolding is provided, and generally much less at the tertiary level. Ultimately students must find library resources or a tutor when presented with challenges beyond the zone.

text: Another example of scaffolding is learning to drive. Parents and driving instructors guide driving students along the way by showing them the mechanics of how the car operates, the correct hand positions on the steering wheel, the technique of scanning the roadway, etc. As the student progresses, less and less instruction is needed, until they are ready to drive on their own.

text: The concept of scaffolding can be observed in various life situations and arguably in the basis of how everyone learns. One does not (normally) begin knowing everything that there is to know about a subject. The basics must be learned first in order for one to build upon prior knowledge up until mastery of a particular subject or skill.

text: Implications for educators[edit]

text: Various investigations, using different approaches and research frameworks have proved collaborative learning to be effective in many kinds of settings and contexts.[18] Teachers should assign tasks that students cannot do on their own, but which they can do with assistance; they should provide just enough assistance so that students learn to complete the tasks independently and then provide an environment that enables students to do harder tasks than would otherwise be possible.[15] Teachers can also allow students with more knowledge to assist students who need more assistance. Especially in the context of collaborative learning, group members who have higher levels of understanding can help the less advanced members learn within their zone of proximal development. [19] In the context of adults, peers should challenge each other in order to support collaboration and success.[20]


document_title: Solo: A Star Wars Story

question_text: who plays hans solo in the new solo movie

root

text: Solo: A Star Wars Story

text: Plot

text: On the planet Corellia, orphaned children are made to steal in order to survive. Lovers Han and Qi'ra make an escape from the clutches of a local gang. They bribe an Imperial officer with stolen coaxium, a powerful hyperspace fuel, in exchange for passage on an outgoing transport, but Qi'ra is apprehended by their pursuers before she can board. Han vows to return for her and joins the Imperial Navy as a flight cadet. When the recruiting officer asks for his surname, Han says he is alone with no family, and the recruiter gives him the last name "Solo".

tag: p

text: Three years later, Han is expelled from the Imperial Flight Academy for insubordination and is serving as an infantryman on Mimban. He encounters a group of criminals posing as Imperial soldiers led by Tobias Beckett. Han attempts to blackmail them into taking him with them, but Beckett has him arrested for desertion and thrown into a pit to be fed to a beast – a Wookiee named Chewbacca. Able to understand Chewbacca's language, Han persuades him to cooperate to escape. Beckett rescues and enlists them in the gang to steal a shipment of coaxium on Vandor-1. The plan goes awry when the Cloud Riders show up, led by Enfys Nest, resulting in the deaths of two crew members, Rio Durant and Beckett’s wife Val, and the destruction of the coaxium.

text: Beckett reveals he was ordered to steal the shipment for Dryden Vos, a high-ranking crime boss in the Crimson Dawn syndicate. Han and Chewbacca volunteer to help him steal another shipment to repay the debt. They travel to Vos's yacht where Han finds Qi'ra, who has joined Crimson Dawn and is Vos's top lieutenant. Han suggests a risky plan to steal unrefined coaxium from the mines on Kessel; Vos approves but insists that Qi'ra accompany the team. She leads them to Lando Calrissian, an accomplished smuggler and pilot who she hopes will lend them his ship. Han challenges Lando to a game of sabacc, with the wager being Lando's ship. Lando cheats to win but agrees to join the mission in exchange for a share of the profits.

text: After reaching Kessel in the Millennium Falcon and infiltrating the mine, Lando's droid co-pilot L3-37 instigates a slave revolt. In the confusion, they steal the coaxium, but L3 is severely damaged and Lando is injured during the escape. With the help of L3's navigational computer, hotwired into the ship's systems, Han pilots the ship through a dangerous uncharted route to elude an Imperial blockade. The Falcon, badly damaged, lands on the planet Savareen to process the coaxium.

text: During a confrontation with Enfys, who tracked the team from Vandor, Lando flees in the Falcon. Enfys explains to Han that she and her crew are not pirates, but rebels trying to prevent the syndicates and Empire from gaining power. Han becomes sympathetic to their cause and tries to trick Vos, but Beckett has already alerted him to the double-cross. Vos sends his guards to kill Enfys, but the Cloud Riders overpower them instead, leaving Vos defenseless. Having anticipated Vos's strategy, Han tries to take the coaxium, only for Beckett to betray Vos, escaping with it and taking Chewbacca hostage. Qi'ra kills Vos and sends Han after Beckett; once alone, she contacts Vos's superior, Maul, to inform him of the mission's failure and claim Vos's position. She avoids speaking of Han's involvement, instead blaming everything on Beckett.

text: Han catches up to Beckett and confronts him. Han shoots Beckett first before he can shoot him, and with his dying words Beckett tells Han he made the smart choice. Qi’ra leaves in Vos’ yacht, while Han and Chewbacca turn the coaxium over to Enfys. She offers Han a chance to join the rebellion against the Empire; when he declines, she gives him a vial of coaxium, enough to buy a ship of his own. Han and Chewbacca locate Lando and challenge him to a rematch in sabacc, once again wagering the Falcon. Han wins, having stolen the card Lando was keeping up his sleeve in order to cheat, and he and Chewbacca leave for Tatooine, where a "big-shot gangster" is putting together a job.

text: Cast

text:
Alden Ehrenreich as Han Solo: A cynical smuggler who is a part of Beckett’s crew.[18][19] When asked how Solo differs from the Solo of latter Star Wars films, Ehrenreich stated, "I think the main thing that's different is that the Han we meet in this film is more of an idealist. He has certain dreams that he follows, and we watch how it affects him as those dreams meet new realities – realities that are harder and more challenging than he'd expected."[20] Harrison Ford, who previously portrayed the character in the original and sequel trilogy saga films, met with Ehrenreich, giving him some insight and words of advice.[21]
Woody Harrelson as Tobias Beckett:  A criminal and Han's mentor.[22][23][24] The character of Beckett was based on Long John Silver from Treasure Island by Robert Louis Stevenson.[25]
Emilia Clarke as Qi'ra:  Han's former lover. Describing her character, Clarke said: "She has a couple of guises, but essentially she is just fighting to stay alive. If you've got a really glamorous lady in a really sordid environment, you kind of know the glamor is hiding a few rough roads."[20] With regard to her character's relationship with Solo, Clarke offered that "They grew up as comrades, essentially. They grew up as pals, as partners in crime. There is obviously the romantic side of things. But they grew up together. So they were kids together."[26][27][28]
Donald Glover as Lando Calrissian: A smuggler on the rise in the galaxy's underworld.[29] Billy Dee Williams, who previously portrayed the character in the saga films, met with Glover, giving him some insight and words of advice about the character.[30]
Thandie Newton as Val: Beckett's wife, a fellow criminal and member of her husband's crew.[6][24]
Phoebe Waller-Bridge as L3-37: Lando's droid companion and navigator.[31][24]
Joonas Suotamo as Chewbacca: Han's Wookiee sidekick and best friend, who also serves as his first mate.[6]
Paul Bettany as Dryden Vos:  A ruthless crime lord who has a history with Beckett.[24] Michael K. Williams had originally been cast,[32] but he was removed from the final film after being unable to return to set during the film's reshoots.[33] Bettany was cast in his place, with the character being reworked from a motion-capture alien (described by Williams as half-mountain lion, half-human)[34] to a scarred near-human alien lifeform.[35]

tag: ul

text: Erin Kellyman appears as Enfys Nest, the leader of a gang of pirates called Cloud Riders.[36] Jon Favreau voices Rio Durant, "a very cool and important alien character" and member of Beckett's crew,[37][38] and Linda Hunt voices Lady Proxima, the serpent-like leader of the gang to which teenage Han and Qi'ra belong. Ian Kenny portrays Rebolt[39] while Clint Howard portrays Ralakili.[40] Additionally, Anthony Daniels cameos as Tak, enslaved alongside Chewbacca,[41] Kiran Shah plays Karjj and Warwick Davis briefly reprises his role from the film The Phantom Menace as Weazel, a Cloud Rider.[42] Ray Park reprises his role as Maul,[43] with Sam Witwer providing the character's voice, reprising the role from the Star Wars: The Clone Wars and Star Wars Rebels animated TV series.[44]

text: Screenwriter Jonathan Kasdan and first assistant director Toby Hefferman portrayed Tag Greenley and Bink Otauna, respectively—two characters that first appeared in the Star Wars Legends comics published by Dark Horse Comics. The scene was not included in the finished film.[45][46]

text: Production

text: Development

text: Before selling Lucasfilm to Disney in 2012, George Lucas had already started development on a film about a young Han Solo, and hired veteran Star Wars screenwriter Lawrence Kasdan to write the screenplay. When Kasdan left to help finish the script for Star Wars: The Force Awakens, he left his son Jonathan Kasdan, who had been helping him, in charge of writing Solo until his return.[47]

text: In February 2013, Disney CEO Bob Iger confirmed the development of two Star Wars standalone films, written by Kasdan and Simon Kinberg, respectively.[48] Shortly thereafter, it was reported that Disney was working on two films, featuring Solo and Boba Fett.[49] Disney CFO Jay Rasulo described the standalone films as origin stories.[50] Kathleen Kennedy explained that the standalone films would not crossover with the sequel trilogy:

text: George was so clear as to how that works. The canon that he created was the Star Wars saga. Right now, Episode VII falls within that canon. The spin-off movies, or we may come up with some other way to call those films, they exist within that vast universe that he created. There is no attempt being made to carry characters (from the standalone films) in and out of the saga episodes. Consequently, from the creative standpoint, it's a roadmap that George made pretty clear.[51]

text: In April 2015, Lucasfilm and Kennedy announced that the standalone films would be referred to as the Star Wars Anthology series.[52][53] In July, Lucasfilm announced that an Anthology film focusing "on how [a] young Han Solo became the smuggler, thief, and scoundrel whom Luke Skywalker and Obi-Wan Kenobi first encountered in the cantina at Mos Eisley"[54] would be released on May 25, 2018. The project was to be directed by Phil Lord and Christopher Miller from a script by Lawrence and Jonathan Kasdan. Kennedy would serve as a producer, with Lawrence Kasdan and Jason McGatlin executive producers;[1] Allison Shearmur and Simon Emanuel also produce.[6] The Han Solo project was separate from a film that was being developed by Josh Trank, which was pushed back to an unconfirmed date.[55] Solo's Wookiee friend Chewbacca was also set to appear in the film.[56][57] In May 2016, Lawrence Kasdan stated that filming would start in January 2017.[58]

text: Casting

text: In January 2016, a list of actors was revealed for the role of young Han Solo, including Miles Teller, Ansel Elgort, Dave Franco, Jack Reynor, Scott Eastwood, Logan Lerman, Emory Cohen and Blake Jenner.[59] In March 2016, it was reported that Alden Ehrenreich, Reynor and Taron Egerton were on a shortlist for the role.[60] In May 2016, Ehrenreich was reported to have been cast as the young Han Solo,[18] and was revealed in the role at Star Wars Celebration: Celebration Europe III two months later.[19] Miller called casting the role one of "the hardest casting challenges of all time," adding that they "saw over 3,000 people for the part".[61]

text: By the following October, Tessa Thompson, Naomi Scott, Zoë Kravitz, Emilia Clarke, Kiersey Clemons, Jessica Henwick and Adria Arjona were being considered for the female lead,[62][63] while Donald Glover was being considered to play a young Lando Calrissian.[62] Glover was confirmed for Calrissian shortly after,[29] with Clarke cast as the female lead the following month.[64][63]

text: In early January 2017, Woody Harrelson was revealed to be in negotiations to portray Han Solo's mentor,[65] and was confirmed to be appearing in the film shortly after.[22] Christian Bale had previously been in discussions for the role.[66] A subsequent interview with Harrelson bolstered speculation that he may be specifically playing Star Wars Legends character Garris Shrike,[67][68] but Harrelson revealed the character's name as Beckett in March 2017.[23] In February 2017, Phoebe Waller-Bridge joined the cast in an undisclosed role, said to be "a CGI-driven performance" similar to Alan Tudyk in Rogue One as the droid K-2SO.[31] Additionally, it was reported that Thandie Newton was in negotiations to star in the film.[69] Waller-Bridge and Newton were confirmed as being cast by the end of February, alongside the announcement that Joonas Suotamo would appear as Chewbacca, reprising the role from Star Wars: The Force Awakens and Star Wars: The Last Jedi, where he shared it with original Chewbacca actor Peter Mayhew.[6] Michael K. Williams entered talks to join the film in early March 2017,[70] and was confirmed shortly after,[32] portraying a half-human, half-animal creature.[33] By the end of the month, Ian Kenny had joined the cast.[39] Warwick Davis was confirmed as part of the cast by the end of July 2017.[42]

text: Filming

text: Filming began on January 30, 2017,[71] at Pinewood Studios,[61] under the working title Star Wars: Red Cup.[71] By February 10, the film had spent $54.5 million on production.[72] Lucasfilm announced that principal photography started on February 20, 2017.[6] Bradford Young serves as the cinematographer for the film.[73] In May 2017, filming moved to Tre Cime di Lavaredo and Monte Piana in the Dolomites in Veneto, Italy, to the Fassa Dolomites in Trentino,[74] Italy, and to the Canary Islands. Lucasfilm replaced editor Chris Dickens with Pietro Scalia and hired an acting coach for Ehrenreich because they were unhappy with his performance.[7]

text: On June 20, 2017, citing "creative differences", Lucasfilm and Lord and Miller announced the directors had left the project, with a new director "to be announced soon".[2][75] It was reported that the directors were fired after Kennedy and Kasdan disagreed with their shooting style;[3][76] Lord and Miller believed they were hired to make a comedy film, while Lucasfilm was looking for the duo only to add "a comedic touch". Lucasfilm also felt the directors were encouraging too much improvisation from the actors, which was believed to be "shifting the story off-course" from the Kasdans' script.[77] To appease Kasdan, who was unhappy with scenes not being filmed "word for word", Lord and Miller shot several takes exactly as written, then shot additional takes.[7] Lord and Miller refused to compromise on certain scenes, such as filming a scene from fewer angles than Lucasfilm expected, thereby reducing the options available in editing.[77][7] The duo were also unhappy when Kasdan was brought to the London set, feeling he became a "shadow director".[7] The decision to remove Lord and Miller was made after a short hiatus in filming taken to review the footage so far.[3]

text: It was reported that Lucas's close friend Ron Howard, who had previously turned down an offer from Lucas to direct Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace,[78] was a frontrunner to step in as director. Joe Johnston and Kasdan were also considered, though Directors Guild of America rules state that a replacement for a director may not be someone already involved in the production.[76][79] Two days later, it was announced that Howard would take over directing for the remaining three-and-a-half weeks of scheduled principal photography as well as the scheduled five weeks of reshoots.[4][80] Howard wrote, "I'm beyond grateful to add my voice to the Star Wars universe... I hope to honor the great work already done and help deliver on the promise of a Han Solo film."[81] Howard was expected to arrive in London on June 26 to complete filming.[7] During the reshoots, actor Michael K. Williams was unable to return to the production, due to a schedule conflict with filming The Red Sea Diving Resort, resulting in his part being cut. Williams stated the reshoots for his character were "to match the new direction which the producers wanted Ron to carry the film in", and that he would not have been available again until November 2017; the production did not want to wait for his availability to make a release in May 2018.[33]

text: Lucas, Howard's friend, mentor and collaborator, made a surprise visit to the set to encourage Howard on his first day shooting. Intended as a short meeting, Lucas spent the whole day with the crew. While Lucas had not meant to interfere, at some point he forgot and asked "Why doesn't Han just do this?"; Howard included his suggestion.[82] On October 17, 2017, Howard announced that principal photography had been completed, and revealed the title of the film.[83] During production, Howard utilized rear-projection visual effects for the Millennium Falcon cockpit scenes, an updated version of what was used in the Original Trilogy.[84]

text: In March 2018, after it was reported Howard had reshot around 70% of the film, it was announced that Lord and Miller would not challenge for director credit and instead agreed to executive producer credits.[5][85] Post-production wrapped on April 22, 2018.[86]

text: Music

text:
John Williams’ involvement was actually a huge factor in my wanting to take this gig. I have such respect—perhaps awe is a better term—for the musical history of this series that being able to have the film-scoring equivalent of Yoda be part of it was a massive incentive, and an obvious advantage that I could not let pass. The actual experience of being allowed to see into John’s process? I couldn’t imagine a greater gift.

—John Powell on agreeing to score Solo.[87]

tag: div

text: In July 2017, John Powell was announced as the main composer of the score.[88] Longtime Star Wars composer John Williams composed and conducted the Han Solo theme, "The Adventures of Han", for the film.[89] Powell began writing the music in late 2017 after finishing his work on Ferdinand. In December 2017, Williams wrote two musical pieces and combined them to create Han's theme. The following month, Williams recorded the demos with the Recording Arts Orchestra of Los Angeles at the Newman Scoring Stage.[90] Powell interpolated Williams' new theme into his score, as well as incorporating music by Williams from previous Star Wars films, including the Star Wars main title, and several motifs and cues from A New Hope, The Empire Strikes Back, and The Phantom Menace.[87]

text: Powell revealed the track listing on his Instagram page.[91] Walt Disney Records released the soundtrack album on May 25.[90]

text:
Solo: A Star Wars Story – Original Motion Picture SoundtrackFilm score by John PowellReleased
May 25, 2018 (2018-05-25)Studio
Abbey Road StudiosGenre
SoundtrackLength
1:17:11Label
Walt DisneyProducer
John PowellJohn Powell chronology

Ferdinand(2017)Ferdinand2017

Solo(2018)

How to Train Your Dragon: The Hidden World(2019)How to Train Your Dragon: The Hidden World2019

Star Wars soundtrack chronology

The Last Jedi(2017) The Last Jedi2017

Solo(2018) Solo2018

tag: table

text: All music composed by John Powell, except where noted.

text: No.TitleMusicLength1."The Adventures of Han"John Williams3:522."Meet Han" (Includes "Star Wars Main Theme" by John Williams)John Powell2:223."Corellia Chase"John Powell3:364."Spaceport"John Powell4:095."Flying with Chewie"John Powell3:346."Train Heist"John Powell4:517."Marauders Arrive"John Powell5:168."Chicken in the Pot"John Powell2:129."Is This Seat Taken?"John Powell2:3910."L3 & Millennium Falcon" (Includes "Star Wars Main Theme" by John Williams)John Powell3:1911."Lando's Closet"John Powell2:1412."Mine Mission"John Powell4:1413."Break Out" (Includes "Rebel Fanfare" by John Williams)John Powell6:1814."The Good Guy"John Powell5:2815."Reminiscence Therapy" (Includes "Death Star Motif", "Rebel Fanfare", "TIE Fighter Attack", "The Asteroid Field", and "Star Wars Main Theme" by John Williams)John Powell6:1416."Into the Maw" (Includes "Rebel Fanfare" and "Star Wars Main Theme" by John Williams)John Powell4:5217."Savareen Stand-Off"John Powell4:2818."Good Thing You Were Listening"John Powell2:1119."Testing Allegiance"John Powell4:2320."Dice & Roll" (Includes "Rebel Fanfare" by John Williams)John Powell1:59Total length:77:11

text: Release

text: Solo: A Star Wars Story had its world premiere on May 10, 2018 in Los Angeles,[92] and also screened on May 15, 2018 at the 2018 Cannes Film Festival.[93] The film debuted in selected countries on May 23 and had its US release on May 25, 2018, the 41st anniversary of the release of A New Hope, in which Harrison Ford first appeared as Han Solo.[1][2]

text: Marketing

text: A "sneak peek" TV spot was released during Super Bowl LII on February 4, 2018.[94] It became the most popular Super Bowl trailer on YouTube with 8 million views. It also had 5.9 million views on Facebook.[95]

text: The first official teaser trailer was released on February 5, 2018. Graeme McMillan of The Hollywood Reporter criticized the trailer as "dull", and compared it negatively to the look of Rogue One, opining that the visuals "should be the hive of scum and villainy of the Cantina of the very first movie, filled with colorful aliens and things happening all over the place. That busyness, the sense of danger and hustle, feels appropriate for Solo in a way that what's on show in this first trailer simply doesn't." He also noted that several plot elements presented in the trailer were reminiscent of The Han Solo Trilogy, a series of novels published in 1997 and 1998.[96]

text: In early March 2018, French artist Hachim Bahous asserted that Disney had plagiarized a series of album covers he designed for Sony Music's label Legacy Recordings in France with character posters for the film. Disney stated they were investigating the alleged plagiarism and that the Solo posters had been produced by an outside vendor.[97]

text: In the weeks leading up to the film, EA Capital Games announced that new characters based on the film will eventually be collectible and playable in the mobile game Star Wars: Galaxy of Heroes, including a younger Han Solo and Chewbacca as they appeared in the film.[98]  Both characters became unlockable on May 17, 2018, via a two-day limited-time event titled "Preparation Perfection".

text: Reception

text: Box office

text: As of  July 15, 2018[update], Solo: A Star Wars Story has grossed $211.9 million in the United States and Canada, and $172.7 million in other territories, for a total worldwide gross of $384.6 million.[11] With an estimated production budget of around $250 million (and some sources listing it at more than $300 million), the film will need to gross at least $500 million worldwide in order to break even.[99][100]

text: A week after its worldwide debut of just $147.5 million, Variety wrote that the film would lose Disney "tens of millions of dollars" off a projected final total gross of $400–450 million[101] while The Hollywood Reporter estimated the losses would range from $50–80 million.[102] In June 2018, in response to the film's poor commercial performance, director Ron Howard tweeted he was proud of the film, and sorry that fans were not turning out to see it, but was happy for those who had enjoyed it.[103]

text: United States and Canada

text: Initial projections three weeks before its release had the film grossing around $170 million over its four-day Memorial Day opening weekend. Deadline Hollywood noted that it was tracking higher than the previous Star Wars spin-off film, Rogue One (which debuted to $155 million), and had more interest from audiences than the likes of fellow blockbusters Spider-Man: Homecoming and Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2.[104] After its first day of pre-sales, Fandango announced the film was the second-best seller of advance tickets in 2018, after Avengers: Infinity War.[105] At the week of its release, projections had the film making $135–170 million over the four-day frame, with Disney predicting a $130–150 million debut.[106]

text: The film opened in 4,381 theaters, the ninth-highest total ever, including 3,300 3D locations and 400 IMAX screens. It grossed $14.1 million from Thursday night previews, the lowest of the Disney Star Wars films but the best-ever for Memorial Day weekend, besting the $13.2 million made by Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End in 2007. Including Thursday previews, the film made $35.6 million on its first day, lowering weekend projections to $115 million. It grossed just $84.4 million in its opening weekend (and $103 million over the four–day weekend), far below projections and marking the lowest Star Wars debut since Attack of the Clones in 2002, although it did set a new career-high opening for Howard.[107][108] Deadline Hollywood compared the below-expectations opening to Justice League the previous November, and attributed it to fan negativity toward the concept and the behind-the-scenes problems, as well as competition from Deadpool 2 and Avengers: Infinity War.[100] Many analysts and publications, including Deadline, The Atlantic and CNN, interpreted the low box office returns as a case of "Star Wars fatigue", since Solo was the fourth film of the series released in 29 months, and came just five months after The Last Jedi.[109][110] Other analysts attributed the film's underperformance to lackluster marketing,[111][112] as well as the divided fan reception to The Last Jedi.[113] Solo dropped 65% in its second weekend to $29.4 million, the worst sophomore frame for any Star Wars film since the original trilogy.[114][115] It dropped another 46% in its third weekend to $15.7 million, finishing second behind newcomer Ocean's 8, and $10 million in its fourth week, finishing fourth.[116][117]

text: Other territories

text: Worldwide the film was expected to make $285–340 million in its opening weekend, including $150–170 million internationally.[106] It opened in 43 markets on the Wednesday and Thursday prior to its US release and made a total of $11.4 million, including $3.3 million in China.[118] It went on to open to just $65 million overseas and $147.5 million worldwide. It grossed $10.3 million in the United Kingdom, and also finished first in Australia ($5 million), Germany ($4.3 million), France ($3.9 million), Russia ($3.6 million), Spain ($2.6 million), Mexico ($2.5 million), Italy ($2.2 million) and Brazil ($1.3 million). However, despite being the second-largest foreign opening, it made just $10.1 million in China, far below the other three Disney Star Wars films.[119] The film held a better-than-expected 47% in its second weekend, making $30.3 million from 54 countries and remaining the top film in several, including Australia, Spain and the United Kingdom.[120]

text: Critical response

text: On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, Solo has an approval rating of 71% based on 353 reviews, with an average rating of 6.4/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "A flawed yet fun and fast-paced space adventure, Solo: A Star Wars Story should satisfy newcomers to the saga as well as longtime fans who check their expectations at the theater door."[121] On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film has a weighted average score of 62 out of 100, based on reviews from 54 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[122] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A–" on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave it an 89% overall positive score and a 73% "definite recommend".[100]

text: Writing for Rolling Stone, Peter Travers gave the film 2.5 stars out of 4, complimenting the cast but criticizing the lack of creativity, saying, "somehow Han Solo – the roguish Star Wars hellion famous for breaking all the rules – finds himself in a feel-good movie that doesn't break any."[123]  Bernard Boo of PopMatters wrote, "If what you want from a Star Wars movie is an action-adventure romp, and the last two movies in the franchise (The Last Jedi and Rogue One) felt a little too dreary and heavy on pathos, Solo is sure to lift your spirits and give you more thrills than you can handle. Some of the action sequences are seriously breathtaking and will keep you teetering on the edge of your seat."[124]

text: A. O. Scott of The New York Times said, "It doesn't take itself too seriously, but it also holds whatever irreverent, anarchic impulses it might possess in careful check." He noted that it is "a curiously low-stakes blockbuster, in effect a filmed Wikipedia page".[125] Michael Rechtshaffen of The Hollywood Reporter praised the cast and production values but felt the film as a whole felt too safe, writing, "while Ehrenreich's Solo proves adept at maneuvering the Millennium Falcon out of some tight spots, the picture itself follows a safely predictable course. Missing here are the sort of plot-related or visual curveballs thrown by Rian Johnson's The Last Jedi or Gareth Edwards with Rogue One."[126]

text: For the New York Post, Johnny Oleksinski gave the film one star out of a possible four, writing that while Glover was "amusing" in his role, Ehrenreich was "given an impossible task: to make us forget about Harrison Ford, easily the most iconic action hero in modern cinema."[127] Kevin Scott from Exclaim! echoed the sentiment that Ehrenreich did not have the same "ineffable everyman" quality that Ford had, giving the film 4/10 and saying, "The villain is a generically icy figure with vague plans and hollow threats, the twists and turns are fairly predictable and the entire story is one that — unlike superior fellow Star Wars stand-alone Rogue One — has few meaningful connections to other Star Wars stories beyond the hollow reverence for what has come before."[128]

text: Possible sequels

text: Alden Ehrenreich confirmed his contract deal to appear as Han Solo extended for two additional films, giving the studio the option to pursue a sequel to Solo: A Star Wars Story, or feature him in other anthology films in a supporting capacity.[129] Ehrenreich said he would like any sequels to differentiate themselves from the previous Star Wars trilogies by being standalone, in the vein of the Indiana Jones films, rather than direct follow-ups.[130]

text: Ron Howard said that while no sequel was in development, it was up to the fans to decide.[131] Critics noted the film intentionally left room open for sequels.[132] Solo writer Jon Kasdan said that he would include bounty hunter Bossk (who briefly appears in Episode V: The Empire Strikes Back and is mentioned in Solo) if he were to write a sequel for the film.[133] Kennedy also said that a film focusing on Lando Calrissian could happen, but was not a priority. Donald Glover also expressed interest in a spin-off film, saying he would imagine it as Catch Me If You Can in space.[134][135]

text: On June 20, Collider claimed that all future 'Star Wars Story' films were on hold due to the financial performance of Solo.[136] A day later, Lucasfilm told ABC News that this was not correct and that numerous unannounced stand-alone films were still in development, but that they would be taking time to reassess several aspects of them, including production, budget and marketing. Making Star Wars[137] reported that a previously unknown Mos Eisley Spaceport film was the source of the rumors and was postponed or canceled, while all other previously reported yet unannounced stand-alone films were still in development.[138]

text: Notes

text:
Jump up ^ Phil Lord and Christopher Miller, the film's original directors,[1] were fired from the film in June 2017 after over four-and-a-half months of shooting, about three-quarters through principal photography.[2][3][4] Howard took over directing duties for the remaining three-and-a-half weeks of scheduled principal photography and five weeks of reshoots.[4] The duo opted to receive credit as executive producers on the film.[5]

Jump up ^ Chris Dickens, the film's original editor,[6] was replaced by Scalia in May 2017 during principal photography.[7]

tag: ol


document_title: Shameless (season 8)

question_text: who plays eddie on season 8 of shameless

text: Shameless (season 8)

text: Cast and characters[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
William H. Macy as Frank Gallagher[4]
Emmy Rossum as Fiona Gallagher[4]
Jeremy Allen White as Philip "Lip" Gallagher[5]
Ethan Cutkosky as Carl Gallagher
Shanola Hampton as Veronica Fisher[6]
Steve Howey as Kevin Ball[5]
Emma Kenney as Deborah "Debbie" Gallagher[5]
Cameron Monaghan as Ian Gallagher[7]
Isidora Goreshter as Svetlana Yevgenivna Fisher

text: Special Guest[edit]

text:
Dermot Mulroney as Sean Pierce
Richard Flood as Ford[8]

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
Christian Isaiah as Liam Gallagher[9]
Jim Hoffmaster as Kermit
Michael Patrick McGill as Tommy
Alan Rosenberg as Professor Youens
Ruby Modine as Sierra Morton[10]
Zack Pearlman as Neil[11]
Elliot Fletcher as Trevor
Alicia Coppola as Sue
Scott Michael Campbell as Brad
Levy Tran as Eddie
Jessica Szohr as Nessa Chabon[12]
Perry Mattfeld as Mel
David Brackett as Duran
Sharon Lawrence as Margo Mierzejewski
Faran Tahir as Adeeb[13]
Raffi Barsoumian as Bahir
Sammi Hanratty as Kassidi
Chet Hanks as Charlie

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

85
1
"We Become What We... Frank!"
Iain B. MacDonald
John Wells
November 5, 2017 (2017-11-05)
1.86[14]

Fiona begins renovating and selling apartments in her new building. Frank returns from the monastery and begins to apologize to everyone he has wronged in the past. Lip tries to get his drinking problem under control while also trying to win back Sierra. Debbie gets a new job and begins night school where she's learning to become a welder. Ian tries to win back the heart of Trevor by helping teens at the youth center. Carl begins selling the meth that Monica left him and his siblings before she passed away while also staying in shape for military school over the summer break. Liam is used by the faculty of his new school to show off the school's diversity for prospective parents. Kevin learns some disturbing news about his health and Veronica tries to take back the Alibi from Svetlana.

86
2
"Where's My Meth?"
Anthony Hemingway
Nancy M. Pimental
November 12, 2017 (2017-11-12)
1.37[15]

Fiona grapples with evicting someone from the apartment building. Frank finds a job for the first time and tries to be a respectable citizen. Lip tries to sabotage Sierra's relationship. Ian goes with Trevor to a chub bar in an effort to fix their relationship. Carl tries to sell Ian's portion of Monica's meth but makes a troubling discovery about her. Liam visits a rich friend's house and is astonished by the luxury that others have. Kevin is sent off to a cancer support group and finds people he can relate to, trying to be ready for the operation that is coming.

87
3
"God Bless Her Rotting Soul"
Michael Morris
Krista Vernoff
November 19, 2017 (2017-11-19)
1.34[16]

While Kevin's tumour is benign, he becomes obsessed with being healthy and, upon researching his genetics, discovers that he comes from an inbred community in Kentucky. Fiona's evicted tenant destroys her room so Fiona attempts to find a new renter but comes into conflict with Nessa's girlfriend, Mel. Neil breaks up with Debbie. Ian continues to struggle with Monica's death. Lip tries to help Professor Yeouens deal with his alcoholism. Frank, now going by Francis, remains committed to becoming a better person. Svetlana tries to sell the Alibi, forcing Veronica to visit her in prison and make a deal, resulting in her release and partial-ownership of the bar. Monica's partner threatens the Gallaghers and they dig up her body in order to retrieve the meth.

88
4
"Fuck Paying It Forward"
Regina King
Dominique Morisseau
November 26, 2017 (2017-11-26)
1.59[17]

Frank is helping as much as he can at Liam's school, and meets a potential love interest amongst the mothers. Fiona is furious when Sean, now clean and married, returns to try and make amends. Lip is sex-crazed, and ends up sleeping with his co-worker, Eddie (Levy Tran). Ian lets a shelter girl of Trevor's sleep over to help her out of a bad spot, and gets chewed out by Trevor for it, but later they make amends, and Ian promises to try and find a living situation for some of the shelter kids. Debbie has moved back in, and is sad to be missing Frannie's growing up because of work. Carl attempts to catch a junkie breaking into houses on the block. Another black child join Liam's school. Kevin and Veronica meet Kevin's family; Kev is overwrought with emotion, whereas Veronica fears his family is racist.

89
5
"The (Mis)Education of Liam Fergus Beircheart Gallagher"
Iain B. MacDonald
Sheila Callaghan
December 3, 2017 (2017-12-03)
1.51[18]

Fiona tries to raise the profile of the neighborhood; Ian helps Trevor raise money for a youth shelter; Carl loses his scholarship; Lip stands up to a friend; Frank teaches parents about the working class.

90
6
"Icarus Fell And Rusty Ate Him"
Zetna Fuentes
Mark Steilen
December 10, 2017 (2017-12-10)
1.52[19]

After she discovers one of her tenants dead, Fiona is forced to reflect on her own life, as the rift between her and Ian grows deeper. Meanwhile, Lip enlists Carl's help to search for his AA sponsor, Brad, after he started drinking again. After having sex with Duran, Debbie has a pregnancy scare and tries to get a morning-after pill. Frank enjoys having his first-ever credit card, while Kev and V are making discoveries about their sexualities.

91
7
"Occupy Fiona"
Iain B. MacDonald
Molly Smith Metzler
December 17, 2017 (2017-12-17)
1.58[20]

Ian keeps testing Fiona's patience, and starts a "Occupy Fiona" movement right to her front door. With the support of Brad, Lip tries to help Youens for his DUI trial, after the latter's fifth drunk driving. Meanwhile, a now unemployed Frank goes on a job hunt, while Debbie is facing a rude doctor at her own work. Carl gets close to Kassidi, one of his rehab clients, who comes up with a plan to get him easy money. An unsure Kev is learning how to sexually dominate V.

92
8
"Frank's Northern Southern Express"
Emmy Rossum
Nancy M. Pimental
December 31, 2017 (2017-12-31)
0.81[21]

Fiona considers moving into one of her apartments, while she tries to get closer to Ford. Frank starts an import-export business, by smuggling muslim people and drugs through the US-Canada border. Meanwhile, Lip interviews new AA sponsors, and discovers something about Charlie, Sierra's boyfriend. Ian confronts a pastor preaching gay conversion, as Carl tries to conciliate his job and Kassidi, his new problematic girlfriend. As she tries to find a new job and some money, Debbie thinks she is pregnant again. Kev starts showing his dominating side against Svetlana at work, to the pleasure of V.

93
9
"The Fugees"
Jeffrey Reiner
Dominique Morisseau
January 7, 2018 (2018-01-07)
1.65[22]

94
10
"Church of Gay Jesus"
Mario Van Peebles
Sheila Callaghan
January 14, 2018 (2018-01-14)
1.52[23]

95
11
"A Gallagher Pedicure"[24]
Iain B. MacDonald
Mark Steilen
January 21, 2018 (2018-01-21)
TBD

96
12
"Sleepwalking"[25]
John Wells
John Wells
January 28, 2018 (2018-01-28)
TBD

text: Ratings[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Air date
Rating/share
(18–49)
Viewers
(millions)
DVR
(18–49)
DVR viewers
(millions)
Total
(18–49)
Total viewers
(millions)

1
"We Become What We ... Frank!"
November 5, 2017
0.7
1.86[14]
0.5
1.16
1.2
3.02[26]

2
"Where's My Meth?"
November 12, 2017
0.5
1.37[15]
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A

3
"God Bless Her Rotting Soul"
November 19, 2017
0.5
1.34[16]
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A

4
"Fuck Paying It Forward"
November 26, 2017
0.6
1.59[17]
0.6
1.26
1.2
2.86[27]

5
"The (Mis)Education of Liam Fergus Beircheart
Gallagher"
December 3, 2017
0.6
1.51[18]
0.5
1.42
1.1
2.93[28]

6
"Icarus Fell And Rusty Ate Him"
December 10, 2017
0.5
1.52[19]
0.6
1.40
1.1
2.92[29]

7
"Occupy Fiona"
December 17, 2017
0.5
1.58[20]
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD

8
"Frank's Northern Southern Express"
December 31, 2017
0.2
0.81[21]
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD

9
"The Fugees"
January 7, 2018
0.7
1.65[22]
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD

10
"Church of Gay Jesus"
January 14, 2018
0.6
1.52[23]
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD

11
"A Gallagher Pedicure"
January 21, 2018
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD

12
"Sleepwalking"
January 28, 2018
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD


document_title: Rise of Joseph Stalin

question_text: who ruled the soviet union with sole power in a regime of terror

text: Rise of Joseph Stalin

text: Background[edit]

text: Before his 1913-1917 exile in Siberia, Stalin was one of the Bolshevik operatives in the Caucasus, organizing cells, spreading propaganda, and raising money through criminal activities. Stalin eventually earned a place in Lenin's inner circle and the highest echelons of the Bolshevik hierarchy. His pseudonym, Stalin, means "man of the steel hand". The October Revolution took place in the Russian capital of Petrograd on 7 November 1917 (O.S. 25 October 1917), which saw the transfer of all political power to the Soviets.

text: In the Russian Civil War that followed, Stalin forged connections with various Red Army generals and eventually acquired military powers of his own. He brutally suppressed counter-revolutionaries and bandits. After winning the civil war, the Bolsheviks moved to expand the revolution into Europe, starting with Poland, which was fighting the Red Army in Ukraine. As joint commander of an army in Ukraine and later in Poland itself, Stalin's actions in the war were later criticized by many, including Leon Trotsky.

text: Invasion of Georgia and General Secretary[edit]

text: In late 1920, with the crises in society following the Russian Civil War, Trotsky argued for the trade unions to be incorporated more and more into the workers' state, and for the workers' state to completely control the industrial sectors. Lenin's position was one where the trade unions were subordinate to the workers' state, but separate, with Lenin accusing Trotsky of "bureaucratically nagging the trade unions". Fearing a backlash from the trade unions, Lenin asked Stalin to build a support base in the Workers' and Peasants' Inspectorate (Rabkrin) against bureaucratism.[1] Lenin's faction eventually prevailed at the Tenth Party Congress in March 1921. Frustrated by the squabbling factions within the Communist Party during what he saw as a time of crisis, Lenin convinced the Tenth Congress to pass a ban on any opposition to official Central Committee policy (the Ban on Factions, a law which Stalin would later exploit to expel his enemies).[2]

text: Stalin played a decisive role in engineering the Red Army invasion of Georgia in February and March 1921, at a time when Georgia was the biggest Menshevik stronghold. Following the invasion, Stalin adopted particularly hardline, centralist policies towards Soviet Georgia, which included severe repression of opposition to the Bolsheviks, and to opposition within the local Communist Party (e.g., the Georgian Affair of 1922), not to mention any manifestations of anti-Sovietism (the August Uprising of 1924).[3] It was in the Georgian affairs that Stalin first began to play his own hand.[4] Lenin, however, disliked Stalin's policy towards Georgia, as he believed that all Soviet states should be on equal standing with Russia, rather than be absorbed and subordinated to Russia.[2]

text: Grigory Zinoviev successfully had Stalin appointed to the post of General Secretary in March 1922, with Stalin officially starting in the post on 3 April 1922. Stalin still held his posts in the Orgburo, the Workers' and Peasants' Inspectorate and the Commassariat for Nationalities Affairs, though he agreed to delegate his workload to subordinates. With this power, he would steadily place his supporters in positions of authority.[2]

text: Lenin's retirement and death[edit]

text: On 25 May 1922, Lenin suffered a stroke while recovering from surgery to remove a bullet lodged in his neck since a failed assassination attempt in August 1918. Severely debilitated, he went into semi-retirement and moved to his dacha in Gorki. After this, prominent Bolsheviks were concerned about who would take over if Lenin actually died. Lenin and Trotsky had more of a personal and theoretical relationship, while Lenin and Stalin had more of a political and apparatical relationship. Yet, Stalin visited Lenin often, acting as his intermediary with the outside world.[2] During this time, the two quarrelled over economic policy and how to consolidate the Soviet republics. One day, Stalin verbally swore at Lenin's wife, Nadezhda Krupskaya, for breaching Politburo orders by helping Lenin communicate with Trotsky and others about politics;[2] this greatly offended Lenin. As their relationship deteriorated, Lenin dictated increasingly disparaging notes on Stalin in what would become his testament. Lenin criticised Stalin's rude manners, excessive power, ambition and politics, and suggested that Stalin should be removed from the position of General Secretary. One of Lenin's secretaries showed Stalin the notes, whose contents shocked him.[2] On 9 March 1923, Lenin suffered his most debilitating stroke, which ended his political career.

text: During Lenin's semi-retirement, Stalin forged a triumvirate alliance with Lev Kamenev and Grigory Zinoviev in May 1922, against Trotsky. These allies prevented Lenin's Testament from being revealed to the Twelfth Party Congress in April 1923.[2]  Although Zinoviev and Kamenev were disconcerted by Stalin's power and some of his policies, they needed Stalin's help in opposing Trotsky's faction and to prevent Trotsky's possible succession to Lenin in a power struggle.

text: Lenin died on 21 January 1924. Stalin was given the honour of organizing his funeral. Upon Lenin's death, Stalin was officially hailed as his successor as the leader of the ruling Communist Party and of the Soviet Union itself. Against Lenin's wishes, he was given a lavish funeral and his body was embalmed and put on display.  Thanks to Kamenev and Zinoviev's influence, the Central Committee decided that Lenin's Testament should not be made public. At the Thirteenth Party Congress in May 1924, it was read out only to the heads of the provincial delegations. Trotsky did not want to appear divisive so soon after Lenin's death and did not seize the opportunity to demand Stalin's removal.[5]

text: Downfall of Trotsky[edit]

text: In the months following Lenin's death, Stalin's disputes with Zinoviev and Kamenev intensified. While the triumvirate remained intact throughout 1924 and the early months of 1925, Zinoviev and Kamenev did not regard Stalin highly as a revolutionary theorist, and often disparaged him in private even as they had aided him publicly against Trotsky and the Left Opposition. For his part, Stalin was cautious about where the political situation was heading, and often felt that Zinoviev's volatile rhetoric against Trotsky was going too far, especially when Zinoviev demanded Trotsky's expulsion from the Communist Party in January 1925. Stalin opposed Zinoviev's demand, and skillfully played the role of a moderate. At this time, Stalin was allying himself more and more with Nikolai Bukharin and the Right Opposition, whom Stalin had promoted to the Politburo at the Thirteenth Party Congress. Stalin proposed the theory of Socialism in One Country in October 1924, which Bukharin soon elaborated upon to give it a theoretical justification. Zinoviev and Kamenev suddenly found themselves in a minority at the Fourteenth Party Conference in April 1925, over their belief that socialism could only be achieved internationally, which resulted in the triumvirate splitting up. This saw a strengthening of Stalin's alliance with Bukharin.

text: With Trotsky mostly sidelined with a persistent illness during 1925, Zinoviev and Kamenev then formed the New Opposition against Stalin. At the Fourteenth Party Congress in December 1925, Stalin openly attacked Kamenev and Zinoviev, revealing that they had asked for his aid in expelling Trotsky from the Communist Party. Stalin's revelation made Zinoviev, in particular, very unpopular with many inside the Communist Party. Trotsky remained silent throughout this Congress.

text: In early 1926, Zinoviev and Kamenev drew closer to Trotsky and the Left Opposition, forming an alliance which became known as the United Opposition. The United Opposition demanded, among other things, greater freedom of expression within the Communist Party and less bureaucracy. In October 1926, Stalin's supporters voted Trotsky out of the Politburo.

text: During the years of 1926 and 1927, Soviet policy toward the Chinese Revolution became the ideological line of demarcation between Stalin and the United Opposition. The Chinese Revolution began on 10 October 1911,[6] resulting in the abdication of the Chinese Emperor, Puyi, on 12 February 1912.[7] Sun Yat-sen established the Republic of China. In reality, however, the Republic controlled very little of the country. Much of China was divided between various regional warlords. The Republican government established a new "nationalist people's army and a national people's party" — the Kuomintang. In 1920, the Kuomintang opened relations with Soviet Russia. With Soviet help, the Republic of China built up the nationalist people's army. With the development of the nationalist army, a Northern Expedition was planned to smash the power of the warlords of the northern part of the country. This Northern Expedition became a point of contention over foreign policy by Stalin and Trotsky. Stalin tried to persuade the small Chinese Communist Party to merge with the Kuomintang (KMT) Nationalists to bring about a bourgeois revolution before attempting to bring about a Soviet-style working class revolution.[8]  Stalin believed that the KMT bourgeoisie, together with all patriotic national liberation forces in the country, would defeat the western imperialists in China.

text: Trotsky wanted the Communist Party to complete an orthodox proletarian revolution and have clear class independence from the KMT. Stalin funded the KMT during the expedition.[9] Stalin countered Trotskyist criticism by making a secret speech in which he said that Chiang's right-wing Kuomintang were the only ones capable of defeating the imperialists, that Chiang Kai-shek had funding from the rich merchants, and that his forces were to be utilized until squeezed for all usefulness like a lemon before being discarded. However, Chiang quickly reversed the tables in the Shanghai massacre of April 1927 by massacring the Communist Party in Shanghai midway through the Northern Expedition.[10][11]

text: While the catastrophic events in China completely vindicated Trotsky's criticism of Stalin's approach towards the Chinese Revolution, this paled in significance compared to the demoralization that the Soviet masses felt at such a big setback for socialist revolution in China, with this demoralization aiding Stalin and his allies in the Communist Party and the Soviet state. Attacks against the United Opposition increased in volatility and ferocity. Many supporters of Kamenev and Zinoviev's group, as well as most from the Workers Opposition grouping, had left the United Opposition by mid-1927, changing sides under the growing political pressure and espousing their support for Stalin. Trotsky, Kamenev, and Zinoviev grew increasingly isolated and were ejected from the Central Committee in October 1927.

text: On 7 November 1927, on the tenth anniversary of the October Revolution, the United Opposition held a demonstration in Red Square, Moscow, along with Vladimir Lenin's widow, Nadezhda Krupskaya. On 12 November 1927, Trotsky and Zinoviev were expelled from the Communist Party itself, followed by Kamenev at the Fifteenth Party Congress in December 1927.[2] At the Congress, where Kamenev acted as the United Opposition's spokesman due to Trotsky's and Zinoviev's expulsion, the United Opposition were unable to gain the support of more than a small minority of the Communist Party, and they were expelled after the Congress declared United Opposition views to be incompatible with Communist Party membership.

text: While Trotsky remained firm in his opposition to Stalin after his expulsion from the Communist Party and his subsequent exile, Zinoviev and Kamenev capitulated almost immediately, and called on their supporters to follow suit. They wrote open letters acknowledging their mistakes and were readmitted to the Communist Party in June 1928, after a six-month cooling-off period. They never regained their Central Committee seats, but they were given mid-level positions within the Soviet bureaucracy. Kamenev and Zinoviev were courted by Bukharin at the beginning of his short and ill-fated struggle with Stalin in the summer of 1928. This activity was soon reported to Stalin and was later used against Bukharin as proof of his factionalism. Trotsky, firmer than ever in his opposition to Stalin, was exiled to Alma-ata in January 1928, and was exiled from the Soviet Union itself in February 1929, sent into exile in Turkey. From his exile, Trotsky continued to oppose Stalin, right up until Trotsky was assassinated on Stalin's orders in August 1940.

text: Stalin turns on the Right[edit]

text: After the United Opposition were illegalized in December 1927, the Kulaks and NEPmen were emboldened and exerted much greater economic pressure on the Soviet government in the months afterwards. In January 1928, Stalin personally travelled to Siberia where he oversaw the seizure of grain stockpiles from kulak farmers. Many in the Communist Party supported the seizures, but Bukharin and Premier Rykov were outraged.[2][12] Bukharin criticized Stalin's plans for rapid industrialization financed by kulak wealth, and advocated a return to Lenin's NEP.[13] However, Bukharin was unable to rally sufficient support from the higher levels of the Communist Party to oppose Stalin. By the latter months of 1928, a critical shortfall in grain supplies prompted Stalin to push for collectivisation of agriculture. Stalin began pushing for more rapid industrialisation and central control of the economy, a position which alienated Bukharin and the Right Opposition, but which appeared close to what the Left Opposition had advocated before they were banned.[14] [15] Stalin accused Bukharin of factionalism and capitalist tendencies. The other Politburo members sided with Stalin, and labelled Bukharin a "Right Deviationist" from Marxist–Leninist principles.[16] Bukharin was ejected from the Politburo in November 1929.

text: Stalin's agricultural policies were also criticized by fellow Politburo member Mikhail Kalinin. In the summer of 1930, Stalin exposed Kalinin's embezzlement of state funds, which he spent on a mistress. Kalinin begged forgiveness and effectively submitted himself to Stalin.[17]  In September 1930, Stalin proposed dismissing Premier Rykov, who was Bukharin's fellow oppositionist. The other Politburo members agreed with Stalin, and supported his nomination of Vyacheslav Molotov. On December 19, the Central Committee dismissed Rykov and replaced him with Molotov.[18]

text: After 1930, open criticism of Stalin within the Communist Party was virtually non-existent, though Stalin continued to hunt for discreet dissenters.[19] Stalin dominated the Politburo (the executive branch of the Soviet government) through staunch allies such as Sergo Ordzhonikidze, Lazar Kaganovich, Vyacheslav Molotov, and Kliment Voroshilov.

text: Death of his wife[edit]

text: On the night of 9 November 1932, Stalin's wife, Nadezhda Alliluyeva, shot herself in her bedroom. Stalin was sleeping in another room that night,[20] so her death was not discovered until the next morning. To prevent a scandal, Pravda reported the cause of death as appendicitis.  Stalin did not tell his own children the truth to prevent them from spreading the truth accidentally.

text: The Great Terror[edit]

text: On 1 December 1934, Sergei Kirov was murdered by Leonid Nikolaev.  The death of this popular, high-profile politician shocked Russia, and Stalin used this murder to begin The Great Terror. Within hours of Kirov's death, Stalin declared Grigory Zinoviev and his supporters to be responsible for Kirov's murder.[21] Lev Kamenev and Grigory Zinoviev were arrested and, to escape long prison sentences, confessed to political and moral responsibility for Kirov's murder. In January 1935, Zinoviev was sentenced to 10 years imprisonment, and Kamenev was sentenced to 5 years imprisonment. Stalin sanctioned the formation of troikas for the purpose of extrajudicial punishment.[22] In April 1935, Kamenev's prison sentence was increased by another 5 years, to a total of 10 years imprisonment. Hundreds of oppositionists linked to Kamenev and Zinoviev were arrested and exiled to Siberia.[23][24]  In late 1935, Stalin reopened the case. Kamenev and Zinoviev were interrogated again, and the exiled Trotsky was now accused of being the leading mastermind in Kirov's murder.[25] In July 1936, Stalin promised Kamenev and Zinoviev (through NKVD chief, Genrikh Yagoda) that there would be no executions or persecution of their families if they confessed to conspiring with Trotsky.[26] Stalin's promise was soon broken. A few weeks later, after a show trial, Kamenev and Zinoviev were both executed on 25 August 1936.

text: Spearheading Stalin's purges was a Commissar called Nikolai Yezhov, a fervent Stalinist and a believer in violent repression.[27] Nikolai Yezhov continued to expand the lists of suspects to include all the old oppositionists as well as entire nationalities, such as the Poles.[28]

text: Stalin distrusted the Soviet secret police - the NKVD - which was filled with Old Bolsheviks and ethnicities he distrusted, such as Poles, Jews and Latvians.[29] In September 1936, Stalin fired the head of the NKVD, Genrikh Yagoda, and replaced him with the more aggressive and zealous Yezhov, with Yezhov overseeing the most brutally oppressive period of Stalin's Great Purge from late 1936 to late 1938.

text: In June 1937, The Case of the Trotskyist Anti-Soviet Military Organization took place. Marshal Mikhail Tukhachevsky and the senior Red Army military officers Iona Yakir, Ieronim Uborevich, Robert Eideman, August Kork, Vitovt Putna, Boris Feldman and Vitaly Primakov (as well as Yakov Gamarnik, who committed suicide before the investigations began) were accused of anti-Soviet conspiracy and sentenced to death; they were executed on the night of 11 to 12 June 1937, immediately after the verdict delivered by a Special Session (специальное судебное присутствие) of the Supreme Court of the USSR. The Tribunal was presided over by Vasili Ulrikh and included marshals Vasily Blyukher, Semyon Budyonny and Army Commanders Yakov Alksnis, Boris Shaposhnikov, Ivan Panfilovich Belov, Pavel Dybenko, and Nikolai Kashirin. Only Ulrikh, Budyonny and Shaposhnikov would survive the purges that followed. The Tukhachevsky trial triggered a massive subsequent purge of the Red Army. In September 1938, the People's Commissar for Defence, Voroshilov, reported that a total of 37,761 officers and commissars were dismissed from the army, 10,868 were arrested and 7,211 were condemned for anti-Soviet crimes.

text: Since his falling out with Stalin in 1928–1929, Bukharin had written an endless stream of letters of repentance and admiration to Stalin. However, Stalin knew that Bukharin's repentance was insincere, as in private Bukharin continued to criticize Stalin and seek out other opponents of Stalin (the NKVD wiretapped Bukharin's telephone). Shortly before their executions in August 1936, Kamenev and Zinoviev had denounced Bukharin as a traitor during their show trial. At the December 1936 plenum of the Central Committee, Yezhov accused Bukharin and Alexei Rykov of treachery. Bukharin confessed to conspiring against Stalin, and was executed on 15 March 1938, on the same day that former NKVD chief, Yagoda, was also executed.

text: Stalin eventually turned on Yezhov. He appointed Yezhov Commissar of Water Transport in April 1938 (a similar thing had happened to Yezhov's predecessor, Yagoda, shortly before he was fired). Stalin began ordering the executions of Yezhov's protégés in the NKVD.[30] Politburo members also started to openly condemn the excesses of the NKVD under Yezhov's leadership, all of which gave the signal that Yezhov was falling from Stalin's favour.[31] Yezhov eventually suffered a nervous breakdown and resigned as NKVD chief on 23 November 1938. Yezhov was replaced as NKVD chief by Lavrentiy Beria. Yezhov was executed on 4 February 1940.[32]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Service 2004, p. 186

^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Robert Service. Stalin: A Biography. 2004. ISBN 978-0-330-41913-0[page needed]

Jump up ^ Knight, Ami W. (1991), Beria and the Cult of Stalin: Rewriting Transcaucasian Party History. Soviet Studies, Vol. 43, No. 4, pp. 749–763.

Jump up ^ Shanin, Teodor (July 1989), Ethnicity in the Soviet Union: Analytical Perceptions and Political Strategies. Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol. 31, No. 3, pp. 409–424.

Jump up ^ Service 2004, p. 223

Jump up ^ Sterling Seagrave, Dragon Lady (Alfred A. Knopf Inc.: New York, 1992) p. 454.

Jump up ^ Compilation Group for the "History of Modern China Series, The Revolution of 1911 (Foreign Languages Press: Peking, 1976) p. 153.

Jump up ^ Joseph Stalin, "The Prospects of Revolution in China" a speech to the Chinese Commission of the Executive Committee of the Communist International on 30 November 1926" contained in J. Stalin on Chinese Revolution (Suren Dutt Publishers: Calcutta, India, 1970) pp. 5–21.

Jump up ^ Peter Gue Zarrow (2005). China in war and revolution, 1895–1949. Volume 1 of Asia's transformations (illustrated ed.). Psychology Press. p. 233. ISBN 0-415-36447-7. Retrieved 1 January 2011.

Jump up ^ Robert Carver North (1963). Moscow and Chinese Communists (2 ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 96. ISBN 0-8047-0453-8. Retrieved 1 January 2011.

Jump up ^ Walter Moss (2005). A history of Russia: Since 1855. Volume 2 of A History of Russia (2, illustrated ed.). Anthem Press. p. 282. ISBN 1-84331-034-1. Retrieved 1 January 2011.

Jump up ^ Simon Sebag Montefiore. Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar, Knopf, 2004 (ISBN 1-4000-4230-5).[page needed]

Jump up ^ Service 2004, p. 259, ch. 23

Jump up ^ Service 2004, p. 258, ch. 23

Jump up ^ Service 2004, p. 260, ch. 23

Jump up ^ Service 2004, p. 265

Jump up ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 60

Jump up ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 64

Jump up ^ Service 2004, p. 284

Jump up ^ Service 2004, p. 292

Jump up ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 160

Jump up ^ Service 2004, p. 315

Jump up ^ Service 2004, p. 316

Jump up ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 167

Jump up ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 188

Jump up ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 193

Jump up ^ Lucas, Dean (2012-09-03). "Famous Pictures Magazine - Altered Images". Famous Picture. Retrieved 2012-10-13.

Jump up ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 204

Jump up ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 205

Jump up ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 280

Jump up ^ Service 2004, p. 369

Jump up ^ Service 2004, p. 368

text: Bibliography[edit]

text:
Montefiore, Simon Sebag (2003), Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar, ISBN 978-0-7538-1766-7
Service, Robert (2004), Stalin: A Biography, ISBN 978-0-330-41913-0

text:
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document_title: One-to-one (data model)

question_text: what is a one to one relationship in a database

text: One-to-one (data model)

text: In systems analysis, a one-to-one relationship is a type of cardinality that refers to the relationship between two entities (see also entity–relationship model) A and B in which one element of A may only be linked to one element of B, and vice versa. For instance, think of A as countries, and B as capital cities. A country has only one capital city, and a capital city is the capital of only one country.

text: In a relational database, a one-to-one relationship exists when one row in a table may be linked with only one row in another table and vice versa. It is important to note that a one-to-one relationship is not a property of the data, but rather of the relationship itself. A list of mothers and their children may happen to describe mothers with only one child, in which case one row of the mothers table will refer to only one row of the children table and vice versa, but the relationship itself is not one-to-one, because mothers may have more than one child, thus forming a one-to-many relationship.