document_title: Great Pyramid of Giza

question_text: how many bricks did it take to build the great pyramid of giza

root

text: Great Pyramid of Giza

text: History and description

text: It is believed[by whom?] the pyramid was built as a tomb for Fourth Dynasty Egyptian pharaoh Khufu (often Hellenicised as "Cheops") and was constructed over a 20-year period. Khufu's vizier, Hemiunu (also called Hemon), is believed by some to be the architect of the Great Pyramid.[3] It is thought that, at construction, the Great Pyramid was originally 280 Egyptian cubits tall (146.5 metres (480.6 ft)), but with erosion and absence of its pyramidion, its present height is 138.8 metres (455.4 ft). Each base side was 440 cubits, 230.4 metres (755.9 ft) long. The mass of the pyramid is estimated at 5.9 million tonnes. The volume, including an internal hillock, is roughly 2,500,000 cubic metres (88,000,000 cu ft).[4]

tag: p

text: Based on these estimates, building the pyramid in 20 years would involve installing approximately 800 tonnes of stone every day. Additionally, since it consists of an estimated 2.3 million blocks, completing the building in 20 years would involve moving an average of more than 12 of the blocks into place each hour, day and night. The first precision measurements of the pyramid were made by Egyptologist Sir Flinders Petrie in 1880–82 and published as The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh.[5] Almost all reports are based on his measurements. Many of the casing stones and inner chamber blocks of the Great Pyramid fit together with extremely high precision. Based on measurements taken on the northeastern casing stones, the mean opening of the joints is only 0.5 millimetre wide (1/50 of an inch).[6]

text: The pyramid remained the tallest man-made structure in the world for over 3,800 years,[7] unsurpassed until the 160-metre-tall (520 ft) spire of Lincoln Cathedral was completed c. 1300. The accuracy of the pyramid's workmanship is such that the four sides of the base have an average error of only 58 millimetres in length.[8] The base is horizontal and flat to within ±15 mm (0.6 in).[9] The sides of the square base are closely aligned to the four cardinal compass points (within four minutes of arc)[10] based on true north, not magnetic north,[11] and the finished base was squared to a mean corner error of only 12 seconds of arc.[12]

text: The completed design dimensions, as suggested by Petrie's survey and subsequent studies, are estimated to have originally been 280 royal cubits high by 440 cubits long at each of the four sides of its base. The ratio of the perimeter to height of 1760/280 royal cubits equates to 2π to an accuracy of better than 0.05% (corresponding to the well-known approximation of π as 22/7). Some Egyptologists consider this to have been the result of deliberate design proportion. Verner wrote, "We can conclude that although the ancient Egyptians could not precisely define the value of π, in practice they used it".[13] Petrie, author of Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh concluded: "but these relations of areas and of circular ratio are so systematic that we should grant that they were in the builder's design".[14] Others have argued that the Ancient Egyptians had no concept of pi and would not have thought to encode it in their monuments. They believe that the observed pyramid slope may be based on a simple seked slope choice alone, with no regard to the overall size and proportions of the finished building.[15] In 2013 rolls of papyrus called The diary of Merer were discovered written by some of those who delivered stone and other construction materials to Khufu's brother at Giza.[16]

text: Materials

text: The Great Pyramid consists of an estimated 2.3 million blocks which most believe to have been transported from nearby quarries. The Tura limestone used for the casing was quarried across the river. The largest granite stones in the pyramid, found in the "King's" chamber, weigh 25 to 80 tonnes and were transported from Aswan, more than 800 km (500 mi) away. Traditionally, ancient Egyptians cut stone blocks by hammering into them some wooden wedges, which were then soaked with water. As the water was absorbed, the wedges expanded, causing the rock to crack. Once they were cut, they were carried by boat either up or down the Nile River to the pyramid.[17] It is estimated that 5.5 million tonnes of limestone, 8,000 tonnes of granite (imported from Aswan), and 500,000 tonnes of mortar were used in the construction of the Great Pyramid.[18]

text: Casing stones

text: At completion, the Great Pyramid was surfaced by white "casing stones" – slant-faced, but flat-topped, blocks of highly polished white limestone. These were carefully cut to what is approximately a face slope with a seked of 5½ palms to give the required dimensions. Visibly, all that remains is the underlying stepped core structure seen today. In AD 1303, a massive earthquake loosened many of the outer casing stones, which were then carted away by Bahri Sultan An-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din al-Hasan in 1356 to build mosques and fortresses in nearby Cairo. Many more casing stones were removed from the great pyramids by Muhammad Ali Pasha in the early 19th century to build the upper portion of his Alabaster Mosque in Cairo not far from Giza. These limestone casings can still be seen as parts of these structures. Later explorers reported massive piles of rubble at the base of the pyramids left over from the continuing collapse of the casing stones, which were subsequently cleared away during continuing excavations of the site.

text: Nevertheless, a few of the casing stones from the lowest course can be seen to this day in situ around the base of the Great Pyramid, and display the same workmanship and precision that has been reported for centuries. Petrie also found a different orientation in the core and in the casing measuring 193 centimetres ± 25 centimetres. He suggested a redetermination of north was made after the construction of the core, but a mistake was made, and the casing was built with a different orientation.[5] Petrie related the precision of the casing stones as to being "equal to opticians' work of the present day, but on a scale of acres" and "to place such stones in exact contact would be careful work; but to do so with cement in the joints seems almost impossible".[20] It has been suggested it was the mortar (Petrie's "cement") that made this seemingly impossible task possible, providing a level bed, which enabled the masons to set the stones exactly.[21][22]

text: Construction theories

text: Many alternative, often contradictory, theories have been proposed regarding the pyramid's construction techniques.[23] Many disagree on whether the blocks were dragged, lifted, or even rolled into place. The Greeks believed that slave labour was used, but modern discoveries made at nearby workers' camps associated with construction at Giza suggest that it was built instead by tens of thousands of skilled workers. Verner posited that the labour was organized into a hierarchy, consisting of two gangs of 100,000 men, divided into five zaa or phyle of 20,000 men each, which may have been further divided according to the skills of the workers.[24]

text: One mystery of the pyramid's construction is its planning. John Romer suggests that they used the same method that had been used for earlier and later constructions, laying out parts of the plan on the ground at a 1-to-1 scale. He writes that "such a working diagram would also serve to generate the architecture of the pyramid with precision unmatched by any other means".[25] He also argues for a 14-year time span for its construction.[26] A modern construction management study, in association with Mark Lehner and other Egyptologists, estimated that the total project required an average workforce of 14,567 people and a peak workforce of roughly 40,000. Without the use of pulleys, wheels, or iron tools, they used critical path analysis methods, which suggest that the Great Pyramid was completed from start to finish in approximately 10 years.[27]

text: Interior

text: The original entrance to the Great Pyramid is on the north, 17 metres (56 ft) vertically above ground level and 7.29 metres (23.9 ft) east of the centre line of the pyramid. From this original entrance, there is a Descending Passage 0.96 metres (3.1 ft) high and 1.04 metres (3.4 ft) wide, which goes down at an angle of 26° 31'23" through the masonry of the pyramid and then into the bedrock beneath it. After 105.23 metres (345.2 ft), the passage becomes level and continues for an additional 8.84 metres (29.0 ft) to the lower Chamber, which appears not to have been finished. There is a continuation of the horizontal passage in the south wall of the lower chamber; there is also a pit dug in the floor of the chamber. Some Egyptologists suggest that this Lower Chamber was intended to be the original burial chamber, but Pharaoh Khufu later changed his mind and wanted it to be higher up in the pyramid.[28]

text: 28.2 metres (93 ft) from the entrance is a square hole in the roof of the Descending Passage. Originally concealed with a slab of stone, this is the beginning of the Ascending Passage. The Ascending Passage is 39.3 metres (129 ft) long, as wide and high as the Descending Passage and slopes up at almost precisely the same angle to reach the Grand Gallery. The lower end of the Ascending Passage is closed by three huge blocks of granite, each about 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) long. One must use the Robbers' Tunnel (see below) to access the Ascending Passage. At the start of the Grand Gallery on the right-hand side there is a hole cut in the wall. This is the start of a vertical shaft which follows an irregular path through the masonry of the pyramid to join the Descending Passage. Also at the start of the Grand Gallery there is the Horizontal Passage leading to the "Queen's Chamber". The passage is 1.1m (3'8") high for most of its length, but near the chamber there is a step in the floor, after which the passage is 1.73 metres (5.7 ft) high.

text: Queen's Chamber

text: The "Queen's Chamber"[2] is exactly halfway between the north and south faces of the pyramid and measures 5.75 metres (18.9 ft) north to south, 5.23 metres (17.2 ft) east to west, and has a pointed roof with an apex 6.23 metres (20.4 ft) above the floor. At the eastern end of the chamber there is a niche 4.67 metres (15.3 ft) high. The original depth of the niche was 1.04 metres (3.4 ft), but has since been deepened by treasure hunters.[citation needed]

text: In the north and south walls of the Queen's Chamber there are shafts, which unlike those in the King's Chamber that immediately slope upwards (see below), are horizontal for around 2 m (6.6 ft) before sloping upwards. The horizontal distance was cut in 1872 by a British engineer, Waynman Dixon, who believed a shaft similar to those in the King's Chamber must also exist. He was proved right, but because the shafts are not connected to the outer faces of the pyramid or the Queen's Chamber, their purpose is unknown. At the end of one of his shafts, Dixon discovered a ball of black diorite (a type of rock) and a bronze implement of unknown purpose. Both objects are currently in the British Museum.[29]

text: The shafts in the Queen's Chamber were explored in 1993 by the German engineer Rudolf Gantenbrink using a crawler robot he designed, Upuaut 2. After a climb of 65 m (213 ft),[30] he discovered that one of the shafts was blocked by limestone "doors" with two eroded copper "handles". Some years later the National Geographic Society created a similar robot which, in September 2002, drilled a small hole in the southern door, only to find another door behind it.[31] The northern passage, which was difficult to navigate because of twists and turns, was also found to be blocked by a door.[32]

text: Research continued in 2011 with the Djedi Project. Realizing the problem was that the National Geographic Society's camera was only able to see straight ahead of it, they instead used a fiber-optic "micro snake camera" that could see around corners. With this they were able to penetrate the first door of the southern shaft through the hole drilled in 2002, and view all the sides of the small chamber behind it. They discovered hieroglyphs written in red paint. They were also able to scrutinize the inside of the two copper "handles" embedded in the door, and they now believe them to be for decorative purposes. They also found the reverse side of the "door" to be finished and polished, which suggests that it was not put there just to block the shaft from debris, but rather for a more specific reason.[33]

text: Grand Gallery

text: The Grand Gallery continues the slope of the Ascending Passage, but is 8.6 metres (28 ft) high and 46.68 metres (153.1 ft) long. At the base it is 2.06 metres (6.8 ft) wide, but after 2.29 metres (7.5 ft) the blocks of stone in the walls are corbelled inwards by 7.6 centimetres (3.0 in) on each side. There are seven of these steps, so, at the top, the Grand Gallery is only 1.04 metres (3.4 ft) wide. It is roofed by slabs of stone laid at a slightly steeper angle than the floor of the gallery, so that each stone fits into a slot cut in the top of the gallery like the teeth of a ratchet. The purpose was to have each block supported by the wall of the Gallery rather than resting on the block beneath it, which would have resulted in an unacceptable cumulative pressure at the lower end of the Gallery.[citation needed]

text: At the upper end of the Gallery on the right-hand side there is a hole near the roof that opens into a short tunnel by which access can be gained to the lowest of the Relieving Chambers. The other Relieving Chambers were discovered in 1837-1838 by Colonel Howard Vyse and J. S. Perring, who dug tunnels upwards using blasting powder.

text: The floor of the Grand Gallery consists of a shelf or step on either side, 51 centimetres (20 in) wide, leaving a lower ramp 1.04 metres (3.4 ft) wide between them. In the shelves there are 54 slots, 27 on each side matched by vertical and horizontal slots in the walls of the Gallery. These form a cross shape that rises out of the slot in the shelf. The purpose of these slots is not known, but the central gutter in the floor of the Gallery, which is the same width as the Ascending Passage, has led to speculation that the blocking stones were stored in the Grand Gallery and the slots held wooden beams to restrain them from sliding down the passage.[34] This, in turn, has led to the proposal that originally many more than 3 blocking stones were intended, to completely fill the Ascending Passage.[citation needed]

text: At the top of the Grand Gallery, there is a step giving onto a horizontal passage some metres long and approximately 1.02 metres (3.3 ft) in height and width, in which can be detected four slots, three of which were probably intended to hold granite portcullises. Fragments of granite found by Petrie in the Descending Passage may have come from these now-vanished doors.

text: King's Chamber

text: The "King's Chamber"[2] is 20 cubits or 10.47 metres (34.4 ft) from east to west and 10 cubits or 5.234 metres (17.17 ft) north to south. It has a flat roof 11 cubits and 5 digits or 5.852 metres (19 feet 2 inch) above the floor. 0.91 m (3.0 ft) above the floor there are two narrow shafts in the north and south walls (one is now filled by an extractor fan in an attempt to circulate air inside the pyramid). The purpose of these shafts is not clear: they appear to be aligned towards stars or areas of the northern and southern skies, yet one of them follows a dog-leg course through the masonry, indicating no intention to directly sight stars through them. They were long believed by Egyptologists to be "air shafts" for ventilation, but this idea has now been widely abandoned in favour of the shafts serving a ritualistic purpose associated with the ascension of the king’s spirit to the heavens.[35]

text: The King's Chamber is entirely faced with granite. Above the roof, which is formed of nine slabs of stone weighing in total about 400 tons, are five compartments known as Relieving Chambers. The first four, like the King's Chamber, have flat roofs formed by the floor of the chamber above, but the final chamber has a pointed roof. Vyse suspected the presence of upper chambers when he found that he could push a long reed through a crack in the ceiling of the first chamber. From lower to upper, the chambers are known as "Davison's Chamber", "Wellington's Chamber", "Nelson's Chamber", "Lady Arbuthnot's Chamber", and "Campbell's Chamber". It is believed that the compartments were intended to safeguard the King's Chamber from the possibility of a roof collapsing under the weight of stone above the Chamber. As the chambers were not intended to be seen, they were not finished in any way and a few of the stones still retain masons' marks painted on them. One of the stones in Campbell's Chamber bears a mark, apparently the name of a work gang.[36][37]

text: The only object in the King's Chamber is a rectangular granite sarcophagus, one corner of which is broken. The sarcophagus is slightly larger than the Ascending Passage, which indicates that it must have been placed in the Chamber before the roof was put in place. Unlike the fine masonry of the walls of the Chamber, the sarcophagus is roughly finished, with saw marks visible in several places. This is in contrast with the finely finished and decorated sarcophagi found in other pyramids of the same period. Petrie suggested that such a sarcophagus was intended but was lost in the river on the way north from Aswan and a hurriedly made replacement was used instead.

text: Modern entrance

text: Today tourists enter the Great Pyramid via the Robbers' Tunnel, a tunnel purportedly created around AD 820 by Caliph al-Ma'mun's workmen using a battering ram.[38] The tunnel is cut straight through the masonry of the pyramid for approximately 27 metres (89 ft), then turns sharply left to encounter the blocking stones in the Ascending Passage. It is believed that their efforts dislodged the stone fitted in the ceiling of the Descending Passage to hide the entrance to the Ascending Passage and it was the noise of that stone falling and then sliding down the Descending Passage, which alerted them to the need to turn left. Unable to remove these stones, however, the workmen tunnelled up beside them through the softer limestone of the Pyramid until they reached the Ascending Passage. It is possible to enter the Descending Passage from this point, but access is usually forbidden.[39]

text: Pyramid complex

text: The Great Pyramid is surrounded by a complex of several buildings including small pyramids. The Pyramid Temple, which stood on the east side of the pyramid and measured 52.2 metres (171 ft) north to south and 40 metres (130 ft) east to west, has almost entirely disappeared apart from the black basalt paving. There are only a few remnants of the causeway which linked the pyramid with the valley and the Valley Temple. The Valley Temple is buried beneath the village of Nazlet el-Samman; basalt paving and limestone walls have been found but the site has not been excavated.[40][41] The basalt blocks show "clear evidence" of having been cut with some kind of saw with an estimated cutting blade of 15 feet (4.6 m) in length, capable of cutting at a rate of 1.5 inches (38 mm) per minute. John Romer suggests that this "super saw" may have had copper teeth and weighed up to 300 pounds (140 kg). He theorizes that such a saw could have been attached to a wooden trestle and possibly used in conjunction with vegetable oil, cutting sand, emery or pounded quartz to cut the blocks, which would have required the labour of at least a dozen men to operate it.[42]

text: On the south side are the subsidiary pyramids, popularly known as Queens' Pyramids. Three remain standing to nearly full height but the fourth was so ruined that its existence was not suspected until the recent discovery of the first course of stones and the remains of the capstone. Hidden beneath the paving around the pyramid was the tomb of Queen Hetepheres I, sister-wife of Sneferu and mother of Khufu. Discovered by accident by the Reisner expedition, the burial was intact, though the carefully sealed coffin proved to be empty.

text: The Giza pyramid complex, which includes among other structures the pyramids of Khufu, Khafre and Menkaure, is surrounded by a cyclopean stone wall, the Wall of the Crow. Mark Lehner has discovered a worker's town outside of the wall, otherwise known as "The Lost City", dated by pottery styles, seal impressions, and stratigraphy to have been constructed and occupied sometime during the reigns of Khafre (2520–2494 BC) and Menkaure (2490–2472 BC).[43][44] Recent discoveries by Mark Lehner and his team at the town and nearby, including what appears to have been a thriving port, suggest the town and associated living quarters consisting of barracks called "galleries" may not have been for the pyramid workers after all, but rather for the soldiers and sailors who utilized the port. In light of this new discovery, as to where then the pyramid workers may have lived Lehner now suggests the alternative possibility they may have camped on the ramps he believes were used to construct the pyramids or possibly at nearby quarries.[45]

text: In the early 1970s, the Australian archaeologist Karl Kromer excavated a mound in the South Field of the plateau. This mound contained artefacts including mudbrick seals of Khufu, which he identified with an artisans' settlement.[46] Mudbrick buildings just south of Khufu's Valley Temple contained mud sealings of Khufu and have been suggested to be a settlement serving the cult of Khufu after his death.[47] A worker's cemetery used at least between Khufu's reign and the end of the Fifth Dynasty was discovered south of the Wall of the Crow by Zahi Hawass in 1990.[48]

text: Boats

text: There are three boat-shaped pits around the pyramid, of a size and shape to have held complete boats, though so shallow that any superstructure, if there ever was one, must have been removed or disassembled. In May 1954, the Egyptian archaeologist Kamal el-Mallakh discovered a fourth pit, a long, narrow rectangle, still covered with slabs of stone weighing up to 15 tons. Inside were 1,224 pieces of wood, the longest 23 metres (75 ft) long, the shortest 10 centimetres (0.33 ft). These were entrusted to a boat builder, Haj Ahmed Yusuf, who worked out how the pieces fit together. The entire process, including conservation and straightening of the warped wood, took fourteen years.

text: The result is a cedar-wood boat 43.6 metres (143 ft) long, its timbers held together by ropes, which is currently housed in a special boat-shaped, air-conditioned museum beside the pyramid. During construction of this museum, which stands above the boat pit, a second sealed boat pit was discovered. It was deliberately left unopened until 2011 when excavation began on the boat.[49]

text: Looting

text: Although succeeding pyramids were smaller, pyramid building continued until the end of the Middle Kingdom. However, as authors Briar and Hobbs claim, "all the pyramids were robbed" by the New Kingdom, when the construction of royal tombs in a desert valley, now known as the Valley of the Kings, began.[50][51] Joyce Tyldesley states that the Great Pyramid itself "is known to have been opened and emptied by the Middle Kingdom", before the Arab caliph Abdullah al-Mamun entered the pyramid around AD 820.[38]

text: I. E. S. Edwards discusses Strabo's mention that the pyramid "a little way up one side has a stone that may be taken out, which being raised up there is a sloping passage to the foundations". Edwards suggested that the pyramid was entered by robbers after the end of the Old Kingdom and sealed and then reopened more than once until Strabo's door was added. He adds: "If this highly speculative surmise be correct, it is also necessary to assume either that the existence of the door was forgotten or that the entrance was again blocked with facing stones", in order to explain why al-Ma'mun could not find the entrance.[52]

text: He also discusses a story told by Herodotus. Herodotus visited Egypt in the 5th century BC and recounts a story that he was told concerning vaults under the pyramid built on an island where the body of Cheops lies. Edwards notes that the pyramid had "almost certainly been opened and its contents plundered long before the time of Herodotus" and that it might have been closed again during the Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt when other monuments were restored. He suggests that the story told to Herodotus could have been the result of almost two centuries of telling and retelling by Pyramid guides.[53]


document_title: Mandela: Long Walk to Freedom

question_text: who played nelson mandela in the long walk to freedom

text: Mandela: Long Walk to Freedom

text: Plot[edit]

text: Based on South African President Nelson Mandela's autobiography of the same name, which chronicles his early life, coming of age, education and 27 years in prison before becoming President and working to rebuild the country's once segregated society.[6]

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Idris Elba as Nelson Mandela
Atandwa Kani as Nelson Mandela (16-23)
Siza Pini as Nelson Mandela (7-9)
Naomie Harris as Winnie Madikizela
Tony Kgoroge as Walter Sisulu
S'Thandiwe Kgoroge as Albertina Sisulu
Riaad Moosa as Ahmed Kathrada
Zolani Mkiva as Raymond Mhlaba
Simo Mogwaza as Andrew Mlangeni
Tshallo Sputla Chokwe as Oliver Tambo
Fana Mokoena as Govan Mbeki
James Cunningham as George Bizos
Thapelo Mokoena as Elias Motsoaledi
Jamie Bartlett as James Gregory
Deon Lotz as Kobie Coetzee
Terry Pheto as Evelyn Mase
Sello Maake as Albert Lutuli
Gys de Villiers as F. W. de Klerk
Zenzo Ngqobe as Patrick Lekota
Carl Beukes as Niel Barnard
A.J. van der Merwe as Fanie van der Merwe
Nomfusi Gotyana as Miriam Makeba
Andre Jacobs as Bram Fischer
Louis van Niekerk as Quartus de Wet
Adam Neill as Percy Yutar
Lindiwe Matshikiza as Zindzi Mandela (28-32)
Refilwe Charles as Zindzi Mandela (8-12)
Semuhle Shangasi as Zenani Mandela (28-32)
Khumbuzile Maphumulo as Zenani Mandela (8-12)
John Herbert as Arthur Goldreich

tag: ul

text: Production[edit]

text: Producer Anant Singh started working on the project after interviewing Mandela while he was still imprisoned two decades prior.[7] Following the publication of Mandela's autobiography, Singh was granted the rights to the film adaptation, which was completed 16 years later by screenwriter William Nicholson. The film is directed by Justin Chadwick.

text: Music[edit]

text: For the film, U2 wrote the song "Ordinary Love".[8][9] Subscribers of the band's official website were able to hear a short snippet first.[10]

text: Release[edit]

text: The film held its world premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival on 7 September 2013.[7][11] It was released on 28 November 2013 in South Africa and on 3 January 2014 in the United Kingdom, a week before and a month after Mandela died, respectively.

text: Long Walk to Freedom premiered in London on 5 December 2013 as a Royal Film Performance, The Duke and Duchess of Cambridge were in attendance, along with Mandela's daughters Zindzi and Zenani. The announcement of the death of Nelson Mandela occurred while the film was being screened; The Duke and Duchess were immediately informed of Nelson's passing, while producer Anant Singh (alongside Idris Elba) took the stage during the closing credits to inform patrons of Mandela's passing, and held a moment of silence. Prince William made brief comments to the press while exiting the theatre, stating that "I just wanted to say it's extremely sad and tragic news. We were just reminded what an extraordinary and inspiring man Nelson Mandela was. My thoughts and prayers are with him and his family right now." The film was temporarily pulled from theatres in South Africa the next day out of respect, but returned on 7 December 2013.[12][13][14] On the 8th of December to mark the launch of the film a Gala dinner, private screening and charity auction in aid of the children's charity Onetoonechildrensfund. Sir Trevor McDonald was Master of Ceremonies for the evening, introducing the auction where one of a limited edition of 6 portrait heads of Nelson Mandela, sculpted from life by David Cregeen. The head was donated by the sculptor and sold in aid of the charity's work in South Africa.

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 59% based on 123 reviews, with an average rating of 5.9/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "It might be too respectful to truly soar, but there's no denying Idris Elba's impressive work in Mandela: Long Walk to Freedom -- or the inspirational power of the life it depicts."[15] At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average rating to reviews, the film has an average score of 60 out of 100, based on 32 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[16]

text: Scott Foundas of Variety said the film "never opts for a light touch when a sledgehammer will do", but also praises Elba for "a towering performance, a Mandela for the ages".[17]

text: Claudia Puig of USA Today agreed that Elba's performance was powerful but felt the film was not as strong, stating, "Earnest and ambitious, the film suffers from trying to squeeze in too many milestones of Nelson Mandela's long life as he worked to end the oppressive regime of apartheid in South Africa. But the talent of the lead actors lends it heft, particularly the commanding performance of Idris Elba as Mandela."[18]

text: Jordan Hoffman from Film.com also gave the film a mixed to negative review: "Mandela: Long Walk to Freedom should have been a layup. A slow burn leading to eventual triumph, moving speeches, Idris Elba raging against injustice, the world made a better place because of one man's sacrifice. But as crazy and offensive as it may sound, you'll get more chills from Elba's idiotic speech about canceling the apocalypse in Pacific Rim than you will in this by-the-numbers bore."[19]

text: However, Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film a generally positive review with 2 and a half out of 4 stars, mostly circling the performances.[20]

text: Screenwriter William Nicholson claimed it didn't do better because of the movie 12 Years a Slave: "12 Years a Slave came out in America and that sucked up all the guilt about black people that was available. They were so exhausted feeling guilty about slavery that I don't think there was much left over to be nice about our film." He also speculated that the death of Mandela resulted in a Mandela "overdose" among people, so that they have had enough of him when the movie finally hit the theatres; "Suddenly the word came through that he died. We were deluged with Mandela stuff and after a week we all thought, please, take it away, we've heard enough about Mandela."[21]

text: Historical accuracy[edit]

text: Vincent Hiribarren, a lecturer in world history at King's College London, notes in his review of the film for History Extra, the website of BBC History Magazine: "[The film] clearly depicted Mandela's understanding of the apartheid years. Or, at least, what he wanted to let us know. As the film is not based on Mandela's life but on Mandela's own words, criticism levelled at Mandela's autobiography can also be directed at the film."[22]

text: Turning to the 1976 Soweto uprising, Hiribarren said that the film "did not spend much time evoking this pivotal event, because Mandela did not say much about Soweto in his book. The Soweto uprising was, however, instrumental in creating a new political climate in South Africa that directly led to the politicisation of many young South Africans."[22]

text: Hiribarren awarded the film three stars for historical accuracy, and five for enjoyment.[22]

text: Awards[edit]

text:
Awards

Award
Category
Name
Result

86th Academy Awards
Best Original Song
U2 for "Ordinary Love"
Nominated

ABFF Hollywood Awards
Artist of the Year
Idris Elba (also for Pacific Rim and Thor: The Dark World)
Nominated

71st Golden Globe Awards[23][24]
Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama
Idris Elba
Nominated

Best Original Score
Alex Heffes
Nominated

Best Original Song – Motion Picture
U2 and Danger Mouse ("Ordinary Love")
Won

19th Critics' Choice Awards[25]
Best Song

Nominated

Motion Picture Sound Editors Golden Reel Awards[26][27]
Best Sound Editing: Music Score in a Feature Film
Lewis Morison
Nominated

tag: table


question_text: where did they film twilight breaking dawn part 2

text: Plot[edit]

text: Bella, who has just given birth, awakens from her human-to-vampire transformation and is introduced to her daughter Renesmee. The rest of the Cullens and Jacob stay nearby, and when Jacob acts possessively towards Renesmee, Bella learns he has imprinted on her, making her furious until Jacob explains what imprinting is. Meanwhile, Bella's father, Charlie, has been trying to contact the Cullens for updates on Bella's health. Carlisle comes to believe that they have to leave Forks, Washington to protect their identities - especially because of Charlie. Jacob, desperate not to lose Renesmee, visits Charlie and tell him that Bella is alive and well, but had to change in order to get better. Jacob also tells Charlie he doesn't live in the world he thinks he lives in, but says nothing about vampires. He then phases into his wolf form. Charlie then visits the Cullen house and meets Renesmee, but doesn't know he's her biological grandfather. Afterward, the Cullens are able to stay in Forks.

text: Several months pass with Carlisle monitoring Renesmee's rapid growth. On an outing in the woods, a bitter Irina sees Renesmee from a distance and assumes she's an immortal child without asking any questions. Immortal children were vampires who were changed in childhood, and because they could not be trained nor restrained, they destroyed entire villages. They were eventually executed, as were the parents who created them, and the creation of such children outlawed. Irina goes to the Volturi to report what she has seen. Alice sees the Volturi and Irina coming to kill the Cullens, and instructs the others to gather as many witnesses as they can to testify that Renesmee is not an immortal child. The Cullens begin to summon witnesses, such as the Denali family. One of the Denali, Eleazar, later discovers that Bella has a special ability: a powerful mental shield which had protected her from Edward's mind reading even when she was human, and which she can now extend to protect others from attacks.

text: As some of their potential witnesses are attacked and prevented from supporting the Cullens, Carlisle and Edward realize they may have to fight the Volturi. Their witnesses ultimately agree to stand with them in battle, having realized the Volturi increased their Guard by falsely accusing covens of crimes, destroying them and then recruiting the vampires with gifts. The Volturi arrive prepared for battle, led by Aro, who is eager to obtain the gifted members of the Cullen coven as part of his Guard. Aro is allowed to touch Renesmee, and is convinced that she is not an immortal child. Irina is brought forth and takes full responsibility for her mistake, leading to her immediate death. Aro still insists that Renesmee may pose a risk in the future, validating his claim that battle is necessary. Before any violence, Alice shares with Aro her vision of the battle that is to come, during which both sides sustain heavy casualties, including Aro, who would also die. Aro believes her, giving Alice and Jasper an opportunity to reveal their witness, Nahuel (a half-mortal half-vampire just like Renesmee). The witness proves that he is not a threat, supporting the notion that Renesmee is not a threat. The Volturi unhappily walk away, explaining that there will be no battle today.

text: Back at the Cullen home, Alice glimpses the future, seeing Edward and Bella together with Jacob and a fully matured Renesmee also together. Edward reads Alice's mind and feels relieved that Renesmee has Jacob to protect her. Alone in the meadow, Bella pushes her mental shield away and finally allows Edward to see into her mind, showing him every moment she and Edward shared together and the two share a kiss after Bella telling Edward, "Nobody has ever loved anybody as much as I love you", and both Edward and Bella say they'll love and be together forever. The end credits present the cast members from all five films.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Kristen Stewart as Bella Swan
Robert Pattinson as Edward Cullen
Taylor Lautner as Jacob Black
Mackenzie Foy as Renesmee Cullen
Ashley Greene as Alice Cullen
Peter Facinelli as Carlisle Cullen
Elizabeth Reaser as Esme Cullen
Kellan Lutz as Emmett Cullen
Nikki Reed as Rosalie Hale
Jackson Rathbone as Jasper Hale
Maggie Grace as Irina
Michael Sheen as Aro
Jamie Campbell Bower as Caius
Dakota Fanning as Jane
Christopher Heyerdahl as Marcus
Billy Burke as Charlie Swan
Casey LaBow as Kate
MyAnna Buring as Tanya
Lee Pace as Garrett
Christian Camargo as Eleazar
Mía Maestro as Carmen
Noel Fisher as Vladimir
Joe Anderson as Alistair
Cameron Bright as Alec
Angela Sarafyan as Tia
Rami Malek as Benjamin
Booboo Stewart as Seth Clearwater
Daniel Cudmore as Felix
Ty Olsson as Phil
Alex Meraz as Paul
Judith Shekoni as Zafrina
Charlie Bewley as Demetri
J. D. Pardo as Nahuel
Wendell Pierce as J. Jenks
Julia Jones as Leah Clearwater
Lateef Crowder as Santiago
Andrea Powell as Sasha
Toni Trucks as Mary
Andrea Gabriel as Kebi
Austin Naulty as Werewolf
Kiowa Gordon as Embry Call
Chaske Spencer as Sam Uley
Bronson Pelletier as Jared
Marisa Quinn as Huilen
Omar Metwally as Amun
Valorie Curry as Charlotte
Tracey Heggins as Senna
Marlane Barnes as Maggie
Guri Weinberg as Stefan
Erik Odom as Peter
Tyson Houseman as Quil Ateara
Gil Birmingham as Billy Black
Lisa Howard as Siobhan
Bill Tangradi as Randall
Patrick Brennan as Liam
Amadou Ly as Henri
Janelle Froehlich as Yvette
Masami Kosaka as Toshiro

text: Cam Gigandet (James), Rachelle Lefevre, and Bryce Dallas Howard (Victoria), Edi Gathegi (Laurent), Jodelle Ferland (Bree Tanner), and various other actors from the previous films make cameos during the ending credits.[6]

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: After confirming one film, Summit Entertainment had been keeping their eye on a fifth installment.[clarification needed] In May 2010, Billy Burke and Peter Facinelli were the only cast actors who were confirmed for both parts of Breaking Dawn, while other cast members such as Ashley Greene and Kellan Lutz were still in negotiations for a second part. If the actors holding Summit back from making an official announcement did not reach an agreement with them, the studio would not have minded recasting their roles, as was done in The Twilight Saga: Eclipse with Bryce Dallas Howard's character, Victoria. However, in June 2010, Summit officially confirmed that a two-part adaptation of the fourth book would start production and it was made clear that all major actors, including the three lead roles, the Cullen family, and Charlie Swan, would return for both parts.

text: Pre-production[edit]

text: By August 2009, Rosenberg said that the scripts for Part 1 and 2 were 75 to 85 percent completed. She found the greatest challenge in writing the scripts to be the final sequence of Part 2: "The final battle sequence is a big challenge because it lasts 25 pages", she said. "It's almost an entire three-act story in and of itself. You have to track [keep it all in one setting] hundreds of characters. It's an enormous challenge to choreograph on the page and for Bill [Condon] to choreograph on the stage." She had written various drafts of the scene but, at that, hadn't revised or discussed them with Condon yet. She said, "That's the next big hurdle to sit down with the stunt coordinator and create the ballet. It's a lot of work. I'm exhausted, but we're intent on making them the best scripts yet." Godfrey called Part 2 "an action film in terms of life-and-death stakes" and said that in Part 1 "there are the pangs of newlywed tension that occur that are relatable even in a fantasy film. Marriage is not quite the experience that they thought it was." Condon thought of Part 1 "as a real companion piece to Catherine Hardwicke's movie". Condon explains, "Like, everything that got set up there gets resolved here. I think you'll find that there are stylistic and other nods to that film."

text: Godfrey considered releasing the second film in 3D to differentiate between the time before and after Bella becomes a vampire, an idea originally proposed for Eclipse, but said that the decision is up to Condon. However, he said that if the second film were to be released in 3D, he would like to shoot it with the proper equipment in "real" 3D as was done with Avatar (2009), not convert it into 3D in post-production as was done with Clash of the Titans (2010).[7] However, it was confirmed on February 12, 2012 that Part 2 would not be filmed in 3D.[8]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Filming started on November 1, 2010 and wrapped, for most of the cast, on April 15, 2011, ending the franchise's three years of production since March 2008. Filming was shot on location in Baton Rouge, Louisiana; Vancouver, British Columbia; New Orleans; and at the Raleigh Studios in Baton Rouge.

text: On the subject of the final day and her final moment as Bella, Stewart stated, "After that scene, my true final scene, I felt like I could shoot up into the night sky and every pore of my body would shoot light. I felt lighter than I've ever felt in my life."[9] Pattinson thought the day was "amazing" and commented, "I then asked myself why we didn't do this in those four years. Every difficult moment just vanished."

text: In April 2012, the crew and cast, including Pattinson and Stewart, returned for reshoots to pick up some additional shots for technical work with some of the cast and stunt actors. However, these re-shoots did not include any new scenes or dialogue.[10]

text: Special effects[edit]

text: Tippett Studio first began working on the CGI (computer-generated imagery) wolves in February 2009 for The Twilight Saga: New Moon, and the look of the creatures has evolved, becoming more photo real over the course of the saga, with the input of three different directors. "It's a subtle balance of just how anthropomorphic these wolves are," says Eric Leven. "Bill (Condon) wanted to make sure that we had a sense of the human or the shape shifter in there. Finding that balance of how much of a human performance versus an animal performance was important for Bill."

text: Leven adds, "Bill has always treated the wolves as characters and never as computer generated things, and directs them in the same way he'd direct any actor. He would always give us direction like Sam should be angrier. It's the best way to work. His treating these creatures as characters, instead of just computer bits, was really great."

text: "Because we've been working on this franchise for such a prolonged period of time, we've been able to improve the look from show to show," comments Phil Tippett. "Wolves generally are pretty darn clean and since Bill wanted the wolves rangier, that means a lot more fur matting and clumping, like they've lived out in the woods. We edged towards something a bit more feral."

text: "However, there is also a balance between look and technology," adds Tippett. "The body count of the wolves escalates and because we're adding a great deal more hair to get the right texture, that fur really ups the rendering time. We've gone from four wolves to eight to twelve, to sixteen in Part 2. So we have to be very careful about that balance, because it takes hundreds of hours to render each wolf."[11]

text: Music[edit]

text: It was revealed in January 2012 that the soundtrack for Part 2 had already started production.[12] Confirmed for the soundtrack in advance were "Heart of Stone" by Iko, which plays when Edward and Bella are talking in the cottage after finding Alice's note and "Where I Come From" by Passion Pit, which will play when Bella wakes up from her transformation.[13] The lead single from the soundtrack is "The Forgotten", performed by the American rock band Green Day. "A Thousand Years, Pt. 2" by the American singer Christina Perri is also featured on the soundtrack album.

text: Carter Burwell, the composer of Twilight and Breaking Dawn: Part 1, returned to score the final installment of the series. In later announcements, Burwell confirmed that the score for the film was complete. "The movie basically upholds the final installment with a score that has the same jungle-music feeling The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 1 brought us," Burwell affirmed. "The music pieces that take place in the catalytic final battle will be very much like the nineteenth song in the previous movie's score, 'It's Renesmee' and the twenty-fourth, 'You Kill Her You Kill Me', which were, if not the most, one of the boldest pieces in my career. I will tease anything but I recommend for the fans to listen to 'A Kick in the Head', 'Exacueret Nostri Dentes in Filia' and 'Aro's End' if you want to have goosebumps for the rest of your life."[citation needed]

text: Release[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 has earned $292,324,737 in North America and $537,360,640 in other territories for a worldwide total of $829,685,377.[3] The film is now the 46th-highest-grossing film of all time, the sixth-highest-grossing film of 2012, and the highest-grossing film of the Twilight series. It had a $340.9 million worldwide opening, which was the eighth-largest ever, the largest for the Twilight franchise, and the largest for a film released outside the summer period.[14]

text: In North America, the film grossed $30.4 million in Thursday night and midnight showings, achieving the third-highest midnight gross[15][16] and the highest midnight gross of the franchise.[17][18] Breaking Dawn – Part 2 made an $71.2 million on its opening day, which is the sixth-highest opening- and single-day gross as well as the third-highest of the franchise.[19] For its opening weekend, the movie earned $141.1 million,[20] which is the 13th-highest-grossing opening weekend of all time,[21][22] the second-highest-grossing of the franchise,[23] the third-largest November opening,[24] and the fourth-largest opening of 2012.[25] It retained first place in its second weekend by dropping 69.1% with a gross of $43.6 million over the three-day weekend and made a total of $64.4 million over the five-day Thanksgiving holiday weekend.[26] In its third weekend, Breaking Dawn Part – 2 held onto the No. 1 spot again by dropping 60.1% and grossing $17.4 million.[27] It became the third-highest-grossing film of the franchise behind Eclipse and New Moon.[28]

text: Outside North America, the film opened on Wednesday, November 14, 2012 in six countries earning $13.8 million. By Thursday, it had opened in 37 territories, earning $38.8 million. In all territories, it opened with similar or higher earnings than its immediate predecessor.[29] Through its first Friday, it earned $91.0 million, after expanding to 61 territories.[30][31] By the end of its opening weekend (Wednesday–Sunday), it scored a series-best $199.5 million opening from 61 territories on 12,812 screens. This is the eighth-largest opening outside North America and the largest 2012 opening.[32] IMAX showings generated $3 million from 82 locations.[33] The film's largest openings were recorded in the UK, Ireland, and Malta ($25.2 million), Russia and the CIS ($22.0 million), and France and the Maghreb region ($17.9 million).[34] In Spain, it set a three-day opening-weekend record with $11.9 million.[35] In total earnings, its three highest-grossing markets after North America are the UK, Ireland, and Malta ($57.9 million), Brazil ($54.2 million), and Russia and the CIS ($42.8 million).[34]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: The film received mixed reviews from critics, but the reviews were much more favorable than those of its predecessor. At Rotten Tomatoes, the film currently holds a 49% rotten rating, based on 184 reviews with the consensus stating: "It's the most entertaining Twilight, but that's not enough to make Breaking Dawn Part 2 worth watching for filmgoers who don't already count themselves among the franchise converts."[36] At Metacritic it holds a score of 52 out of 100, based on 31 reviews.[37] Audiences polled on CinemaScore gave it an average rating of 'A'. The majority of praise from both fans and critics went towards the ending sequence, Michael Sheen's performance as the Volturi leader Aro and Lee Pace's performance as vampire Garrett.

text: Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter wrote, "The final installment of the immortal Bella/Edward romance will give its breathlessly awaiting international audience just what it wants".[38] Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly said, "Breaking Dawn: Part 2 starts off slow but gathers momentum, and that's because, with Bella and Edward united against the Volturi, the picture has a real threat".[39] Sara Stewart of the New York Post wrote, "Finally, someone took the source material at its terribly written word and stopped treating the whole affair so seriously".[40] Justin Chang of Variety praised the performance of Stewart by saying, "No longer a mopey, lower-lip-biting emo girl, this Bella is twitchy, feral, formidable and fully energized, a goddess even among her exalted bloodsucker brethren".[41] Manohla Dargis of The New York Times said, "Despite the slow start Mr. Condon closes the series in fine, smooth style. He gives fans all the lovely flowers, conditioned hair and lightly erotic, dreamy kisses they deserve".[42]

text: Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film two-and-a-half stars out of four, saying "its audience, which takes these films very seriously indeed, will drink deeply of its blood. The sensational closing sequence cannot be accused of leaving a single loophole, not even some of those we didn't know were there".[43] However, he concluded by saying, ""Breaking Dawn, Part 2" must be one of the more serious entries in any major movie franchise… it bit the bullet, and I imagine fans will be pleased."[43] Helen O'Hara of Empire gave the film a mixed review and said, "Fans will be left on a high; other viewers will be confused but generally entertained by a saga whose romance is matched only by its weirdness".[44]

text: Home media[edit]

text: The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2 was released on DVD and Blu-ray on March 2, 2013.[45] As of June 1, 2014, Breaking Dawn: Part 2 has sold 4,810,249 DVDs along with 1,224,869 Blu-ray Discs for $71,418,469 and $24,472,107 respectively totaling $99,195,325.[46]

text: Future[edit]

text: In September 2016, Lionsgate co-chairman Patrick Wachsberger stated that a sequel was "a possibility" but would only go ahead if Stephenie Meyer wanted to do one.[47] On August 8, 2017, Variety reported that Lionsgate CEO Jon Feltheimer has interest in having spinoff's made for The Twilight Saga, and wants to create a writers' room to explore the idea.[48]

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text:
Year
Award
Category
Recipient(s)
Result
Ref.

2013
Empire Cinemas Alternative Movie Awards
Best On-Screen Couple
Edward Cullen (Robert Pattinson) and Bella Swan (Kristen Stewart)
Won
[49]

Best On-Screen Kiss
Edward Cullen (Robert Pattinson) and Bella Swan (Kristen Stewart)
Won

Best Fight Scenes
Breaking Dawn – Part 2
Won

Best Film Villain
Aro (Michael Sheen)
Won

Best Male Body
Jacob Black (Taylor Lautner)
Won

2013
Golden Raspberry Awards
Worst Picture
Breaking Dawn – Part 2
Won
[50]

Worst Actor
Robert Pattinson
Nominated

Worst Actress
Kristen Stewart
(for Breaking Dawn – Pt. 2 and Snow White and the Huntsman)
Won

Worst Supporting Actor
Taylor Lautner
Won

Worst Supporting Actress
Ashley Greene
Nominated

Worst Screen Couple
Mackenzie Foy and Taylor Lautner
Won

Robert Pattinson and Kristen Stewart
Nominated

Worst Prequel, Remake, Rip-off or Sequel
Breaking Dawn – Part 2
Won

Worst Director
Bill Condon
Won

Worst Screenplay
Melissa Rosenberg and Stephenie Meyer
Nominated

Worst Screen Ensemble
Entire cast of Breaking Dawn – Part 2
Won

2013
MTV Movie Awards
Best Shirtless Performance
Taylor Lautner
Won
[51]

2013
Moviefone Fonie Award
Most Extreme Role Adjustment
Kristen Stewart
(for Breaking Dawn – Pt. 2 and On the Road)
Won
[52]

2013
Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards
Favorite Movie Actress
Kristen Stewart
Won
[53]

2013
Nickelodeon UK Kids' Choice Awards
Favourite UK Actor
Robert Pattinson
Won
[54]

2013
People's Choice Awards
Favorite Movie Fan Following
Twihards
Won
[55]

2013
Richard Attenborough Film Award
British Performer of the Year
Robert Pattinson
Won
[56]

2013
Virgin Media Award
Hottest Movie Actor
Robert Pattinson
Won
[57]

Hottest Movie Actress
Kristen Stewart
Won

2013
Young Artist Award
Best Performance in a Feature Film - Supporting Young Actress
Mackenzie Foy
Nominated
[58]

2013
Teen Choice Awards
Choice Romance Actress
Kristen Stewart
Won

Choice Movie Scene Stealer
Kellan Lutz
Won

Choice Sci-Fi/Fantasy Actor
Taylor Lautner
Won

Choice Sci-Fi/Fantasy Actress
Kristen Stewart
Won

Choice Sci-Fi/Fantasy
Breaking Dawn - Part 2
Won

Choice Romance Actor
Robert Pattinson
Won

Choice Romance
Breaking Dawn - Part 2
Won


document_title: Damodar Valley Corporation

question_text: first multi purpose river valley project in india

text: Damodar Valley Corporation

text: History[edit]

text: DVC emerged as a culmination of attempts made over a whole century to control the wild and erratic Damodar River. The valley has been ravaged frequently by floods at varying intensities. Serious floods occurred in 1730, 1823, 1848, 1856, 1882, 1898, 1901, 1916, 1923, 1935 & 1943. The river spans over an area of 25,235 sq. km covering the states of Bihar (now Jharkhand) & West Bengal. The catastrophe caused by the 1943 flood, led to serious public indignation gainst the Government. As a result, the Government of Bengal appointed a board of Enquiry titled "Damodar Flood Enquiry Committee"with the Maharaja of Burdwan and the noted physicist Dr. Meghnad Saha as members for suggesting remedial measures.

text: The Damodar Flood Enquiry Committee suggested creation of an authority similar to the Tennessee Valley Authority in the USA, and recommended the construction of dams and storage reservoirs at the sites with a total capacity of 1.5 millions acre ft. (1.850 millions cu. M) and highlighted the possibilities of multipurpose development in the valley area. The Govt. of India then commissioned the ‘Central Technical Power Board’ to study the proposal and appointed Mr. W L Voorduin, a senior engineer of the TVA to study the problem at the Damodar and to make his recommendation for comprehensive development of the valley. Accordingly, in August, 1944 Mr. Voorduin submitted his ‘Preliminary Memorandum on the unified Development of the Damodar River.’

text: Mr. Voorduin's "Preliminary Memorandum" suggested a multipurpose development plan designed for achieving flood control, irrigation, power generation and navigation in the Damodar Valley. Four consultants appointed by the Government of India examined it. They also approved the main technical features of Voorduin's scheme and recommended early initiation of construction beginning with Tilaiya to be followed by Maithon. By April 1947, full agreement was practically reached between the three Governments of Central, West Bengal and Bihar on the implementation of the scheme and in March 1948, the Damodar Valley Corporation Act (Act No. XIV of 1948) was passed by the Central Legislature, requiring the three Governments, The Central Government and the State Governments of West Bengal and Bihar (now Jharkhand) to participate jointly for the purpose of building the Damodar Valley Corporation. The Corporation came into existence on 7 July 1948 as the first multipurpose river valley project of independent India.

text: Command area: 24,235 km2 spread across the Damodar basin. Jharkhand: 2 districts fully (Dhanbad and Bokaro) and parts of 8 districts (Hazaribagh, Koderma, Chatra, Palamau, Ranchi, Loherdaga, Giridih and Dumka) West Bengal: 5 districts (Bardhhaman, Hoogly, Howrah, Bankura, Purulia)

text: The Damodar Valley Corporation has been generating and transmitting power since 1953.[citation needed]

text: DVC plants[edit]

text:
Thermal Plants (coal based)[2][3]

Power Plant Name
State
Installed Capacity
in MW
Remarks

Mejia Thermal Power Station
West Bengal
2,340

Raghunathpur Thermal Power Station
West Bengal
1,200

Maithon Power Limited
Jharkhand
1,050
Owned by Maithon Power Limited a joint venture between
DVC and Tata Power [4]

Durgapur Steel Thermal Power Station
West Bengal
1,000

Koderma Thermal Power Station
Jharkhand
1,000

Chandrapura Thermal Power Station
Jharkhand
500

Bokaro Thermal Power Station - B
Jharkhand
630

Bokaro Thermal Power Station - A
Jharkhand
500

Durgapur Thermal Power Station
West Bengal
210

BPSCL Power Plant
Jharkhand
338
Owned by Bokaro Power Supply Corporation Limited (BPSCL)
a joint venture between DVC and Bokaro Steel Limited [5]

Total
8768

text:
Hydel-Power Plants[2][3]

Power Plant Name
State
Installed Capacity
in MW

Panchet Dam
Jharkhand
80

Maithon Dam
Jharkhand
63.2

Tilaiya Dam
Jharkhand
4

Total
147

text: Infrastructure[edit]

text: DVC developed and expanded its infrastructure to six thermal power stations'(7410 MW)'and three hydro-electric power stations with a capacity of 147.2 MW which contribute to a total installed capacity of 7557.2 MW. Presently DVC has 49 sub-stations and receiving stations more than 8900-circuit km of transmission and distribution lines. DVC has also four dams, a barrage and a network of canals (2494 km) that play an effective role in water management. The construction of check dams, development of forests and farms and upland and wasteland treatment developed by DVC play a vital role in eco conservation and environment management.

text: Water Management Overview[edit]

text: DVC has a network of four dams - Tilaiya and Maithon on Barakar River, Panchet on Damodar river and Konar on Konar river. Besides, Durgapur barrage and the canal network, handed over to Government of West Bengal in 1964, remained a part of the total system of water management. DVC dams are capable of moderating floods of 6.51 lac cusec to 2.5 lac cusecs.

text: Four multipurpose dams were constructed during the period 1948 to 1959.

text:
Maithon Dam
Panchet Dam
Tilaiya Dam
Konar Dam

text: Flood reserve capacity of 1,292 mcm has been provided in 4 reservoirs, which can moderate a peak flood of 18,395 cumec to a safe carrying capacity of 7,076 cumec. 419 mcm of water is stored in the 4 DVC reservoirs to supply 680 cusec of water to meet industrial, municipal and domestic requirements in West Bengal & Jharkhand. The Durgapur barrage on river Damodar was constructed in 1955 for supply of irrigation water to the districts of Burdwan, Bankura & Hooghly.

text:
Irrigation Command Area (Gross): 569,000 hectares (5,690 km2)
Irrigation Potential Created: 364,000 hectares (3,640 km2)
Canals: 2,494 km (1,550 mi)

text: 30,000 hectares (300 km2) of land in the upper valley is being irrigated, every year by lift irrigation with the water available from 16,000 (approx) check dams constructed by DVC.

text: Joint venture projects[edit]

text: A joint venture company by DVC and Tata Power has been formed to implement 1,050 MW Maithon Right Bank Thermal Power Project for meeting the energy needs of power deficient regions on export basis.

text: A joint venture of DVC and SAIL has been established to operate and maintain the captive power and steam generation plant, hived off by SAIL and its Bokaro Steel Plant and supply power and steam exclusively to Bokaro Steel Ltd.

text: A joint venture company formed with Eastern Minerals & Trading Agency for development and operation of Captive Coal Mine Blocks and supply of coal exclusively to DVC Thermal Power Projects of 10th and 11th plan.

text: The Mining and Allied Machinery Corporation (MAMC) in Durgapur —one of the PSU's in India set up under the rupee-rouble agreement and enjoying Soviet patronage in the early sixties. Bharat Earth Movers has the highest stake (48%) in the consortium while the other two PSUs — DVC and Coal India — have 26% stake each.

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ "DVC".
^ Jump up to: a b "Generating Units". report. DVC. Retrieved 8 July 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "Generating Units". DVC. Archived from the original on 2014-02-27.
Jump up ^ "Power puffed by Maithon 1050MW Tata-DVC plant chugs to life".
Jump up ^ "The Official Website of BPSCL".

tag: ol


document_title: Jennifer Worth

question_text: who did jenny marry in call the midwife

question_tokens: who did jenny marry in call the midwife

text: Jennifer Worth

text: Biography[edit]

text: Worth, born Jennifer Lee in Clacton-on-Sea, Essex, was raised in Amersham, Buckinghamshire. After leaving school at the age of 15[2] she learned shorthand and typing[3] and became the secretary to the head of Dr Challoner's Grammar School. She then trained as a nurse at the Royal Berkshire Hospital, Reading, and moved to London to receive training to become a midwife.[2]

text: Lee was hired as a staff nurse at the London Hospital in Whitechapel in the early 1950s. With the Sisters of St John the Divine, an Anglican community of nuns, she worked to aid the poor.[2] She was then a ward sister at the Elizabeth Garrett Anderson Hospital in Bloomsbury, and later at the Marie Curie Hospital in Hampstead.[4]

text: She married the artist Philip Worth in 1963, and they had two daughters.[3] (Philip Worth appears as a character in the 2014 Christmas Special at the end of the third series of the TV series Call the Midwife, portrayed by Ronald Pickup).[5] Worth retired from nursing in 1973 to pursue her musical interests.

text: In 1974, she was appointed a licentiate of the London College of Music, where she taught piano and singing. She obtained a fellowship in 1984. She performed as a soloist and with choirs throughout Britain and Europe. She later began writing, and her first volume of memoirs, Call the Midwife, was published in 2002. The book became a bestseller when it was reissued in 2007. Shadows of the Workhouse (2005; reissued 2008) and Farewell to the East End (2009) also became bestsellers.[2] The trilogy sold almost a million copies in the UK alone.[4] In a fourth volume of memoirs In the Midst of Life, published in 2010, Worth reflects on her later experiences caring for the terminally ill.[6]

text: Activism[edit]

text: Worth was highly critical of Mike Leigh's 2004 film Vera Drake, for depicting the consequences of illegal abortions unrealistically. She argued that the method shown in the movie, far from being fairly quick and painless, was in fact almost invariably fatal for the woman.[7]

text: Death[edit]

text: Worth died on 31 May 2011, having been diagnosed with cancer of the oesophagus earlier in the year.[8] The first episode of the television series Call the Midwife was dedicated to her.

text: Publications[edit]

text:
Eczema and Food Allergy: The Hidden Cause? ISBN 978-1872560182 (1997)
Call the Midwife (First book in the Midwife trilogy) ISBN 978-0297868781 (2002)
Shadows of the Workhouse (Second book in the Midwife trilogy) ISBN 978-0297853268 (2005)
Farewell to the East End (Third book in the Midwife trilogy) ISBN 978-0753823064 (2009)
In the Midst of Life ISBN 978-0297859581 (2010)


document_title: List of members of the United Nations Security Council

question_text: current non permanent members of un security council

text: Current membership[edit]

text:
Country
Regional Group
Member Since

 People's Republic of China
Asia-Pacific Group
1971, replaced the Republic of China

 France
Western European and Others Group
1946

 Russian Federation
Eastern European Group
1991, replaced the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

 United Kingdom
Western European and Others Group
1946

 United States
Western European and Others Group
1946

text:
Country
Regional Group
Term Began
Term Ends

 Bolivia
Latin American and Caribbean Group (GRULAC)
2017
2018

 Egypt
African Group
2016
2017

 Ethiopia
African Group
2017
2018

 Italy
Western European and Others Group
2017
2017*

 Japan
Asia-Pacific Group
2016
2017

 Kazakhstan
Asia-Pacific Group
2017
2018

 Senegal
African Group
2016
2017

 Sweden
Western European and Others Group
2017
2018

 Ukraine
Eastern European Group
2016
2017

 Uruguay
Latin American and Caribbean Group (GRULAC)
2016
2017

text: *During the 2016 Security Council elections, Italy and the Netherlands agreed to split a two-year term, in which Italy would serve from 1 January 2017 to 31 December 2017 and the Netherlands would subsequently serve from 1 January 2018 to 31 December 2018.[1][2]

text: Regional Groups[edit]

text:
African Group: 3 members
Asia-Pacific Group:[a] 2 members
Eastern European Group (CEIT, or Countries with Economies in Transition): 1 member
Latin American and Caribbean Group (GRULAC): 2 members
Western European and Others Group (WEOG): 2 members; at least one of these must be from Western Europe[3]

text: In addition, one of the non-permanent members of the council is an Arab country, alternately from the African or Asia-Pacific groups. This rule was added to the system in 1967 for it to be applied beginning with 1968.

text: Each year the UN General Assembly elects five new members for a two-year term; these elections always begin in October of the year, and continue until the two-thirds majority for the number of countries for each region has been reached. Re-election is allowed, but the term must not be consecutive.

text:
Term beginning in years that are:
odd
even

African Group
one member
two members *

Asia-Pacific Group
one member
one member *

Eastern European Group
none
one member

Latin American and Caribbean Group (GRULAC)
one member
one member

Western European and Others Group
two members
none

text: * The representative of Arab nations alternates between these two elected spaces.

text: Previous and future Security Council composition[edit]

text: From 1946 to 1965, the security council included six non-permanent members. The regional grouping at that time was:

text:
Latin America: 2 members
Commonwealth of Nations: 1 member
Eastern Europe: 1 member
Middle East: 1 member
Western Europe: 1 member

text: There were some exceptions to this grouping: Liberia took the place of a Western European country in 1961; the Ivory Coast substituted a member of the Commonwealth in 1964–1965; and the Eastern Europe group included Asian countries from 1956.

text: As part of a proposed expansion of the Security Council, Brazil, Germany, India and Japan, collectively the Group of 4 or G4 nations, are seeking permanent representation on this body. Italy opposed the expansion of the Security Council through the establishment of the group Uniting for Consensus.

text: Membership by year[edit]

text: Permanent[edit]

text:
Year
Permanent seats

1945–1948

Republic of China

France

Soviet Union

United Kingdom

United States

1949–1970

Republic of China (Taiwan)

1971–1991

People's Republic of China

1992–present

Russian Federation

text: Non-permanent (1946–1965)[edit]

text:
Year
Latin American Seats
Commonwealth Seat
Eastern European
& Asian Seat[b]
Middle Eastern Seat
Western European Seat

1946

Brazil

Mexico

Australia

Poland

Egypt

Netherlands

1947

Colombia

Syria

Belgium

1948

Argentina

Canada

Ukraine

1949

Cuba

Egypt

Norway

1950

Ecuador

India

Yugoslavia

1951

Brazil

Turkey

Netherlands

1952

Chile

Pakistan

Greece

1953

Colombia

Lebanon

Denmark

1954

Brazil

New Zealand

Turkey

1955

Peru

Iran

Belgium

1956

Cuba

Australia

Yugoslavia

1957

Colombia

Philippines

Iraq

Sweden

1958

Panama

Canada

Japan

1959

Argentina

Tunisia

Italy

1960

Ecuador

Ceylon

Poland

1961

Chile

Turkey

United Arab Republic

Liberia[c]

1962

Venezuela

Ghana

Romania

Ireland

1963

Brazil

Philippines

Morocco[d]

Norway

1964

Bolivia

Ivory Coast[e]

Czechoslovakia

1965

Uruguay

Malaysia

Jordan

Netherlands

text: Non-permanent (1966–present)[edit]

text:
Year
African Group
Asia-Pacific Group
Latin American and Caribbean Group (GRULAC)
Western European and Others Group
Eastern European Group

* indicates Arab nations' representative

1966

Mali

Nigeria

Uganda

Japan

Jordan *

Argentina

Uruguay

Netherlands

New Zealand

Bulgaria

1967

Ethiopia

India

Brazil

Canada

Denmark

1968

Algeria *

Senegal

Pakistan

Paraguay

Hungary

1969

Zambia

Nepal

Colombia

Finland

Spain

1970

Burundi

Sierra Leone

Syria *

Nicaragua

Poland

1971

Somalia

Japan

Argentina

Belgium

Italy

1972

Guinea

Sudan *

India

Panama

Yugoslavia

1973

Kenya

Indonesia

Peru

Australia

Austria

1974

Cameroon

Mauritania

Iraq *

Costa Rica

Byelorussia

1975

Tanzania

Japan

Guyana

Italy

Sweden

1976

Benin

Libya *

Pakistan

Panama

Romania

1977

Mauritius

India

Venezuela

Canada

West Germany

1978

Gabon

Nigeria

Kuwait *

Bolivia

Czechoslovakia

1979

Zambia

Bangladesh

Jamaica

Norway

Portugal

1980

Niger

Tunisia *

Philippines

Mexico

East Germany

1981

Uganda

Japan

Panama

Ireland

Spain

1982

Togo

Zaire

Jordan *

Guyana

Poland

1983

Zimbabwe

Pakistan

Nicaragua

Malta

Netherlands

1984

Burkina Faso[f]

Egypt *

India

Peru

Ukraine

1985

Madagascar

Thailand

Trinidad and Tobago

Australia

Denmark

1986

Congo

Ghana

United Arab Emirates *

Venezuela

Bulgaria

1987

Zambia

Japan

Argentina

West Germany

Italy

1988

Algeria *

Senegal

Nepal

Brazil

Yugoslavia

1989

Ethiopia

Malaysia

Colombia

Canada

Finland

1990

Ivory Coast

Zaire

Yemen *[g]

Cuba

Romania

1991

Zimbabwe

India

Ecuador

Austria

Belgium

1992

Cape Verde

Morocco *

Japan

Venezuela

Hungary

1993

Djibouti

Pakistan

Brazil

New Zealand

Spain

1994

Nigeria

Rwanda

Oman *

Argentina

Czech Republic

1995

Botswana

Indonesia

Honduras

Germany

Italy

1996

Egypt *

Guinea-Bissau

South Korea

Chile

Poland

1997

Kenya

Japan

Costa Rica

Portugal

Sweden

1998

Gabon

Gambia

Bahrain *

Brazil

Slovenia

1999

Namibia

Malaysia

Argentina

Canada

Netherlands

2000

Mali

Tunisia *

Bangladesh

Jamaica

Ukraine

2001

Mauritius

Singapore

Colombia

Ireland

Norway

2002

Cameroon

Guinea

Syria *

Mexico

Bulgaria

2003

Angola

Pakistan

Chile

Germany

Spain

2004

Algeria *

Benin

Philippines

Brazil

Romania

2005

Tanzania

Japan

Argentina

Denmark

Greece

2006

Ghana

Congo

Qatar *

Peru

Slovakia

2007

South Africa

Indonesia

Panama

Belgium

Italy

2008

Burkina Faso

Libya *

Vietnam

Costa Rica

Croatia

2009

Uganda

Japan

Mexico

Austria

Turkey

2010

Gabon

Nigeria

Lebanon *

Brazil

Bosnia and Herzegovina

2011

South Africa

India

Colombia

Germany

Portugal

2012

Morocco *

Togo

Pakistan

Guatemala

Azerbaijan

2013

Rwanda

South Korea

Argentina

Australia

Luxembourg

2014

Chad

Nigeria

Jordan *

Chile

Lithuania

2015

Angola

Malaysia

Venezuela

New Zealand

Spain

2016

Egypt *

Senegal

Japan

Uruguay

Ukraine

2017

Ethiopia

Kazakhstan

Bolivia

Italy

Sweden

2018

Ivory Coast

Equatorial Guinea

Kuwait *

Peru

Netherlands[2]

Poland

text: List by number of years as Security Council member[edit]

text: This list contains the 130 United Nations member states so far elected to the United Nations Security Council, including the five permanent members, all listed by number of years each country has so far spent on the UNSC. Of all the members, 6 have so far ceased to exist, leaving the list with 124 modern nations. These, combined with the 69 modern nations that have never been elected to the UNSC to date (see Non-members, below), make up the entirety of the 193 current members of the UN.

text: Years on the Security Council, as of 2016, including current year where relevant :

text:
Years[h]
Country
First Year
Most Recent Year
Regional Group
Notes

71
 France
1946
2017
WEOG
Permanent member

71
 United Kingdom
1946
2017
WEOG
Permanent member

71
 United States
1946
2017
WEOG
Permanent member

46
 Soviet Union
1946
1991
E. European
Former permanent member, replaced by Russian Federation

45
 People's Republic of China
1971
2017
Asia-Pacific
Permanent member

26
 Republic of China
1946
1971
Asian
Former permanent member, replaced by People's Republic of China

25
 Russian Federation
1991
2017
E. European
Permanent member

21
 Japan
1958
2017
Asia-Pacific
Current membership of Security Council expires 31 December 2017

20
 Brazil
1946
2011
GRULAC

18
 Argentina
1948
2014
GRULAC

14
 Colombia
1947
2012
GRULAC

14
 India
1950
2012
Asia-Pacific

14
 Pakistan
1952
2013
Asia-Pacific

12
 Canada
1948
2000
WEOG

12
 Italy
1959
2008
WEOG

10
 Australia
1946
2014
WEOG

10
 Belgium
1947
2008
WEOG

10
 Chile
1952
2015
GRULAC

10
 Egypt
1946
2017
African (Arabic)
Includes 2 years with the seat held in the name of the United Arab Republic, of which for more than 15 months UAR served as the name of modern-day Egypt; current membership of Security Council expires 31 December 2017

10
 Germany
1977
2012
WEOG
Includes 4 years when the Federal Republic of Germany consisted only of West Germany (but does not include East Germany's 2 years, listed separately below)

10
 Nigeria
1966
2015
African

10
 Panama
1958
2008
GRULAC

10
 Spain
1969
2016
WEOG

10
 Venezuela
1962
2016
GRULAC

9
 Netherlands
1946
2000
WEOG

9
 Poland
1946
1997
E. European

8
 Denmark
1953
2006
WEOG

8
 Norway
1949
2002
WEOG

8
 Peru
1955
2007
GRULAC

7
 Malaysia
1965
2016
Asia-Pacific

7
 Mexico
1946
2010
GRULAC

7
 New Zealand
1954
2016
WEOG

7
 Romania
1962
2005
E. European

7
 Syria
1947
2003
Asia-Pacific (Arabic)
Includes one year (1961) during which the United Arab Republic was a member, for the greater part of which Syria was a member of that union

7
 Turkey
1951
2010
WEOG

7
 Ukraine
1948
2016
E. European
Includes 4 years of membership under the name of  Ukrainian SSR; Ukrainian SSR held its own seat in the General Assembly while being part of the Soviet Union during its 45 years of Security Council membership; current membership of Security Council expires in December 2017

7
 Yugoslavia
1950
1989
E. European
Predecessor of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia and Slovenia

6
 Algeria
1968
1989
African (Arabic)

6
 Austria
1973
2010
WEOG

6
 Bulgaria
1966
2003
E. European

6
 Costa Rica
1974
2009
GRULAC

6
 Cuba
1949
1991
GRULAC

6
 Ecuador
1950
1992
GRULAC

6
 Gabon
1978
2011
African

6
 Ghana
1962
2007
African

6
 Indonesia
1973
2008
Asia-Pacific

6
 Jordan
1965
2015
Asia-Pacific (Arabic)

6
 Morocco
1963
2013
African (Arabic)

6
 Philippines
1957
2004
Asia-Pacific

6
 Portugal
1979
2012
WEOG

6
 Sweden
1957
1998
WEOG

6
 Tunisia
1959
2003
African (Arabic)

6
 Zambia
1969
1988
African

5
 Ireland
1962
2002
WEOG

5
 Senegal
1968
2017
African
Current membership of Security Council expires 31 December 2017

5
 Uganda
1966
2010
African

4
 Angola
2003
2016
African

4
 Bangladesh
1979
2001
Asia-Pacific

4
 Benin
1976
2005
African

4
 Bolivia
1964
1979
GRULAC

4
 Burkina Faso
1984
2009
African
For first 7 months of membership of the Security council in 1984 was known as Upper Volta.

4
 Cameroon
1974
2003
African

4
 Côte d'Ivoire
1964
1991
African

4
 Ethiopia
1967
1990
African

4
 Finland
1969
1990
WEOG

4
 Greece
1952
2006
WEOG

4
 Guinea
1972
2003
African

4
 Guyana
1975
1983
GRULAC

4
 Hungary
1968
1993
E. European

4
 Iraq
1957
1975
Asia-Pacific (Arabic)

4
 Jamaica
1979
2001
GRULAC

4
 Kenya
1973
1998
African

4
 Lebanon
1953
2011
Asia-Pacific (Arabic)

4
 Libya
1976
2009
African (Arabic)

4
 Mali
1966
2001
African

4
 Mauritius
1977
2002
African

4
   Nepal
1969
1989
Asia-Pacific

4
 Nicaragua
1970
1984
GRULAC

4
 Republic of the Congo
1986
2007
African

4
 Republic of Korea
1996
2014
Asia-Pacific

4
 Rwanda
1994
2014
African

4
 South Africa
2007
2012
African

4
 Tanzania
1975
2006
African

4
 Togo
1982
2013
African

4
 Zaire
1982
1991
African
Now known as Democratic Republic of the Congo

4
 Zimbabwe
1983
1992
African

3
 Czechoslovakia
1964
1979
E. European
Predecessor of Czech Republic and Slovakia

3
 Uruguay
1965
2016
GRULAC
Current membership of Security Council expires in December 2017

2
 Azerbaijan
2012
2013
E. European
Was part of the Soviet Union during its 45 years of Security Council membership

2
 Bahrain
1998
1999
Asia-Pacific (Arabic)

2
 Bosnia and Herzegovina
2010
2011
E. European
Was also part of the SFR Yugoslavia during its 7 years of Security Council membership

2
 Botswana
1995
1996
African

2
 Burundi
1970
1971
African

2
 Byelorussian SSR
1974
1975
E. European
Now known as Belarus; Byelorussian SSR held its own seat in the General Assembly while being part of the Soviet Union during its 45 years of Security Council membership

2
 Cape Verde
1992
1993
African

2
 Ceylon
1960
1961
Asia-Pacific
Now known as Sri Lanka

2
 Chad
2014
2015
African (Arabic)
Was a colony of France from 1900 to 11 August 1960;

2
 Croatia
2008
2009
E. European
Was also part of the SFR Yugoslavia during its 7 years of Security Council membership

2
 Czech Republic
1994
1995
E. European
Was also part of Czechoslovakia during its 3 years of Security Council membership

2
 Djibouti
1993
1994
African

2
 Gambia
1998
1999
African

2
 East Germany
1980
1981
E. European
Now subsumed into Germany, which has 5 years of Security Council membership since it has included the former territory of East Germany

2
 Guatemala
2012
2013
GRULAC

2
 Guinea-Bissau
1996
1997
African

2
 Honduras
1995
1996
GRULAC

2
 Iran
1955
1956
Asia-Pacific

2
 Kuwait
1978
1979
Asia-Pacific (Arabic)

2
 Lithuania
2014
2015
E. European
Was part of the Soviet Union from 3 August 1940 to 11 March 1990; Membership of Security Council expired in December 2015

2
 Luxembourg
2013
2014
WEOG

2
 Madagascar
1985
1986
African

2
 Malta
1983
1984
WEOG

2
 Mauritania
1974
1975
African

2
 Namibia
1999
2000
African

2
 Niger
1980
1981
African

2
 Oman
1994
1995
Asia-Pacific (Arabic)

2
 Paraguay
1968
1969
GRULAC

2
 Sierra Leone
1970
1971
African

2
 Singapore
2001
2002
Asia-Pacific
Was also part of Malaysia for several months of 1965 during its membership of the Security Council

2
 Slovakia
2006
2007
E. European
Was also part of Czechoslovakia during its 3 years of Security Council membership

2
 Slovenia
1998
1999
E. European
Was also part of the SFR Yugoslavia during its 7 years of Security Council membership

2
 Somalia
1971
1972
African

2
 Sudan
1972
1973
African (Arabic)

2
 Thailand
1985
1986
Asia-Pacific

2
 Trinidad and Tobago
1985
1986
GRULAC

2
 Qatar
2006
2007
Asia-Pacific (Arabic)

2
 United Arab Emirates
1986
1987
Asia-Pacific (Arabic)

2
 United Arab Republic
1961
1962
African (Arabic)
Predecessor of Syria and Egypt

2
 Vietnam
2008
2009
Asia-Pacific

2
 Yemen
1990
1991
Asia-Pacific (Arabic)
The entity elected, and which held the Security Council seat for the first five months of membership, was South Yemen: unification with North Yemen occurred during the time of membership.

1
 Liberia
1961
1961
African
Served only one year[i]

1
 Kazakhstan
2017
2017
Asia-Pacific
Was part of the Soviet Union from 26 April 1920 to 25 December 1991.

text: Future candidacies[edit]

text: The following countries have made known their applications for future United Nations Security Council membership:

text:
Africa
Asia-Pacific
Eastern Europe
GRULAC
WEOG

2018
South Africa[5]
Indonesia,[6][7] Maldives[6][8]
–
Argentina[9], Dominican Republic[10]
Belgium,[11][12][13] Germany,[12][13] Israel[12][13]

2019
?
India,[14][15] Vietnam[7][16]
Estonia[17]
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines[6]
–

2020
?
Afghanistan[15]
–
?
Ireland,[18] Norway,[19] San Marino,[20] Canada[21]

2021
?
Bahrain,[22] United Arab Emirates[15]
Albania[23]
?
–

2022
?
Mongolia[24][15]
–
?
Switzerland,[25] Malta[6]

2023
?
Tajikistan[26]
?
Guyana[6]
–

2024
?
Pakistan[6]
–
?
Greece,[27] Denmark[20]

2025
?
?
Latvia,[28] Montenegro[29]
?
–

2026
?
The Philippines[7]
–
?
Portugal,[30] Austria[20]

2027
?
Republic of Korea[31]
?
?
–

2028
?
Iran[32]
–
?
Australia,[33] Finland[20]

2029
?
?
Croatia[34]
?
–

2031
?
?
Armenia[35]
?
–

text: Serbia[36] as a member of the Eastern European Group has also expressed their wish to apply for United Nations Security Council membership in the future, but did not specify any term.

text: Non-members[edit]

text: As of July 2011, there are currently 193 members of the United Nations and five permanent members of the Security Council. The other ten seats are assigned amongst the remaining 188 members. As a result, many members have never been on the Security Council. The following list is a summary of all countries, currently 68 modern nations[37] and three historical ones, that have never been a member of the United Nations Security Council. The three historical UN members listed are Tanganyika, Zanzibar, and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

text:
UN Member state
Regional Group
Security Council membership as part of another entity

 Afghanistan
Asia-Pacific

 Albania
E. European

 Andorra
WEOG

 Antigua and Barbuda
GRULAC
Was a colony of the United Kingdom from 1632 to 1 November 1980

 Armenia
E. European
Was part of the Soviet Union from 29 November 1920 to 25 December 1991

 Bahamas
GRULAC
Was a colony of the United Kingdom from 1717 to 10 July 1973

 Barbados
GRULAC
Was a colony of the United Kingdom from 1625 to 30 November 1966

 Belize
GRULAC
Was a colony of the United Kingdom from 1862 to 21 September 1981

 Bhutan
Asia-Pacific

 Brunei
Asia-Pacific
Was a protectorate of the United Kingdom from 1888 to 1984, and was occupied by Japan from 1941 to 1945

 Cambodia
Asia-Pacific
Was a colony of France from 1863 to 9 November 1953

 Central African Republic
African
Was a colony of France from 1894 to 13 August 1960

 Comoros
African
Was a colony of France from 1841 to 6 July 1975

 Cyprus
Asia-Pacific
Was a colony of the United Kingdom from 5 November 1914 to 16 August 1960

 Democratic People's Republic of Korea
Asia-Pacific

 Dominica
GRULAC
Was a colony of the United Kingdom from 1783 to 3 November 1978

 Dominican Republic
GRULAC

 El Salvador
GRULAC

 Equatorial Guinea
African
Equatorial Guinea was a colony of Spain until 1968, but Spain's first term on the UNSC was in 1969

 Eritrea
African
Was under the administration of the United Kingdom from 1941 to 1947, then a United Nations Trust Territory from 1947 to 1952, then part of Ethiopia from 1952 to 24 May 1993

 Estonia
E. European
Was part of the Soviet Union from 1944 to 20 August 1991

 Fiji
Asia-Pacific
Was a colony of the United Kingdom from 1874 to 10 October 1970

 Georgia
E. European
Was part of the Soviet Union from 25 February 1921 to 25 December 1991

 Grenada
GRULAC
Was a colony of the United Kingdom from 1763 to 7 February 1974

 Haiti
GRULAC

 Iceland
WEOG

 Israel
None / WEOG[j]
Part of a League of Nations mandate under United Kingdom administration from 25 April 1920 to 14 May 1948

 Kiribati
Asian / None[k]
Was a colony of the United Kingdom from 1892 to 12 July 1979

 Kyrgyzstan
Asia-Pacific
Was part of the Soviet Union from 1 February 1926 to 25 December 1991

 Laos
Asia-Pacific
Was a colony of France from 1893 to 19 July 1949

 Latvia
E. European
Was part of the Soviet Union from 5 August 1940 to 21 August 1991

 Lesotho
African
Was a colony of the United Kingdom from 1884 to 4 October 1966

 Liechtenstein
WEOG

 Macedonia
E. European
Was part of Yugoslavia from 29 November 1943 to 3 April 1993

 Malawi
African
Was a colony of the United Kingdom from 1891 to 6 July 1964

 Maldives
Asia-Pacific
Was a colony of the United Kingdom from 1887 to 26 July 1965

 Marshall Islands
Asia-Pacific
Was part of the League of Nations South Pacific Mandate under Japanese administration from 28 June 1919 to 17 July 1947, then part of the United Nations Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands under the administration of the United States from 17 July 1947 to 21 October 1986

 Federated States of Micronesia
Asia-Pacific
Was part of the League of Nations South Pacific Mandate under Japanese administration from 28 June 1919 to 17 July 1947, then part of the United Nations Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands under the administration of the United States from 17 July 1947 to 3 November 1986

 Moldova
E. European
Was part of the Soviet Union from 28 June 1940 to 25 December 1991

 Monaco
WEOG

 Mongolia
Asia-Pacific

 Montenegro
E. European
Was part of Yugoslavia from 29 November 1943 to 28 April 1992[l]

 Mozambique
African
Mozambique was a colony of Portugal from 1498 to 25 June 1975, but Portugal's first term on the UNSC was in 1979

 Myanmar
Asia-Pacific
Was a colony of the United Kingdom from 1824 to 4 January 1948

 Nauru
Asia-Pacific
Was a United Nations Trust Territory administered by the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand from 1 January 1946 to 31 January 1968

 Palau
Asia-Pacific
Was part of the League of Nations South Pacific Mandate under Japanese administration from 28 June 1919 to 17 July 1947, then part of the United Nations Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands under the administration of the United States from 17 July 1947 to 1 October 1994

 Papua New Guinea
Asia-Pacific
Was administered by Australia in the case of the Territory of Papua from 1905, the Territory of New Guinea as a League of Nations mandate from 1919 and as a unified Territory of Papua and New Guinea from 1949 until 16 September 1975

 Saint Kitts and Nevis
GRULAC
Was a colony of the United Kingdom from 1713 to 19 September 1983

 Saint Lucia
GRULAC
Was a colony of the United Kingdom from 1803 to 22 February 1979

 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
GRULAC
Was a colony of the United Kingdom from 1783 to 27 October 1979

 Samoa
Asia-Pacific
Was a League of Nations mandate under the administration of New Zealand from 17 December 1920 to 25 January 1947, then a United Nations Trust Territory under the administration of New Zealand from 25 January 1947 to 1 January 1962

 San Marino
WEOG

 São Tomé and Príncipe
African
São Tomé and Príncipe was a colony of Portugal from 1471 to 12 July 1975, but Portugal's first term on the UNSC was in 1979

 Saudi Arabia
Asia-Pacific
Saudi Arabia was elected in the 2013 election, but declined the seat.[38]

 Serbia
E. European
Was part of Yugoslavia from 31 January 1946 to 27 April 1992[m]

 Seychelles
African
Was a colony of the United Kingdom from 1801 to 29 June 1976

 Solomon Islands
Asia-Pacific
Was a colony of the United Kingdom from 1893 to 7 July 1978

 South Sudan
African
Was part of Sudan from the country's independence from the United Kingdom and Egypt on 1 January 1956 to 9 July 2011

 Suriname
GRULAC
Was a colony of the Netherlands from 1667 to 25 November 1975

 Swaziland
African
Was a colony of the United Kingdom from 1902 to 6 September 1968

  Switzerland
WEOG

 Tajikistan
Asia-Pacific
Was part of the Soviet Union from 14 October 1924 to 25 December 1991

 Tanganyika
Commonwealth Seat
Was a League of Nations mandate under the administration of the United Kingdom from 20 July 1922 to 11 December 1946, then a United Nations Trust Territory under the administration of the United Kingdom until 9 December 1962, then independent until federation with Zanzibar to form Tanzania

 Timor-Leste
Asia-Pacific
During the existence of the United Nations, Timor Leste has been a colony of Portugal (until 28 November 1975) and occupied by Indonesia (until 1999); Indonesia was a Security Council member in 1995-6.

 Tonga
Asia-Pacific
Was a protectorate of the United Kingdom from 18 May 1900 to 4 June 1970

 Turkmenistan
Asia-Pacific
Was part of the Soviet Union from 13 May 1925 to 8 December 1991

 Tuvalu
Asia-Pacific
Was a colony of the United Kingdom from 1892 to 1 October 1978

 Uzbekistan
Asia-Pacific
Was part of the Soviet Union from 13 May 1925 to 25 December 1991

 Vanuatu
Asia-Pacific
Was a Condominium under joint sovereignty of the United Kingdom and France from 1906 to 30 July 1980

 Zanzibar
Commonwealth Seat
Was a colony of the United Kingdom from 27 August 1896 to 10 December 1963, then independent until federation with Tanganyika to form Tanzania on 26 April 1964.

 FR Yugoslavia / Serbia and Montenegro
E. European
Was part of Yugoslavia from 29 November 1943 to 27 April 1992


document_title: United States twenty-dollar bill

question_text: when did the new 20 dollar bill come out

text: United States twenty-dollar bill

text: Pre-Federal Reserve history[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
1861: A demand note with Lady Liberty holding a sword and shield on the front, and an abstract design on the back. The back is printed green.
1862: A note that is very similar, the first $20 United States note. The back is different, with several small variations extant.
1863: A gold certificate $20 note with an Eagle vignette on the face. The reverse has a $20 gold coin and various abstract elements. The back is orange.
1865: A national bank note with "The Battle of Lexington" and of Pocahontas' marriage to John Rolfe in black, and a green border.
1869: A new United States note design with Alexander Hamilton on the left side of the front and Victory holding a shield and sword. The back design is green.
1875: As above, except with a different reverse.
1878: A silver certificate $20 note with a portrait of Stephen Decatur on the right side of the face. The back design is black.
1882: A new gold certificate with a portrait of James Garfield on the right of the face. The back is orange and features an eagle.
1882: A new national bank note. The front is similar, but the back is different and printed in brown.
1886: A new silver certificate $20 note with Daniel Manning on the center of the face.
1890: A treasury (coin) note with John Marshall on the left of the face. Two different backs exist: both with abstract designs.
1902: A new national bank note. The front design features Hugh McCulloch, and the back has a vignette of an allegorical America.
1905: A new gold certificate $20 note with George Washington on the center of the face. The back design is orange.

text: Federal Reserve history[edit]

text: Andrew Jackson first appeared on the $20 bill in 1928. Although 1928 coincides with the 100th anniversary of Jackson's election as president, it is not clear why the portrait on the bill was switched from Grover Cleveland to Jackson. (Cleveland's portrait was moved to the new $1000 bill the same year). According to the U.S. Treasury, "Treasury Department records do not reveal the reason that portraits of these particular statesmen were chosen in preference to those of other persons of equal importance and prominence."[3]

text: The placement of Jackson on the $20 bill may be a historical irony; as president, he vehemently opposed both the National Bank and paper money and made the goal of his administration the destruction of the National Bank.[4][5] In his farewell address to the nation, he cautioned the public about paper money.[6]

text:
1914: Began as a large-sized note, a portrait of Grover Cleveland on the face, and, on the back, a steam locomotive and an automobile approaching from the left, and a steamship approaching from the right.
1918: A federal reserve bank note with Grover Cleveland on the front, and a back design similar to the 1914 Federal Reserve Note.
1928: Switched to a small-sized note with a portrait of Andrew Jackson on the face and the south view of the White House on the reverse. The banknote is redeemable in gold or silver (at the bearer's discretion) at any Federal Reserve Bank.
1933: With the U.S. having abandoned the gold standard, the bill is no longer redeemable in gold, but rather in "lawful money", meaning silver.
1942: A special emergency series, with brown serial numbers and "HAWAII" overprinted on both the front and the back, is issued. These notes are designed to circulate on the islands, and be deemed invalid in the event of a Japanese invasion.
1948: The White House picture was updated to reflect renovations to the building itself, including the addition of the Truman Balcony, as well as the passage of time. Most notably, the trees are larger.
1950: Design elements like the serial numbers are reduced in size and moved around subtly, presumably for aesthetic reasons.
1963: "Will Pay To The Bearer On Demand" is removed from the front of the bill below the portrait, and the legal tender designation is shortened to "This note is legal tender for all debts, public and private" (eliminating "and is redeemable in lawful money at the United States Treasury, or at any Federal Reserve Bank.") Also, "In God We Trust" is added above the White House on the reverse. These two acts (one taking U.S. currency off silver backing, and the other authorizing the national motto) are coincidental, even if their combined result is implemented in one redesign. Also, several design elements are rearranged, less perceptibly than the change in 1950, mostly to make room for the slightly rearranged obligations.
1969: The new treasury seal appears on all denominations, including the $20.
1977: A new type of serial-number press results in a slightly different font. The old presses are gradually retired, and old-style serial numbers appear as late as 1981 for this denomination.
1992: Anti-counterfeiting features are added: microprinting around the portrait, and a plastic strip embedded in the paper. Even though the bills read Series 1990, the first bills were printed in April 1992.[7]
September 24, 1998: Received a completely new appearance to further deter counterfeiting; the picture of the White House was changed to the north side view. A larger, off-center portrait of Jackson was used on front, and several anti-counterfeiting features were added, including color-shifting ink, microprinting, and a watermark. The plastic strip now reads "USA 20" and glows green under a black light.[8] The bills were first printed in June 1998.[9]
October 9, 2003:[10] The current series of 20 dollar bills is released with light background shading in green and yellow, and no oval around Andrew Jackson's portrait (background images of eagles, etc. were also added to the front); the back is the same view of the White House, but without the oval around it. Ninety faint "20"s are scattered on the back in yellow as a "EURion constellation" to prevent photocopying. The first issue's series date is 2004 with Marin-Snow signatures. The bills were first printed in April 2003.[11]

text: Proposal for a woman's portrait[edit]

text: In a campaign called "Women on 20s", selected voters were asked to choose three of 15 female candidates to have a portrait on the $20 bill. The goal was to have a woman on the $20 bill by 2020, the centennial of the 19th Amendment which gave women the right to vote.[12] Among the candidates on the petition were Harriet Tubman, Eleanor Roosevelt, Rosa Parks, and Wilma Mankiller, the first female chief of the Cherokee Nation.[13][14][15]

text: On May 12, 2015, Tubman was announced as the winning candidate of that "grassroots" poll with more than 600,000 people surveyed and more than 118,000 choosing Tubman, followed by Roosevelt, Parks and Mankiller.[16]

text: On June 17, 2015, then-Treasury Secretary Jack Lew announced that a woman's portrait would be featured on a redesigned $10 bill by 2020, replacing Alexander Hamilton.[17] However, that decision was reversed, at least in part due to Hamilton's surging popularity following the hit Broadway musical Hamilton.[18]

text: On April 20, 2016, Lew officially announced that Alexander Hamilton would remain on the $10 bill, while Andrew Jackson would be replaced by Tubman on the front of the $20 bill, with Jackson appearing on the reverse.[19][20][21] Lew simultaneously announced that the five- and ten-dollar bills would also be redesigned in the coming years and put into production in the next decade.[19][21] Steven Mnuchin, the current U.S. Treasury Secretary, said that he will not commit to putting Tubman on the twenty-dollar bill, explaining "People have been on the bills for a long period of time. This is something we’ll consider; right now we have a lot more important issues to focus on."[22]