document_title: Gregorian calendar

question_text: when did the new russian calendar go into effect

question_tokens: when did the new russian calendar go into effect

text: Gregorian calendar

text: Description

text:
A year is divided into twelve months

No.
Name
Length in days

1
January
31

2
February
28 (29 in leap years)

3
March
31

4
April
30

5
May
31

6
June
30

7
July
31

8
August
31

9
September
30

10
October
31

11
November
30

12
December
31

text:
Christopher Clavius (1538–1612), one of the main authors of the reform.

Pope Gregory XIII in an early 17th-century engraving.

text: The Gregorian calendar is a solar calendar. A regular Gregorian year consists of 365 days, but as in the Julian calendar, in certain years, a leap year, a leap day is added to February. In the Julian calendar a leap year occurs every 4 years, but the Gregorian calendar omits a leap day in three of every 400 years. In the Julian calendar, the leap day was inserted by doubling 24 February, and the Gregorian reform did not change the date of the leap day. In the modern period, it has become customary to number the days from the beginning of the month, and 29 February is typically considered as the leap day. Before the 1969 revision of the Roman Calendar, the Roman Catholic Church delayed February feasts after the 23rd by one day in leap years; Masses celebrated according to the previous calendar still reflect this delay.[10]

text: Gregorian years are identified by consecutive year numbers.[11] The cycles repeat completely every 146,097 days, which equals 400 years.[Note 4][Note 5] Of these 400 years, 303 are regular years of 365 days and 97 are leap years of 366 days. A mean calendar year is 365 97/400 days = 365.2425 days, or 365 days, 5 hours, 49 minutes and 12 seconds.[Note 6]

text: A calendar date is fully specified by the year (numbered by some scheme beyond the scope of the calendar itself), the month (identified by name or number), and the day of the month (numbered sequentially starting at 1). Although the calendar year currently runs from 1 January to 31 December, at previous times year numbers were based on a different starting point within the calendar (see the "beginning of the year" section below).

text: Gregorian reform

text: The Gregorian calendar was a reform of the Julian calendar. It was instituted in 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII, after whom the calendar was named, by papal bull Inter gravissimas dated 24 February 1582.[3] The motivation for the adjustment was to bring the date for the celebration of Easter to the time of year in which it was celebrated when it was introduced by the early Church. The error in the Julian calendar (its assumption that there are exactly 365.25 days in a year) had led to the date of the equinox according to the calendar drifting from the observed reality, and thus an error had been introduced into the calculation of the date of Easter. Although a recommendation of the First Council of Nicaea in 325 specified that all Christians should celebrate Easter on the same day, it took almost five centuries before virtually all Christians achieved that objective by adopting the rules of the Church of Alexandria (see Easter for the issues which arose).[Note 7]

text: Background

text: Because the date of Easter was tied to the Spring Equinox, the Roman Catholic Church considered the seasonal drift in the date of Easter undesirable. The Church of Alexandria celebrated Easter on the Sunday after the 14th day of the moon (computed using the Metonic cycle) that falls on or after the vernal equinox, which they placed on 21 March. However, the Church of Rome still regarded 25 March (Lady Day) as the equinox (until 342), and used a different cycle to compute the day of the moon.[13] In the Alexandrian system, since the 14th day of the Easter moon could fall at earliest on 21 March its first day could fall no earlier than 8 March and no later than 5 April. This meant that Easter varied between 22 March and 25 April. In Rome, Easter was not allowed to fall later than 21 April, that being the day of the Parilia or birthday of Rome and a pagan festival. The first day of the Easter moon could fall no earlier than 5 March and no later than 2 April.

text: Easter was the Sunday after the 15th day of this moon, whose 14th day was allowed to precede the equinox. Where the two systems produced different dates there was generally a compromise so that both churches were able to celebrate on the same day. By the 10th century all churches (except some on the eastern border of the Byzantine Empire) had adopted the Alexandrian Easter, which still placed the vernal equinox on 21 March, although Bede had already noted its drift in 725—it had drifted even further by the 16th century.[14]

text: Worse, the reckoned Moon that was used to compute Easter was fixed to the Julian year by a 19-year cycle. That approximation built up an error of one day every 310 years, so by the 16th century the lunar calendar was out of phase with the real Moon by four days.

text: European scholars had been well aware of the calendar drift since the early medieval period. Bede, writing in the 8th century, showed that the accumulated error in his day was more than three days. Roger Bacon in c. 1200 estimated the error at seven or eight days. Dante, writing c. 1300, was aware of the need of a calendar reform. The first attempt to go forward with such a reform was undertaken by Pope Sixtus IV, who in 1475 invited Regiomontanus to the Vatican for this purpose. However, the project was interrupted by the death of Regiomontanus shortly after his arrival in Rome.[15] The increase of astronomical knowledge and the precision of observations towards the end of the 15th century made the question more pressing. Numerous publications over the following decades called for a calendar reform, among them a paper sent to the Vatican by the University of Salamanca in 1515,[citation needed] but the project was not taken up again until the 1540s, and implemented only under Pope Gregory XIII (r. 1572–1585).

text: Preparation

text: In 1545, the Council of Trent authorized Pope Paul III to reform the calendar, requiring that the date of the vernal equinox be restored to that which it held at the time of the First Council of Nicaea in 325 and that an alteration to the calendar be designed to prevent future drift. This would allow for a more consistent and accurate scheduling of the feast of Easter.

text: In 1577, a Compendium was sent to expert mathematicians outside the reform commission for comments. Some of these experts, including Giambattista Benedetti and Giuseppe Moleto, believed Easter should be computed from the true motions of the sun and moon, rather than using a tabular method, but these recommendations were not adopted.[16] The reform adopted was a modification of a proposal made by the Calabrian doctor Aloysius Lilius (or Lilio).[5]

text: Lilius's proposal included reducing the number of leap years in four centuries from 100 to 97, by making three out of four centurial years common instead of leap years. He also produced an original and practical scheme for adjusting the epacts of the moon when calculating the annual date of Easter, solving a long-standing obstacle to calendar reform.

text: Ancient tables provided the sun's mean longitude.[17][18] Christopher Clavius, the architect of the Gregorian calendar, noted that the tables agreed neither on the time when the sun passed through the vernal equinox nor on the length of the mean tropical year. Tycho Brahe also noticed discrepancies.[19][20] The Gregorian leap year rule (97 leap years in 400 years) was put forward by Petrus Pitatus of Verona in 1560. He noted that it is consistent with the tropical year of the Alfonsine tables and with the mean tropical year of Copernicus (De revolutionibus) and Reinhold (Prutenic tables). The three mean tropical years in Babylonian sexagesimals as the excess over 365 days (the way they would have been extracted from the tables of mean longitude) were 14,33,9,57 (Alphonsine), 14,33,11,12 (Copernicus) and 14,33,9,24 (Reinhold). All values are the same to two places (14:33) and this is also the mean length of the Gregorian year. Thus Pitatus' solution would have commended itself to the astronomers.[21]

text: Lilius's proposals had two components. Firstly, he proposed a correction to the length of the year. The mean tropical year is 365.24219 days long.[22] As the average length of a Julian year is 365.25 days, the Julian year is almost 11 minutes longer than the mean tropical year. The discrepancy results in a drift of about three days every 400 years. Lilius's proposal resulted in an average year of 365.2425 days (see Accuracy). At the time of Gregory's reform there had already been a drift of 10 days since the Council of Nicaea, resulting in the vernal equinox falling on 10 or 11 March instead of the ecclesiastically fixed date of 21 March, and if unreformed it would drift further. Lilius proposed that the 10-day drift should be corrected by deleting the Julian leap day on each of its ten occurrences over a period of forty years, thereby providing for a gradual return of the equinox to 21 March.

text: Lilius's work was expanded upon by Christopher Clavius in a closely argued, 800-page volume. He would later defend his and Lilius's work against detractors. Clavius's opinion was that the correction should take place in one move, and it was this advice which prevailed with Gregory.

text: The second component consisted of an approximation which would provide an accurate yet simple, rule-based calendar. Lilius's formula was a 10-day correction to revert the drift since the Council of Nicaea, and the imposition of a leap day in only 97 years in 400 rather than in 1 year in 4. The proposed rule was that years divisible by 100 would be leap years only if they were divisible by 400 as well.

text: The 19-year cycle used for the lunar calendar was also to be corrected by one day every 300 or 400 years (8 times in 2500 years) along with corrections for the years that are no longer leap years (i.e., 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, etc.). In fact, a new method for computing the date of Easter was introduced.

text: When the new calendar was put in use, the error accumulated in the 13 centuries since the Council of Nicaea was corrected by a deletion of 10 days. The Julian calendar day Thursday, 4 October 1582 was followed by the first day of the Gregorian calendar, Friday, 15 October 1582 (the cycle of weekdays was not affected).

text: Adoption

text: Although Gregory's reform was enacted in the most solemn of forms available to the Church, the bull had no authority beyond the Catholic Church and the Papal States. The changes that he was proposing were changes to the civil calendar, over which he had no authority. They required adoption by the civil authorities in each country to have legal effect.

text: The bull Inter gravissimas became the law of the Catholic Church in 1582, but it was not recognised by Protestant Churches, Eastern Orthodox Churches, Oriental Orthodox Churches, and a few others. Consequently, the days on which Easter and related holidays were celebrated by different Christian Churches again diverged.

text: A month after having decreed the reform, the pope with a brief of 3 April 1582 granted to Antonio Lilio, the brother of Luigi Lilio, the exclusive right to publish the calendar for a period of ten years. The Lunario Novo secondo la nuova riforma printed by Vincenzo Accolti, one of the first calendars printed in Rome after the reform, notes at the bottom that it was signed with papal authorization and by Lilio (Con licentia delli Superiori... et permissu Ant(onii) Lilij). The papal brief was later revoked, on 20 September 1582, because Antonio Lilio proved unable to keep up with the demand for copies.[23]

text: On 29 September 1582, Philip II of Spain decreed the change from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar.[24] This affected much of Roman Catholic Europe, as Philip was at the time ruler over Spain and Portugal as well as much of Italy. In these territories, as well as in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth[citation needed] (ruled by Anna Jagiellon) and in the Papal States, the new calendar was implemented on the date specified by the bull, with Julian Thursday, 4 October 1582, being followed by Gregorian Friday, 15 October 1582. The Spanish and Portuguese colonies followed somewhat later de facto because of delay in communication.[25]

text: Many Protestant countries initially objected to adopting a Catholic innovation; some Protestants feared the new calendar was part of a plot to return them to the Catholic fold. For example, the British could not bring themselves to adopt the Catholic system explicitly: the Annexe to their Calendar (New Style) Act 1750 established a computation for the date of Easter that achieved the same result as Gregory's rules, without actually referring to him.[26]

text: Britain and the British Empire (including the eastern part of what is now the United States) adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1752. Sweden followed in 1753.

text: Prior to 1917, Turkey used the lunar Islamic calendar with the Hegira era for general purposes and the Julian calendar for fiscal purposes. The start of the fiscal year was eventually fixed at 1 March and the year number was roughly equivalent to the Hegira year (see Rumi calendar). As the solar year is longer than the lunar year this originally entailed the use of "escape years" every so often when the number of the fiscal year would jump. From 1 March 1917 the fiscal year became Gregorian, rather than Julian. On 1 January 1926 the use of the Gregorian calendar was extended to include use for general purposes and the number of the year became the same as in most other countries.

text:
Adoption of the Gregorian Calendar

1500
1600
1700
1800
1900

1582: Spain, Portugal, France, Poland, Italy, Catholic Low Countries, Luxemburg, and colonies
1584: Kingdom of Bohemia

1610: Prussia
1648: Alsace
1682: Strasbourg

1700: 'Germany', Swiss Cantons, Protestant Low Countries, Norway, Denmark
1752: Great Britain and colonies
1753: Sweden and Finland

1873: Japan
1875: Egypt
1896: Korea

1912: China, Albania
1915: Latvia, Lithuania
1916: Bulgaria
1918: USSR, Estonia
1919: Romania, Yugoslavia[Note 8]
1923: Greece
1926: Turkey

text: Difference between Gregorian and Julian calendar dates

text:
Conversion from Julian to Gregorian dates.[27]

Gregorian range
Julian range
Difference

From 15 October 1582
to 28 February 1700
From 5 October 1582
to 18 February 1700
10 days

From 1 March 1700
to 28 February 1800
From 19 February 1700
to 17 February 1800
11 days

From 1 March 1800
to 28 February 1900
From 18 February 1800
to 16 February 1900
12 days

From 1 March 1900
to 28 February 2100
From 17 February 1900
to 15 February 2100
13 days

From 1 March 2100
to 28 February 2200
From 16 February 2100
to 14 February 2200
14 days

text: Since the introduction of the Gregorian calendar, the difference between Gregorian and Julian calendar dates has increased by three days every four centuries (all date ranges are inclusive):

text: This section always places the intercalary day on 29 February even though it was always obtained by doubling 24 February (the bissextum (twice sixth) or bissextile day) until the late Middle Ages. The Gregorian calendar is proleptic before 1582 (assumed to exist before 1582).

text: The following equation gives the number of days (actually, dates) that the Gregorian calendar is ahead of the Julian calendar, called the secular difference between the two calendars. A negative difference means the Julian calendar is ahead of the Gregorian calendar.[28]

text:
where

D

{\displaystyle D}

 is the secular difference and

Y

{\displaystyle Y}

 is the year using astronomical year numbering, that is, use (year BC) − 1 for BC years.

⌊

x

⌋

{\displaystyle \left\lfloor {x}\right\rfloor }

 means that if the result of the division is not an integer it is rounded down to the nearest integer. Thus during the 1900s, 1900/400 = 4, while during the −500s, −500/400 = −2.

text: The general rule, in years which are leap years in the Julian calendar but not the Gregorian, is as follows:

text: Up to 28 February in the calendar you are converting from add one day less or subtract one day more than the calculated value. Remember to give February the appropriate number of days for the calendar you are converting into. When you are subtracting days to move from Julian to Gregorian be careful, when calculating the Gregorian equivalent of 29 February (Julian), to remember that 29 February is discounted. Thus if the calculated value is −4 the Gregorian equivalent of this date is 24 February.[29][30]

text: Beginning of the year

text:
Country
Start numbered year
on 1 January
Adoption of
Gregorian calendar

Denmark
Gradual change from
13th to 16th centuries[31]
1700

Venice
1522
1582

Holy Roman Empire (Catholic states)
1544
1583

Spain, Poland, Portugal
1556
1582

Holy Roman Empire (Protestant states)
1559
1700

Sweden
1559
1753

France
1564[32]
1582[n 1]

Southern Netherlands
1576[33]
1582

Lorraine
1579
1682

Dutch Republic
1583
1582

Scotland
1600[34][35]
1752

Russia
1700[36]
1918

Tuscany
1721
1750

Great Britain and the British Empire
except Scotland
1752[34]
1752

text: The year used in dates during the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire was the consular year, which began on the day when consuls first entered office—probably 1 May before 222 BC, 15 March from 222 BC and 1 January from 153 BC.[37] The Julian calendar, which began in 45 BC, continued to use 1 January as the first day of the new year. Even though the year used for dates changed, the civil year always displayed its months in the order January to December from the Roman Republican period until the present.

text: During the Middle Ages, under the influence of the Catholic Church, many Western European countries moved the start of the year to one of several important Christian festivals—25 December (supposed Nativity of Jesus), 25 March (Annunciation), or Easter (France),[38] while the Byzantine Empire began its year on 1 September and Russia did so on 1 March until 1492 when the new year was moved to 1 September.[39]

text: In common usage, 1 January was regarded as New Year's Day and celebrated as such,[40] but from the 12th century until 1751 the legal year in England began on 25 March (Lady Day).[41] So, for example, the Parliamentary record lists the execution of Charles I on 30 January as occurring in 1648 (as the year did not end until 24 March),[42] although later histories adjust the start of the year to 1 January and record the execution as occurring in 1649.[43]

text: Most Western European countries changed the start of the year to 1 January before they adopted the Gregorian calendar. For example, Scotland changed the start of the Scottish New Year to 1 January in 1600 (this means that 1599 was a short year). England, Ireland and the British colonies changed the start of the year to 1 January in 1752 (so 1751 was a short year with only 282 days) though in England the start of the tax year remained at 25 March (O.S.), 5 April (N.S.) till 1800, when it moved to 6 April. Later in 1752 in September the Gregorian calendar was introduced throughout Britain and the British colonies (see the section Adoption). These two reforms were implemented by the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750.[44]

text: In some countries, an official decree or law specified that the start of the year should be 1 January. For such countries a specific year when a 1 January-year became the norm can be identified. In other countries the customs varied, and the start of the year moved back and forth as fashion and influence from other countries dictated various customs.

text: Neither the papal bull nor its attached canons explicitly fix such a date, though it is implied by two tables of saint's days, one labelled 1582 which ends on 31 December, and another for any full year that begins on 1 January. It also specifies its epact relative to 1 January, in contrast with the Julian calendar, which specified it relative to 22 March. The old date was derived from the Greek system: the earlier Supputatio Romana specified it relative to 1 January.

text: Jump up ^ In 1793 France abandoned the Gregorian calendar in favour of the French Republican Calendar. This change was reverted in 1805.

text: Dual dating

text: During the period between 1582, when the first countries adopted the Gregorian calendar, and 1923, when the last European country adopted it, it was often necessary to indicate the date of some event in both the Julian calendar and in the Gregorian calendar, for example, "10/21 February 1750/51", where the dual year accounts for some countries already beginning their numbered year on 1 January while others were still using some other date. Even before 1582, the year sometimes had to be double dated because of the different beginnings of the year in various countries. Woolley, writing in his biography of John Dee (1527–1608/9), notes that immediately after 1582 English letter writers "customarily" used "two dates" on their letters, one OS and one NS.[45]

text: Old Style and New Style dates

text: "Old Style" (OS) and "New Style" (NS) are sometimes added to dates to identify which calendar reference system is used for the date given. In Britain and its Colonies, where the Calendar Act of 1750 altered the start of the year,[Note 9] and also aligned the British calendar with the Gregorian calendar, there is some confusion as to what these terms mean. They can indicate that the start of the Julian year has been adjusted to start on 1 January (NS) even though contemporary documents use a different start of year (OS); or to indicate that a date conforms to the Julian calendar (OS), formerly in use in many countries, rather than the Gregorian calendar (NS).[43][46][47][48]

text: Proleptic Gregorian calendar

text: Extending the Gregorian calendar backwards to dates preceding its official introduction produces a proleptic calendar, which should be used with some caution. For ordinary purposes, the dates of events occurring prior to 15 October 1582 are generally shown as they appeared in the Julian calendar, with the year starting on 1 January, and no conversion to their Gregorian equivalents. For example, the Battle of Agincourt is universally considered to have been fought on 25 October 1415 which is Saint Crispin's Day.

text: Usually, the mapping of new dates onto old dates with a start of year adjustment works well with little confusion for events that happened before the introduction of the Gregorian calendar. But for the period between the first introduction of the Gregorian calendar on 15 October 1582 and its introduction in Britain on 14 September 1752, there can be considerable confusion between events in continental western Europe and in British domains in English language histories.

text: Events in continental western Europe are usually reported in English language histories as happening under the Gregorian calendar. For example, the Battle of Blenheim is always given as 13 August 1704. Confusion occurs when an event affects both. For example, William III of England arrived at Brixham in England on 5 November 1688 (Julian calendar), after setting sail from the Netherlands on 11 November 1688 (Gregorian calendar).

text: Shakespeare and Cervantes seemingly died on exactly the same date (23 April 1616), but Cervantes predeceased Shakespeare by ten days in real time (as Spain used the Gregorian calendar, but Britain used the Julian calendar). This coincidence encouraged UNESCO to make 23 April the World Book and Copyright Day.

text: Astronomers avoid this ambiguity by the use of the Julian day number.

text: For dates before the year 1, unlike the proleptic Gregorian calendar used in the international standard ISO 8601, the traditional proleptic Gregorian calendar (like the Julian calendar) does not have a year 0 and instead uses the ordinal numbers 1, 2, … both for years AD and BC. Thus the traditional time line is 2 BC, 1 BC, AD 1, and AD 2. ISO 8601 uses astronomical year numbering which includes a year 0 and negative numbers before it. Thus the ISO 8601 time line is −0001, 0000, 0001, and 0002.

text: Months

text: The Gregorian calendar continued to employ the Julian months, which have Latinate names and irregular numbers of days:

text:
January (31 days), from Latin mēnsis Iānuārius, "Month of Janus",[49] the Roman god of gates, doorways, beginnings and endings
February (28 days in common and 29 in leap years), from Latin mēnsis Februārius, "Month of the Februa", the Roman festival of purgation and purification,[50][51] cognate with fever,[50] the Etruscan death god Februus ("Purifier"),[citation needed] and the PIE word for sulfur[50]
March (31 days), from Latin mēnsis Mārtius, "Month of Mars",[52] the Roman war god[51]
April (30 days), from Latin mēnsis Aprīlis, of uncertain meaning[53] but usually derived from some form of the verb aperire ("to open")[54] or the name of the goddess Aphrodite[51][58]
May (31 days), from Latin mēnsis Māius, "Month of Maia",[59] a Roman vegetation goddess[51] whose name is cognate with Latin magnus ("great")[59] and English major
June (30 days), from Latin mēnsis Iūnius, "Month of Juno",[60] the Roman goddess of marriage, childbirth, and rule[51]
July (31 days), from Latin mēnsis Iūlius, "Month of Julius Caesar", the month of Caesar's birth, instituted in 44 BC[61] as part of his calendrical reforms[51]
August (31 days), from Latin mēnsis Augustus, "Month of Augustus", instituted by Augustus in 8 BC in agreement with July and from the occurrence during the month of several important events during his rise to power[62]
September (30 days), from Latin mēnsis september, "seventh month", from its position in the Roman calendar before 153 BC[63]
October (31 days), from Latin mēnsis octōber, "eighth month",[64] from its position in the Roman calendar before 153 BC[63]
November (30 days), from Latin mēnsis november, "ninth month",[65] from its position in the Roman calendar before 153 BC[63]
December (31 days), from Latin mēnsis december, "tenth month",[66] from its position in the Roman calendar before 153 BC[63]

text: Europeans sometimes attempt to remember the number of days in each month by memorizing some form of the traditional verse "Thirty Days Hath September". It appears in Latin,[67][68] Italian,[69] and French,[70] and belongs to a broad oral tradition but the earliest currently attested form of the poem is the English marginalia inserted into a calendar of saints c. 1425:[71][72][73]

text:
Thirti dayes hath novembir
April june and Septembir.
Of xxviij is but oon
And alle the remenaunt xxx and j[72]

Thirty days have November,
April, June, and September.
Of 28 is but one
And all the remnant 30 and 1.

text: Variations appeared in Mother Goose and continue to be taught at schools. The unhelpfulness of such involved mnemonics has been parodied as "Thirty days hath September / But all the rest I can't remember"[74] but it has also been called "probably the only sixteenth-century poem most ordinary citizens know by heart".[75] A common nonverbal alternative is the knuckle mnemonic, considering the knuckles of one's hands as months with 31 days and the lower spaces between them as the months with fewer days. Using two hands, one may start from either pinkie knuckle as January and count across, omitting the space between the index knuckles (July and August). The same procedure can be done using the knuckles of a single hand, returning from the last (July) to the first (August) and continuing through. A similar mnemonic is to move up a piano keyboard in semitones from an F key, taking the white keys as the longer months and the black keys as the shorter ones.

text: Weeks

text: In conjunction with the system of months there is a system of weeks. A physical or electronic calendar provides conversion from a given date to the weekday, and shows multiple dates for a given weekday and month. Calculating the day of the week is not very simple, because of the irregularities in the Gregorian system. When the Gregorian calendar was adopted by each country, the weekly cycle continued uninterrupted. For example, in the case of the few countries that adopted the reformed calendar on the date proposed by Gregory XIII for the calendar's adoption, Friday, 15 October 1582, the preceding date was Thursday, 4 October 1582 (Julian calendar).

text: Opinions vary about the numbering of the days of the week. ISO 8601, in common use worldwide, starts with Monday=1; printed monthly calendar grids often list Mondays in the first (left) column of dates and Sundays in the last. Software often starts with Sunday=0, which places Sundays in the left column of a monthly calendar page.

text: Accuracy

text: The Gregorian calendar improves the approximation made by the Julian calendar by skipping three Julian leap days in every 400 years, giving an average year of 365.2425 mean solar days long.[76] This approximation has an error of about one day per 3,030 years[77] with respect to the current value of the mean tropical year. However, because of the precession of the equinoxes, which is not constant, and the movement of the perihelion (which affects the Earth's orbital speed) the error with respect to the astronomical vernal equinox is variable; using the average interval between vernal equinoxes near 2000 of 365.24237 days[78] implies an error closer to 1 day every 7,700 years. By any criterion, the Gregorian calendar is substantially more accurate than the 1 day in 128 years error of the Julian calendar (average year 365.25 days).

text: In the 19th century, Sir John Herschel proposed a modification to the Gregorian calendar with 969 leap days every 4000 years, instead of 970 leap days that the Gregorian calendar would insert over the same period.[79] This would reduce the average year to 365.24225 days. Herschel's proposal would make the year 4000, and multiples thereof, common instead of leap. While this modification has often been proposed since, it has never been officially adopted.[80]

text: On time scales of thousands of years, the Gregorian calendar falls behind the astronomical seasons because the slowing down of the Earth's rotation makes each day slightly longer over time (see tidal acceleration and leap second) while the year maintains a more uniform duration.

text: Calendar seasonal error

text: This image shows the difference between the Gregorian calendar and the astronomical seasons.

text: The y-axis is the date in June and the x-axis is Gregorian calendar years.

text: Each point is the date and time of the June solstice in that particular year. The error shifts by about a quarter of a day per year. Centurial years are ordinary years, unless they are divisible by 400, in which case they are leap years. This causes a correction in the years 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200, and 2300.

text: For instance, these corrections cause 23 December 1903 to be the latest December solstice, and 20 December 2096 to be the earliest solstice—about 2.35 days of variation compared with the seasonal event.

text: Proposed reforms

text: The following are proposed reforms of the Gregorian calendar:

text:
Holocene calendar
International Fixed Calendar (also called the International Perpetual calendar)
World Calendar
World Season Calendar
Leap week calendars

Pax Calendar
Symmetry454
Hanke–Henry Permanent Calendar


document_title: List of National Football League career passing touchdowns leaders

question_text: who has the most passing tds in nfl history

root

text: Players with at least 200 passing touchdowns

text:
Key

^

Inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame

*

Denotes player who is still active in the NFL

tag: table

text: Through Week 8 of 2018 season in progress.

tag: p

text:
Rank

Player

Team(s) by season

Touchdowns

1

Peyton Manning

Indianapolis Colts (1998–2011)Denver Broncos (2012–2015)

539

2

Brett Favre^

Atlanta Falcons (1991)Green Bay Packers (1992–2007)New York Jets (2008)Minnesota Vikings (2009–2010)

508

3

Tom Brady*

New England Patriots (2000–present)

504

4

Drew Brees*

San Diego Chargers (2001–2005)New Orleans Saints (2006–present)

501

5

Dan Marino^

Miami Dolphins (1983–1999)

420

6

Philip Rivers*

San Diego/Los Angeles Chargers (2004–present)

359

7

Eli Manning*

New York Giants (2004–present)

346

8

Fran Tarkenton^

Minnesota Vikings (1961–1966), (1972–1978)New York Giants (1967–1971)

342

9

Ben Roethlisberger*

Pittsburgh Steelers (2004–present)

341

10

Aaron Rodgers*

Green Bay Packers (2005–present)

325

11

John Elway^

Denver Broncos (1983–1998)

300

12

Carson Palmer

Cincinnati Bengals (2003–2010)Oakland Raiders (2011–2012)Arizona Cardinals (2013–2017)

294

13

Warren Moon^

Houston Oilers (1984–1993)Minnesota Vikings (1994–1996)Seattle Seahawks (1997–1998)Kansas City Chiefs (1999–2000)

291

14

Johnny Unitas^

Baltimore Colts (1956–1972)San Diego Chargers (1973)

290

15

Matt Ryan*

Atlanta Falcons (2008–present)

275

Vinny Testaverde

Tampa Bay Buccaneers (1987–1992)Cleveland Browns (1993–1995)Baltimore Ravens (1996–1997)New York Jets (1998–2003, 2005)Dallas Cowboys (2004)New England Patriots (2006)Carolina Panthers (2007)

17

Joe Montana^

San Francisco 49ers (1979–1992)Kansas City Chiefs (1993–1994)

273

18

Dave Krieg

Seattle Seahawks (1980–1991)Kansas City Chiefs (1992–1993)Detroit Lions (1994)Arizona Cardinals (1995)Chicago Bears (1996)Tennessee Oilers (1997–1998)

261

19

Sonny Jurgensen^

Philadelphia Eagles (1957–1963)Washington Redskins (1964–1974)

255

20

Dan Fouts^

San Diego Chargers (1973–1987)

254

21

Drew Bledsoe

New England Patriots (1993–2001)Buffalo Bills (2002–2004)Dallas Cowboys (2005–2006)

251

22

Tony Romo

Dallas Cowboys (2003–2016)

248

23

Boomer Esiason

Cincinnati Bengals (1984–1992, 1997)New York Jets (1993–1995)Arizona Cardinals (1996)

247

24

John Hadl

San Diego Chargers (1962–1972)Los Angeles Rams (1973–1974[a])Green Bay Packers (1974–1975)Houston Oilers (1976–1977)

244

25

Len Dawson^

Pittsburgh Steelers (1957–1959)Cleveland Browns (1960–1961)Dallas Texans (1962)Kansas City Chiefs (1963–1975)

239

26

Jim Kelly^

Buffalo Bills (1986–1996)

237

27

George Blanda^

Chicago Bears (1949, 1950[b]–1958)Baltimore Colts (1950)Houston Oilers (1960–1966)Oakland Raiders (1967–1975)

236

28

Donovan McNabb

Philadelphia Eagles (1999–2009)Washington Redskins (2010)Minnesota Vikings (2011)

234

29

Steve Young^

Tampa Bay Buccaneers (1985–1986)San Francisco 49ers (1987–1999)

232

30

Matthew Stafford*

Detroit Lions (2009–present)

228

31

Jay Cutler

Denver Broncos (2006–2008)Chicago Bears (2009–2016)Miami Dolphins (2017)

227

32

John Brodie

San Francisco 49ers (1957–1973)

214

33

Terry Bradshaw^

Pittsburgh Steelers (1970–1983)

212

Matt Hasselbeck

Green Bay Packers (1998–2000)Seattle Seahawks (2001–2010)Tennessee Titans (2011–2012)Indianapolis Colts (2013–2015)

Y. A. Tittle^[c]

Baltimore Colts (1950)San Francisco 49ers (1951–1960)New York Giants (1961–1964)

36

Joe Flacco*

Baltimore Ravens (2008–present)

211

37

Jim Hart

St. Louis Cardinals (1966–1983)Washington Redskins (1984)

209

38

Kerry Collins

Carolina Panthers (1995–1998)New Orleans Saints (1998)New York Giants (1999–2003)Oakland Raiders (2004–2005)Tennessee Titans (2006–2010)Indianapolis Colts (2011)

208

Kurt Warner^

St. Louis Rams (1998–2003)New York Giants (2004)Arizona Cardinals (2005–2009)

40

Randall Cunningham

Philadelphia Eagles (1985–1995)Minnesota Vikings (1997–1999)Dallas Cowboys (2000)Baltimore Ravens (2001)

207

41

Jim Everett

Los Angeles Rams (1986–1993)New Orleans Saints (1994–1996)San Diego Chargers (1997)

203

42

Roman Gabriel

Los Angeles Rams (1962–1972)Philadelphia Eagles (1973–1977)

201

text: Notes

text:
Jump up ^ Hadl was traded during the 1974 season; he played six games for the Rams and eight for the Packers.

Jump up ^ Blanda was traded during the 1950 season; he played one game for the Colts and eleven games for the Bears.

Jump up ^ Tittle's 30 touchdown passes in the All-America Football Conference (AAFC) are not including in this total, as the NFL does not recognize statistics accumulated in the AAFC.[1][2][3]

tag: ol

text: Active players with 160–199 touchdowns

text: Through Week 8 of 2018 season.

text:
Alex Smith, 190
Ryan Fitzpatrick, 184
Andy Dalton, 182
Russell Wilson, 174
Cam Newton, 169

tag: ul

text: Most career touchdown passes including playoff games

text: Bold indicates player active.

text:
Peyton Manning, 579
Tom Brady, 575
Brett Favre, 552
Drew Brees, 530
Dan Marino, 452

text: Historical passing touchdowns leaders

text: Fourteen players are recognized as having held outright or tied the record as the NFL's career passing touchdowns leader[4]. The longest record holder was Fran Tarkenton who held the record for 20 years.

text:
Reign
Player
Team(s) while leader
Career passing touchdowns
Season(s)

1921–1922(2 years)
Elmer Oliphant [5]
Buffalo All-Americans
7
1921–1922

1923
Lou Smyth [6]
Canton Bulldogs
8
1923

1924–1928(5 years)
Curly Lambeau^  [7]
Green Bay Packers
14
1924

19
1925

22
1926

23
1927

24
1928

Tied 1928
Red Dunn [8]
Green Bay Packers

1929–1942(14 years)
Benny Friedman^  [9]
New York Giants 1929-1931  Brooklyn Dodgers 1932-1934
40
1929

53
1930

56
1931

61
1932

66
1933–1942

Tied 1940–1942(3 years)
Arnie Herber^  [10]
Green Bay Packers
1940–1942

1943–1961(19 years)
Sammy Baugh^  [11]
Washington Redskins
80
1943

84
1944

95
1945

103
1946

128
1947

150
1948

168
1949

178
1950

185
1951

187
1952–1961

Tied 1961–1962(2 years)
Bobby Layne^  [12]
Pittsburgh Steelers
1961

196
1962

1962–1966(5 years)
Y. A. Tittle^  [13]
New York Giants
1962

232
1963

242
1964–1966

1967–1974(8 years)
Johnny Unitas^  [14]
Baltimore Colts (1967–1972)San Diego Chargers (1973)
252
1967

254
1968

266
1969

280
1970

283
1971

287
1972

290
1973 – 1974

1975–1994(20 years)
Fran Tarkenton^  [15]
Minnesota Vikings
291
1975

308
1976

317
1977

342
1978 – 1994

1995–2006(12 years)
Dan Marino^  [16]
Miami Dolphins
352
1995

369
1996

385
1997

408
1998

420
1999 – 2006

2007–2013(7 years)
Brett Favre^  [17]
Green Bay Packers (2007)New York Jets (2008)Minnesota Vikings (2009–2010)
442
2007

464
2008

497
2009

508
2010 – 2013

Since 2014(5 years)
Peyton Manning  [18]
Denver Broncos
530
2014

539
Since 2015


question_text: who wrote the song i've got dreams to remember

question_tokens: who wrote the song i 've got dreams to remember

text:
Dreams to Remember: The Otis Redding Anthology

Compilation album by Otis Redding

Released
August 18, 1998 (1998-08-18)

Recorded

at Macon, Georgia, Muscle Shoals, Alabama and at Stax Studios, Memphis, Tennessee from 1960 (1960) to November 22, 1967 (1967-11-22).
Tracks 20–24 on disc 2 recorded live at The Monterey International Pop Festival, Monterey, California on June 17, 1967 (1967-06-17)

Genre
R&B/Soul

Label
Rhino

Producer
Gary Stewart, David Gorman, Bill Inglot

text:
Professional ratings

Review scores

Source
Rating

Allmusic
[1]

text: Dreams to Remember: The Otis Redding Anthology is a 1998 compilation album by American soul singer-songwriter Otis Redding. Advertised as a stopgap between the greatest hits album Very Best Of and the boxset Otis! The Definitive Otis Redding,[2] this two-disc album offers most of Redding's greatest hits, a few album tracks and 5 live recordings taken from The Monterey International Pop Festival. In his review for Allmusic, Stephen Thomas Erlewine states that while the music on the album is superb, it tries to be both a best of and a box set and so fails at both.[3]

text: The album sold in excess of 40,000 copies and was voted 147th on the 500 greatest albums of all time by Rolling Stone.[4]

text: Track listing[edit]

text:
Disc 1

No.
Title
Writer(s)
Length

1.
"Shout Bamalama" (performed by Redding, The Pinetoppers)
Otis Redding
1:57

2.
"These Arms of Mine"
Redding
2:33

3.
"That's What My Heart Needs"
Redding
2:40

4.
"Pain in My Heart"
Naomi Neville
2:25

5.
"Come to Me"
Redding, Phil Walden
2:47

6.
"Security"
Redding
2:38

7.
"Chained and Bound"
Redding
2:43

8.
"Mr. Pitiful"
Steve Cropper, Redding
2:40

9.
"That's How Strong My Love Is"
Roosevelt Jamison
2:25

10.
"I've Been Loving You Too Long"
Jerry Butler, Redding
3:15

11.
"Respect"
Redding
2:10

12.
"Ole Man Trouble"
Redding
2:38

13.
"A Change Is Gonna Come"
Sam Cooke
4:16

14.
"(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction"
Mick Jagger, Keith Richards
2:46

15.
"Down in the Valley"
Bert Berns, Joseph C. Martin, Marvin Chivian, Soloman Burke
2:59

16.
"Shake"
Cooke
2:41

17.
"My Girl"
Smokey Robinson, Ronald White
2:56

18.
"You Don't Miss Your Water"
William Bell
2:52

19.
"Cupid"
Cooke
3:10

20.
"I Can't Turn You Loose"
Redding
2:48

21.
"Just One More Day"
Steve Cropper, Redding, Robinson
3:30

22.
"My Lover's Prayer"
Redding
3:11

23.
"Cigarettes and Coffee"
Butler, Thomas, Walker
4:00

24.
"It's Growing"
Warren Moore, Robinson
2:49

25.
"Fa-Fa-Fa-Fa-Fa (Sad Song)"
Cropper, Redding
2:43

26.
"Try a Little Tenderness"
James Campbell, Reginald Connelly, Harry M. Woods
3:47

text:
Disc 2

No.
Title
Writer(s)
Length

1.
"You Left the Water Running"
Oscar Frank, Rick Hall, Dan Penn
2:47

2.
"Trick or Treat"
Isaac Hayes, David Porter
3:13

3.
"Tramp" (performed by Redding, Carla Thomas)
Lowell Fulson, Jimmy McCracklin
3:03

4.
"Lovey Dovey" (performed by Redding, Thomas)
Ahmet Ertegün, Memphis Edward Curtis
2:36

5.
"Let Me Come on Home"
Al Jackson Jr., Redding, Booker T. Jones
2:55

6.
"I Love You More Than Words Can Say"
Eddie Floyd, Jones
2:55

7.
"Merry Christmas, Baby"
Lou Baxter, Johnny Moore
2:29

8.
"The Glory of Love"
William Hill
2:50

9.
"Tell the Truth"
Lowman Pauling
3:13

10.
"I've Got Dreams to Remember"
Zelma Redding, Otis Redding, Joe Rock
3:15

11.
"The Happy Song (Dum-Dum)"
Cropper, Redding
2:45

12.
"Hard to Handle"
Allen Jones, Alvertis Isbell, Redding
2:20

13.
"Amen"
Traditional
3:06

14.
"Direct Me"
Cropper, Redding
2:19

15.
"Love Man"
Redding
2:18

16.
"Look at That Girl"
Edward Morris, Sandy Stewart
2:38

17.
"I'm a Changed Man"
Cropper, Redding
2:22

18.
"The Match Game"
Porter, Redding
2:53

19.
"(Sittin' On) The Dock of the Bay"
Cropper, Redding
2:49

20.
"Shake [live]"
Cooke
2:57

21.
"Respect [live]"
Redding
3:00

22.
"I've Been Loving You Too Long [live]"
Butler, Redding
4:08

23.
"(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction [live]"
Jagger, Richards
3:33

24.
"Try a Little Tenderness [Live]"
Campbell, Connelly, Woods
5:13

text: Personnel[edit]

text:
Otis Redding – vocals, guitar
Carla Thomas – vocals
Booker T. Jones – guitar, piano, electronic organ
Steve Cropper – guitar, piano, bass
Johnny Jenkins – guitar
Charles "Packy" Axton – tenor saxophone
Andrew Love – tenor saxophone
Joe Arnold – tenor saxophone
Gilbert Caples – tenor saxophone
Gene Parker – tenor saxophone
Tommie Lee Williams – tenor saxophone
Floyd Newman – baritone saxophone
Wayne Jackson – trumpet
Sammie Coleman – trumpet
Gene "Bowlegs" Miller – trumpet
Ben Cauley – trumpet
Isaac Hayes – piano, organ
Lewis Steinberg – bass
Donald "Duck" Dunn – bass
Wayne Cochran – bass
Al Jackson, Jr. – drums
Rick Hall – drums
Phil Walden – tambourine
William Bell
David Porter – background vocals
The Pinetoppers


document_title: History of Ireland (800–1169)

question_text: where did the vikings first land in ireland

question_tokens: where did the vikings first land in ireland

text: History of Ireland (800–1169)

text: Historiography[edit]

text: Due to the rich amount of written sources, the study of Irish history 800–1169 has, to a large extent, focused on gathering, interpretation and textual criticism of these. Only recently have other sources of historical knowledge received more attention, particularly archaeology. Since the modern excavations of Dublin started in 1961, followed by similar efforts in Wexford, Waterford and Limerick, great advances have been made in the understanding of the physical character of the towns established during this period.[1]

text: The first part of the period from 800 to 1014 is well-studied; the "Viking age" has attracted the interest of historians for quite some time. The period between 1014 and 1169 has received less attention. In the words of Sean Duffy, this period

text: has – historiographically speaking – fallen between two stools. Historians of early medieval Ireland, seeking to conclude their narratives on a high note, have traditionally done so after recounting the death of the famous high-king Brian Bórama (Boru) at the battle of Clontarf in 1014. On the other hand, historians of later medieval Ireland generally choose to begin proceedings with the English invasion of the 1160s. Eleventh- and early twelfth-century Ireland has, therefore, often assumed the character of a snappy epilogue or a lengthy prologue.[2][note 1]

text: In trying to interpret the history of early Ireland, one of the most frequently asked questions addressed by historians is how early it is possible to speak of an Irish nation, a natio encompassing the whole island of Ireland. Early poet-historians like Flann Mainistrech constructed a history of a monarchy of all Ireland going back to and beyond St Patrick. Only a hundred years after Mainistrech, Gerald of Wales described the Irish society in his Topographia Hibernica as utterly primitive and savage. At the beginning of modern scholarly interpretation of Irish history, Eoin MacNeill and G.H. Orpen came to opposite conclusions analyzing the same period. Orpen saw an anarchic country still in ‘a tribal state’; he could see no natio, no wider community in Ireland than the tribe. MacNeill stressed the reality of the high-kingship of Ireland and the existence of many of those institutions of government which Orpen found wanting, and claimed that Irish law had a national character.[3]

text: Nature of the written sources[edit]

text: A large body of contemporary and near-contemporary material on early medieval Ireland has survived. From the titles of works mentioned in these sources, it is clear that a great deal of additional material has now been lost. The surviving materials usually exist in the form of much later copies, and it is only from comparison of the various texts that the original documents can be reconstructed.[4]

text: Extant Irish annals are ultimately derived from the now-lost Chronicle of Ireland which was probably being compiled in the midlands of Ireland by around 800. All include material derived from other sources, or added at a later date. The Annals of Ulster and the Annals of Innisfallen cover most of this period, but have a gap between 1132 and 1155. The Annals of Clonmacnoise survive only in an eccentric 17th-century English translation, and the Annals of Tigernach for this period are lost with Dubhaltach Mac Fhirbhisigh's abbreviated copy known as the Chronicon Scotorum supplying only part of the missing material. The Annals of the Four Masters are late, and include some material of doubtful origin. While the annals provide a considerable amount of information, they are generally terse, and most focus their attention on the doings of the Uí Néill and of churchmen.[5]

text: In addition to the annals, a large number of genealogies survive, along with geographical and legal texts, poetry, sagas and hagiography.

text: In the 12th century, propaganda text like Caithréim Chellacháin Chaisil and Cogad Gáedel re Gallaib were composed. Even though the historical accuracy of these accounts is dubious, the Cogad especially has had a great impact on the interpretation of Irish medieval history until recently.[6]

text: Political landscape c. 800[edit]

text: At the end of the 8th century, Ireland was homogeneously Gaelic in terms of society, culture and language. People lived in rural communities, and the only larger settlements were monastic towns of varying sizes. The monasteries played an important part in society, not just with regards to religious and cultural life, but also to economy and politics. Christianization had begun in the 5th century, and by the early 9th century the island was almost entirely Christian. However, the Martyrology of Tallaght (written sometime in the 8th or 9th century) hints that paganism had not yet been fully uprooted.

text: Eoin MacNeill identified the "oldest certain fact in the political history of Ireland" as the existence in late prehistory of a pentarchy, probably consisting of the cóiceda or "fifths" of the Ulaid (Ulster), the Connachta (Connacht), the Laigin (Leinster), Mumu (Munster) and Mide (Meath), although some accounts discount Mide and split Mumu in two.[7] This is not an accurate description of the political landscape c. 800,[8][note 2] but when discussing the political subdivisions of Ireland at this time, it is still useful to refer to this system; if Laigin and Mide are combined as Leinster, it roughly corresponds with the modern four provinces of Ireland.

text: The Uí Néill, divided in two main branches known as "Northern Uí Néill" and "Southern Uí Néill", was the leading dynasty in Ireland.[9][note 3] The Northern Uí Néill controlled the north-western part of Ireland, and was divided into two leading branches, the Cenél Conaill in the west and Cenél nEógain, also known as the kingdom of Ailech. Cenél nEógain had become the more powerful of the two in 789,[9] and had expanded east and southwards, gaining control over the important monastic centre Armagh and the large sub-kingdom of Airgíalla. The traditional kingdom of Ulaid, dominated by Dál Fiatach and Dál nAraidi, was now more or less confined to the area east of the river Bann.

text: The central region of Mide had been dominated by what became known as the "southern Uí Néill" since the 7th century. Until the 8th century, the Síl nÁedo Sláine (also known as the kingdom of Brega) was pre-eminent, but from 728 the western dynasty of Clann Cholmáin was dominant.

text: In Laigin, Uí Dúnlainge was the dominant dynasty c. 800. They were closely associated with the large monastery of Kildare. Their main rival for dominance in Leinster, the Uí Cheinnselaig had not been able to claim the title king of Leinster since 728. The Uí Cheinnselaig now controlled a territory in the south-eastern part of Leinster, and had close links to the monastery of Ferns.

text: The kingdom of Osraige, occupying roughly the same area as the present County Kilkenny and western County Laois, was considered part of Munster until the late ninth century, when it received an independent status under king Cerball mac Dúnlainge. Munster was dominated by the Eóganachta, centred around Cashel and with Emly as ecclesiastical centre. The Dál gCais (not yet known under this name) had defeated the Corcu Modruad in 744 and taken control over the area in present County Clare from which they would later rise to dominance, but were not yet a significant power in Munster. The Eóganachta rivalled the Uí Néill in power and influence, and claimed suzerainty over the southern part of Ireland. This claim was in part anchored within the legendary ancient division of the island in Leath Cuinn and Leath Moga, "Conn's half" (north) and "Mug's half" (south).

text: During the 7th century the Uí Briúin had emerged in Connacht, and since the first half of the 8th century been the dominant dynasty. Uí Briúin also influenced the kingdom of Breifne on the southern borders of the Northern Uí Néill.

text: First Viking age (795–902)[edit]

text: Early Viking raids[edit]

text: The early Vikings were a group of people who originated in modern-day Denmark and Norway. In the 700s, pressure on land in Scandinavia had forced many nobles and warriors to seek land elsewhere. Some of these were younger sons, who stood to inherit nothing of their father's estate. Noblemen with little to lose began to gather together groups of warriors and go down the coast pillaging settlements.

text:
“
The wind is fierce tonight
it tosses the sea's white mane
I do not fear the coursing of a quiet sea
by the fierce warriors of Lothlend
”

— Anonymous poem Is acher in gaíth in-nocht...

text: The first recorded Viking raid in Irish history occurred in AD 795 when Vikings, possibly from Norway[10] looted the island of Lambay.[note 4] This was followed by a raid on the coast of Brega in 798, and raids on the coast of Connacht in 807.[11] These early Viking raids were generally small in scale and quick.

text: These early raids interrupted the golden age of Christian Irish culture and marked the beginning of two hundred years of intermittent warfare, with waves of Viking raiders plundering monasteries and towns throughout Ireland. Most of the early raiders came from the fjords of western Norway. They are believed to have sailed first to Shetland, then south to Orkney. The Vikings would have then sailed down the Atlantic coast of Scotland, and then over to Ireland.[10] During these early raids the Vikings also travelled to the west coast of Ireland to the Skellig Islands located off the coast of County Kerry. The early raids on Ireland seem to have been aristocratic free enterprise, and named leaders appear in the Irish annals: Saxolb (Soxulfr) in 837, Turges (Þurgestr) in 845, Agonn (Hákon) in 847.[12]

text: Áed Oirdnide[edit]

text: Áed Oirdnide of the Cenél nEógain branch of the Northern Uí Néill became King of Tara in 797, after the death of his predecessor, father-in-law and political rival Donnchad Midi. (Duncan) This followed the classic Uí Néill political arrangement, where over-kingship alternated regularly between Cenél nEógain and Clann Cholmáin of the Southern Uí Néill. During his reign he campaigned in Mide, Leinster and Ulaid to assert his authority, though unlike Donnchad (Duncan) he did not campaign in Munster.

text: Thomas Charles-Edwards credits Áed for "the absence of any major Viking attacks on Ireland during his reign after 798".[13] The annals gives no reference, however, to Áed at any time being involved with warfare against Viking raiders.

text: Áed was connected to the monastic community at Armagh, and a supporter of the familia of Patrick. His rivals for supremacy within Uí Néill, the Clann Cholmáin and the Cenél Conaill, had on the other hand supported the familia of Columba. During Áed's reign the Columban familia, following several Viking raids against Iona, established a new monastery at Kells, a royal site in the possession of Armagh. Byrne states that "...the foundation [of Kells] marked the resolution of any remaining rivalry between the Columban and Patrician churches...".[14] That the community of Columba in 817 tried to have Áed excommunicated may show that not all rivalry was resolved after all.[15]

text: Rivalry between north and south[edit]

text:
“
Is he Feidhlimidh in ri
dianid opair oenlaithi
eitrige Connacht cen cath
ocus Midhe do manrath
(Feidlimid is the king
For whom a single day's work is
To take the hostages of Connacht without battle
And to spoil Mide.)

”

— Annals of Ulster, 840.4

text: Fedelmid mac Crimthainn from the Eóganacht Chaisil acceded to the kingship of Munster in 820, beginning a 130-year domination by this branch of Eóganachta.[16] Combining military campaigns with manipulation of ecclesiastical affairs, he embarked on a policy of aggressive expansion to counter the growth in power of the Uí Néill. Conchobar mac Donnchada (Duncan) succeeded Áed Oirdnide as Uí Néill overking in 819, and soon found himself challenged by Feidlimid, both by Feidlimid launching raids into Mide and Connacht and by him interfering (as would be the Uí Néill view) in the affairs of Armagh. Conchobar and Feidlimid met at Birr in 827 to discuss peace terms, and the very fact that "the king of Munster could force the high-king to a peace conference is indicative of Feidlimid's growing power".[16]

text: Conchobar was succeeded by Niall Caille in 833. With Niall, we for the first time see a reference in the annals of a Uí Néill leading an army against the Vikings; he defeated Viking raiders in Derry the same year.[17] He sought to further expand Uí Néill influence in the south; in 835 he led an army to Leinster and installed Bran mac Fáeláin as king of Leinster, and also invaded Mide.[18] This brought him into conflict with Feidlimid, however, and in 838 a conference (rígdál mór—"great royal meeting") between Niall and Feidlimid was held.[note 5] This meeting did not result in any lasting peace though; in 840 Feidlimid led an army into Mide and encamped at Tara, thereby challenging the Uí Néill also in the north. In 841, however, Feidlimid was routed in battle by Niall in Leinster. His successors in the south would not be able to challenge the north again to this extent until some 150 years later.

text: Intensified raiding and the first Viking settlements in Ireland[edit]

text: The Viking raids on Ireland resumed in 821, and intensified during the following decades. The Vikings were beginning to establish fortified encampments, longports, along the Irish coast and overwintering in Ireland instead of retreating to Scandinavia or British bases. The first known longports were at Linn Dúachaill (Annagassan) and Duiblinn (on the River Liffey, at or near present Dublin).[19][note 6] They were also moving further inland to attack, often using rivers such as the Shannon, and then retreating to their coastal bases. The raiding parties also increased in size, becoming regular armies—in 837 the annals report a fleet of sixty longships on the Liffey, carrying 1.500 men.[20]

text: One of the first named Viking leaders was Thorgest (in Latin Turgesius). The Annals of the Four Masters connect him with attacks on Connacht, Mide and the church at Clonmacnoise in 844.[21] He was captured and drowned in Lough Owel by Máel Sechnaill mac Maíl Ruanaid, King of Mide.[22]

text: In 848 a Norse army was defeated at Sciath Nechtain by Ólchobar mac Cináeda of Munster and Lorcán mac Cellaig of Leinster. For the first time the leader of the Vikings is described as royalty from Lochlann.[23] Máel Sechnaill, now High King, defeated another army at Forrach the same year.[24] These victories form the background of an embassy sent to the Frankish emperor Charles the Bald, reported in the Annales Bertiniani.[25]

text: In 853 Olaf, identified as a "son of the king of Lochlann",[26] came to Ireland. Lochlann has been understood as (a district of) present Norway; it is now considered more plausible that it refers to a Scandinavian colony in the Western Isles of Scotland.[27][note 7] Olaf assumed leadership of the Vikings in Ireland, probably in some way shared with his kinsman Ivar, first mentioned in the Irish Annals in 857. Olaf and Ivar remained active in Ireland and around the Irish Sea for the next two decades. The descendants of Ivar, the Uí Ímair, would be an important political factor for the next two centuries.

text: Shifting alliances and struggle for power[edit]

text: A significant new trait from the middle of the 9th century was that the Norse now also entered alliances with various Irish rulers. Cerball mac Dúnlainge had become king of Osraige in 842. Cerball had defeated Viking raiders in 846 and 847, but from 858 he is allied with Olaf and Ivar against Máel Sechnaill, campaigning in Leinster and Munster, and in 859 also raiding Máel Sechnaill's heartlands in Mide, though Cerball had to submit to Máel Sechnaill later the same year. These alliances were by no means permanent. In 860 Cerball was allied with Máel Sechnaill in a campaign against Áed Findliath of the Northern Uí Néill, while Olaf and Ivar has allied themselves with Áed. In 870, however, Cerball and Áed appeared as allies in Leinster.

text: Máel Sechnaill had more success as high king than his predecessors Niall Caille and Conchobar Donnchada (Duncan) in dealing with the south, and forced Munster into submission in 858 and as noted above, Osraige in 859. He also asserted control over Ulaid, Leinster and Connacht, and was in his obituary in the Annals of Ulster described as ri h-Erenn uile, king of all Ireland. The last years of his reign he had however experienced serious opposition from his Uí Néill kinsmen of Ailech and Brega, allied with the Norse of Dublin. Byrne notes: "Máel Sechnaill's unprecedented success in achieving the high-kingship of all Ireland was marred by the chronic complaint of Irish politics: having united the Ulaid, Munster, Osraige, Connacht and Leinster, he was attacked at the end of his reign by a combination of Uí Néill kings."[28]

text: Áed Findliath was king of Ailech and the leading king within the Northern Uí Néill. After the death of Máel Sechnaill he is counted in the regal lists as high king, following the established scheme where this alternated between Cenél nEógain in the north and Clann Cholmáin of Mide. His kingship was disputed though, and he did not come close to being an actual king over Ireland. He could count some successes against the Norse, however, most notably burning all the Norse longports in the north in 866.[29] Áed seems to have used the opportunity while Olaf was involved in warfare in Pictland, presumably bringing a large contingent of the Norse forces in Ireland with him. The Vikings never managed to establish permanent settlements in the north. Ó Corráin observes: "Ironically, [Áed Findliath's] success may have held back the economic development of the north and ultimately prevented the growth of port towns like those on the east and south coasts, on which the Leinster and Munster kings subsequently depended for much of their wealth."[30]

text: The last report of Olaf is when he and Ivar returned to Dublin in 871 from Alba.[31] Ivar died in 873. In his obituary, the Annals of Ulster call Ivar "king of the Norsemen of all Ireland and Britain".[32] With their disappearance, there were frequent changes of leadership among the Norse in Ireland and a great deal of internecine conflict is reported for the following decades.[33] In 902 Máel Finnia mac Flannacain of Brega and Cerball mac Muirecáin of Leinster joined forces against Dublin, and "The heathens were driven from Ireland, i.e. from the fortress of Áth Cliath [Dublin]".[note 8]

text: A group of Vikings led by Hingamund who were forced out of Ireland were given permission by the Saxons to settle in Wirral, in the north west of England. "The Three Fragments" refers to a distinct group of settlers living among these Vikings as "Irishmen": "Then the King, who was on the point of death, and the Queen sent messengers to the Irishmen who were among the pagans, for there were many Irish among the pagans, to say to the Irishmen, life and health to you from the King of the Saxons, who is in disease, and from his Queen, who has all authority over the Saxons, and they are certain that you are true and trusty friends to them. Therefore you should take their side; for they did not bestow any greater honour to a Saxon warror or cleric than to each warrior and cleric who came to them from Ireland, because this inimical race of pagans is equally hostile to you also." Further evidence of an Irish presence in Wirral comes from the name of the village of Irby in Wirral, which means "farmstead of the Irishmen", and St Bridget's Church, West Kirby which is known to have been founded by "Christian Vikings from Ireland".[34][35]

text: Impact on cultural activity and formation of Irish scholarly diaspora[edit]

text: Historians debate the consequences that the initial phases of Viking settlement had on scholarship and literary output.[36] Scholarly activity, for which the Irish are famous in the early Medieval period, consisted of the writing of poetry, the production of Christian devotional texts, the development of the science of computus, and the compilation of elaborate law tracts.[37] Patronage for scholars and scholarship came largely from Irish kings who regarded the presence of court scholars as part and parcel of the trappings of kingship, but also as a means of bolstering their own image through praise poetry that such scholars composed and performed. With the advent of the Vikings, patronage ties have been argued to have been loosened, thereby affecting directly the livelihood of Irish scholars. In addition, some kings would have turned their attention to more pressing (but also more profitable) pursuits, such as engaging in warfare or alliances with Vikings or other Irish kings, as well as tapping the economic benefits that Viking trade would have brought. While this was happening in Ireland, we observe a more pronounced presence of Irish scholars in Frankish Europe, and especially in circles associated with the Carolingian court. Commonly known as peregrini, Irish scholars such as John Scottus Eriugena and Sedulius Scottus became among the most prominent and influential in ninth-century continental Europe, studying and teaching a range of subjects, from theology to political philosophy. It is tempting to link their presence on the Continent as well as the presence of scores of other Irish learned people with the impact of the Vikings on Ireland, which may have driven such people to seek employment elsewhere. If one accepts this version of events, then the Vikings can be said to have inadvertently been one of the principal catalysts for the spread of Irish culture abroad and the subsequent foundation of Irish centres on the Continent which remained influential for centuries to come.[38]

text: Second Viking age (914–980)[edit]

text:
[show]

v
t
e

Viking wars in Ireland

Strangford Loch (877)
Cenn Fuait (915)
Mag Femen (917)
Áth Cliath (919)
Sulcoit (968)
Luimnech (968)
Cathair Cuan (977)
Tara (980)
Glenmama (999)
Clontarf (1014)

text: After having been forced to leave Dublin in 902, the descendants of Ivar, now described generically in the annals as the Uí Ímair,[note 9] remained active around the Irish sea; reports tell of their activities in Pictland, Strathclyde, Northumbria and Man. In 914 a new Viking fleet appeared in Waterford Harbour, and soon the Uí Ímair followed, again taking control over Viking activities in Ireland. Ragnall arrived with a fleet in Waterford, while Sitric landed at Cenn Fuait (possibly near Leixlip) in Leinster. Niall Glúndub had followed Flann Sinna as Uí Néill overking in 916, and he marched into Munster against Ragnall, but no decisive engagement followed. The men of Leinster under Augaire mac Ailella attacked Sithric but suffered a heavy defeat in the Battle of Confey or Cenn Fuait (917). This victory allowed Sithric to re-establish Norse control over Dublin. Ragnall left Ireland again in 918, and became king of York.[note 10] With Sithric in Dublin and Ragnall in York, a Dublin-York axis developed which would have influence on both England and Ireland for the next half-century.[39]

text: A new and more intensive period of Viking settlement in Ireland began in 914. Between 914 and 922 the Norse established Waterford, Cork, Dublin, Wexford and Limerick.[note 11] Significant excavations in Dublin and Waterford in the 20th century have unearthed much of the Viking heritage of those cities. A large amount of Viking burial stones, called the Rathdown Slabs, have been found in multiple locations across South Dublin.[40]

text: The Vikings founded many other coastal towns, and after several generations of coexistence and intermarriage a group of mixed Irish and Norse ethnic background arose (often called Norse-Gaels or Hiberno-Norse). Norse influence shows in the Norse-derived names of many contemporary Irish kings (e.g. Magnus, Lochlann or Sitric), and in DNA evidence in some residents of these coastal cities to this day. A genetics paper in 2006 by Dr Brian McEvoy found that most men with Irish-Viking surnames carried typically Irish genes. This suggests that Viking settlements may have had a Scandinavian elite but with most of the inhabitants being indigenous Irish.[41]

text: Niall Glúndub marched on Dublin in September 919, but Sihtric met his forces at the battle of Islandbridge or Áth Cliath and inflicted on him a decisive defeat, with Niall and numerous other Irish leaders among the casualties. Dublin was secured for the Norse, and in 920 Sitric left for York and following Ragnall's death succeeded him as ruler there in 921. Their kinsman Gofraid assumed control of Dublin. Gofraid was active as a Viking raider and slaver, but there were signs during his reign that the Norse were not just mere Vikings any more. During a raid at Armagh in 921 Gofraid "...spared the prayerhouses... ...and the sick from destruction",[42] considerations never taken by the raiders of the previous century. Another was the intense campaigns led by Dublin in eastern Ulster from 921 to 927, which appear to have aimed at conquest in order to create a Scandinavian kingdom like the one on the eastern side of the Irish sea.[43]

text: Dublin's ambitions in Ulster were halted by a series of defeats inflicted upon the Norse by Muirchertach mac Néill, the son of Niall Glúndub. According to Benjamin Hudson, "Muirchertach was one of the most successful generals of his day and was described as the ‘Hector of the Irish’".[44] In the annals, it is (Duncan) Donnchad Donn from Clann Cholmáin who is titled "high king" after Niall however, and Muirchertach did not succeed his father as king of Ailech either until 938. Apart from his victories over the Norse, Muirchertach led campaigns forcing other provincial kingdoms into submission, most notably taking the king of Munster Cellachán Caisil captive in 941. The same year he led a fleet to the Hebrides, collecting tribute there.[44][note 12]

text: When Sihtric died in 927 Gofraid left for York, trying to assume kingship there. He was driven out by Athelstan, and returned to Dublin half a year later. The Vikings of Limerick had taken Dublin in his absence. Gofraid retook the city, but the struggle between Limerick continued well after Gofraid's death in 934. He was succeeded by his son, Amlaíb, who inflicted a decisive defeat on Limerick in 937. The same year Amlaíb went to Northumbria and allied himself with Constantine II of Scotland and Owen I of Strathclyde. Athelstan defeated this coalition at Brunanburh (937), but after Athelstan's death in 939 Amlaíb became king of York. He was joined by a kinsman with the same name, Amlaíb son of Sihtric, known as Amlaíb Cuarán.

text: Congalach mac Máel Mithig, known as Cnogba, succeeded (Duncan) Donnchad Donn as Uí Néill overking in 944 (Muirchertag, who otherwise might have been the obvious successor, had been killed in 943). Congalach was king of Brega and a member of Síl nÁedo Sláine, and the first of this dynasty called "High King" since Cináed mac Írgalaig in the early 8th century. In 944 he sacked Dublin, now ruled by Blácaire mac Gofrith. When Amlaíb Cuaran returned to Ireland the next year, he became ruler of Dublin and acted as an ally of Congalach in the struggle against Ruaidrí ua Canannáin, a rival Uí Néill claimant for High Kingship from Cenél Conaill. This alliance did not last long after Ruaidrí's death in 950, however, and Congalach was killed in 956 in a battle against an alliance of Dublin and Leinster. He was succeeded by Domnall ua Néill, and in the following decades alliances shifted constantly between the different branches of Uí Néill, Leinster and Dublin.

text: In 980 Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill succeeded Domnall, and the same year he defeated the forces of Dublin at the battle of Tara. Following this victory Máel Sechnaill forced Dublin into submission, and his half-brother, Amlaíbs son Glúniairn, became ruler in Dublin.

text: Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill and Brian Boru (980–1022)[edit]

text: In Munster, the influence of the Dal gCais had grown under Cennétig mac Lorcáin, and his son Mathgamain was the first non-Eóganachta ruler to be named by the annals as king of Cashel (i.e. king of Munster) in historical times.[45] He was killed in 976, and succeeded by his brother Brian, later famously known as Brian Boru.

text: Brian quickly established himself as the most powerful ruler in Munster, defeating the Norse of Limerick in 977 and the Eóganachta the following year. Having gained control over Munster, he tried to extend his authority by raiding Osraige in 982 and 983, and also, according to the annals of Innisfallen, entering an alliance with the Norse of Waterford, with the intention of attacking Dublin.[45] There was such an attack, but Brian does not seem to have been involved – instead it was Domnall Claen of Leinster who was allied with Ivar of Waterford, and they were defeated by Glúniairn and Máel Sechnaill.

text: Máel Sechnaill obviously perceived Brian as a threat, and as early as 982 raided Munster and the territory of the Dal gCais. The next two decades saw more or less constant warfare between them, mostly with Leinster as their battleground. Even if Brian never defeated Máel Sechnaill in battle, Brian's and Munster's influence was growing at the expense of Máel Sechnaill and the Southern Uí Néill. In 997 Máel Sechnaill was forced to acknowledge Brian's authority over the south of Ireland, and they formally divided Ireland according to the traditional scheme of Leath Cuinn and Leath Moga. In the years that followed, the two of them acted as allies in accordance with this agreement. In 999 Brian quelled a revolt against him by the men of Leinster and Dublin at the battle of Glen Mama, and only restored Sigtrygg Silkbeard as ruler of Dublin after he had formally submitted to Brian by handing over hostages.[45]

text: In 1000, Brian turned against Máel Sechnaill, and by 1002 he had forced Máel Sechnaill to submit to him, and now claimed kingship over the whole of Ireland. In the following decade, there were several campaigns in the north to force the Ulaid and the Northern Uí Néill into submission as well. Even if faced with multiple rebellions, both in the north and in Leinster, by 1011 he had received submission from every major regional king in Ireland, and thus earned the recognition by historians as the first real king of Ireland.[46] During his visit to Armagh in 1005, he had his secretary add a note to the Book of Armagh where he is proclaimed as Imperator Scottorum (emperor of the Irish). According to Bart Jaski, "This can be regarded as a claim that he ruled both the Irish and the Norse in Ireland, and may even imply suzerainty over the Gaels of Scotland".[46] In his obituary in the Annals of Ulster he is styled as "over-king of the Irish of Ireland, and of the foreigners and of the Britons, the Augustus of the whole of north-west Europe".[47]

text: In 1012, Flaithbertach Ua Néill revolted against Brian, and the following year Máel Mórda of Leinster and Sigtrygg of Dublin did too. The latter led to the famous battle of Clontarf, where Brian was killed, even if his army was victorious over Máel Mórda, Sigtrygg and their allies. Sigurd Hlodvirsson, Earl of Orkney as well as forces from Man participated on the Dublin/ Leinster side, and this may, in conjunction with the propagandistic account of the battle given in the Cogad, have created the still popular myth that what took place at Clontarf Good Friday 1014 was a decisive battle where the Irish defeated Viking invaders and were liberated from oppression (Duncan) Donnchadh Ó Corráin was one of the first to publicly debunk this national myth, in his groundbreaking Ireland before the Normans from 1972:

text: The battle of Clontarf was not a struggle between the Irish and the Norse for the sovereignty of Ireland; neither was it a great national victory which broke the power of the Norse forever (long before Clontarf the Norse had become a minor political force in Irish affairs). In fact Clontarf was part of the internal struggle for sovereignty and was essentially the revolt of the Leinstermen against the dominance of Brian, a revolt in which their Norse allies played an important but secondary role.

text: Following Brian's death, Máel Sechnaill resumed as High King, supported by Flaithbertach ua Néill.[note 14] In Munster, internal strife almost immediately began between Brian's sons Donnchad and Tadc, and Dúngal Ua Donnchada of Eóganachta also claimed the kingship of the province. Though Donnchad (Duncan) eventually was victorious, the descendants of Brian would not be able to make a real claim to kingship over Ireland again until Toirdelbach Ua Briain. In Leinster, the defeat at Clontarf and death of Máel Mórda seriously weakened the Uí Dúnlainge, and opened the way for a new Uí Cheinnselaig dominance in the region. Despite the defeat at Clontarf, Sigtrygg remained ruler of Dublin until 1036.

text: High kings with opposition (1022 onwards)[edit]

text:
“
Conchobur clannmin, fo-chen!
Áed, Gairbith, Diarmait durgen,
Donnchad, dá Níall cen snim snéid
rig na ré sea co roreid.
(Smooth-haired Conchobar, welcome!
Áed, Garbith, hardy Diarmait,
Donnchad, two Nialls without swift sorrow,
are evidently the kings of this era.)

”

— From Rédig dam, a Dé do nim, poem by Flann Mainistrech from 1056[48]

text: (Duncan) Donnchad mac Brian styled himself as 'King of Ireland' after the death of Máel Sechnaill, but failed to gain recognition as such. A glossing of Baile In Scáil lists Flaitbertach Ua Néill as high king, but he proved unable even to control the north of Ireland.[49] Neither was anyone else able to make a recognised claim for kingship over all of Ireland: according to Byrne, "what distinguished the great interregnum of 1022–72 from other periods in Irish history is that it was recognised as such by contemporary observers".[50]

text: Flann Mainistrech had written Ríg Themra tóebaige iar tain, a regnal poem on the Christian (Uí Néill) kings of Tara some time between 1014 and 1022. When he wrote in 1056 he evidently did not know any high king of Ireland, and instead lists a number of kings of the day: (Duncan) Conchobar, Áed, Garbith, Diarmait, Donnchad (Duncan) and two Nialls. According to Byrne, these are Conchobar Ua Maíl Schechnaill of Mide, Áed Ua Conchobair of Connacht, Garbíth Ua Cathassaig of Brega, Diarmait mac Maíl na mBó of Leinster, Donnchad (Duncan) Mac Briain of Munster, Niall mac Máel Sechnaill of Ailech and Niall mac Eochada of Ulaid.[48]

text: The term rí Érenn co fressarba ("High kings with opposition") was used from the 12th century. According to Byrne, "it could be argued that the 'high kings with opposition' met with opposition precisely because they tried to become kings of Ireland in a real sense. They were not less successful than their predecessors, but only seemed so in the light of the teaching of the schools".[51] Following a similar line of reasoning, Byrne suggests that the focus from historians on the decline of the Uí Néill in the 11th century may be a "tribute to the success of their own propaganda".[52] After Brian, the previous Uí Néill monopoly of high kingship as described in poems and chronicles was anyway broken for good. The Cenél nEógain suffered from internal factions, and this allowed the Ulaid, under Niall mac Eochada, to expand their influence. Niall and Diarmait mac Maíl na mBó became allies, and effectively controlled the whole east coast of Ireland. This alliance helped to make it possible for Diarmait to take direct control of Dublin in 1052. Unlike Máel Sechnaill in 980 or Brian in 999, he wasn't content with just looting the city and expelling the Hiberno-Norse ruler (Echmarcach mac Ragnaill); in an unprecedented move he assumed the kingship "of the foreigners" (ríge Gall) himself.[53]

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text: Reform of the Irish Church[edit]

text: There were major reforms in the Irish church during the 12th century. These reforms have been generally been interpreted as a reaction to previous secularisation, but could also be seen as a continuous development.[54] The reforms had consequences for, and were influenced by, relations within the church as well as secular politics.

text: Before the 11th century the church in Ireland was monastic, with bishops residing at monasteries and without a permanent diocesan structure. The circumstances surrounding the foundation of the diocese of Dublin early in the century are obscure, but at some point during the reign of Sithric Silkbeard Dúnán became Bishop of Dublin, thus establishing the first proper diocese in Ireland. His successor Gilla Pátraic was consecrated by Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury, and on that occasion Lanfranc sent letters to Toirdelbach Ua Briain and Gofraid urging reforms, in particular regarding the consecration of bishops and the abolition of simony. There is no evidence of Canterbury claiming primacy over the church in Ireland prior to this, and neither Lanfranc nor Anselm ever made direct primatial claims for Canterbury in relation to the Irish church.[55]

text: Toirdelbach appears to have responded favourably to this, and convened a synod in Dublin in 1080[56] – the outcome of this synod is not known. Toirdelbach may have seen cooperation with Canterbury as a way to reduce the influence from Armagh, traditionally dominated by Cenél nEógain, within the church in Ireland. Gilla Pátraic's successors Donngus Ua hAingliu and Samuel Ua hÁingliu were also consecrated in Canterbury, and so was the first bishop of Waterford, Máel Ísu Ua hAinmire in 1096. The written request for Máel Ísu's consecration, as preserved in Eadmer's Historia Novorum, is subscribed by bishops from Munster, Mide, Dublin and Leinster.[57] Gilla Espaic, the first bishop of Limerick, was however not consecrated in Canterbury, but probably by Cellach of Armagh.[note 15]

text: The first of the four main synods associated with the church reforms of the 12th century took place in Cashel in 1101, at the instigation of Muirchertach Ua Briain. How many who actually attended this synod is not known, but some of its decrees have been preserved. There is a decree on simony, on prohibition for laymen to become airchinnig (heads of ecclesiastical establishments) and finally a decree that defines what relationships are considered to be incestuous. None of these decrees are radical, but they are generally interpreted to be in line with the Gregorian reform.[58]

text: The second synod was the Synod of Rathbreasail. This synod, presided by Gilla Espaic[59] as papal legate and attended by fifty bishops, three hundred priests and over three thousand laymen, marked the transition of the Irish church from a monastic to a diocesan and parish-based church. It established two provinces, with archbishoprics at Armagh and Cashel, and prominence given to Armagh, making Cellach the primate of the church in Ireland. Each province consisted of twelve territorial dioceses. The see of Dublin was not included, as this was under primacy from Canterbury,[note 16] but a place was left open for it, in the sense that only eleven dioceses were declared under Cashel.

text: Gilla, Cellach and Cellach's successor Máel Máedóc Ua Morgair, better known as St. Malachy, drove the reform process onwards. Malachy, in close cooperation with (Duncan) Donnchad Ua Cerbaill, king of Fernmag/Airgialla, established the first Irish Cistercian house at Mellifont in 1142, and also facilitated the first Augustinian community of the Arrouaisian observance. Malachy used these as agencies of monastic reform within the Irish church.[60] Malachy resigned as archbishop of Armagh in 1136, but was appointed native papal legate to Ireland by Innocent II in 1139.

text: No formal attempts on getting papal approval for the structure chosen at Rathbreasail are known before Malachy sought pallia for the two incumbent archbishops at Cashel and Armagh during his trip to the Continent in 1139/40. This first bid was unsuccessful, but Malachy was told to reapply after he had gained the agreement of all Ireland.[61] Before undertaking his second trip to the Continent in 1148, Malachy convened a synod at St Patrick's Island. The main challenge must have been to reach an accommodation with Dublin, and Tairrdelbach Ua Conchobair, presently the most powerful king in Ireland, was eager to increase Connacht influence on the church. The solution reached was to extend the number of metropolitan sees from two to four, with Tuam and Dublin included alongside Cashel and Armagh. Malachy died on his way to meet the pope, but the message was transmitted by other means and papal approval was granted. Pope Eugene III appointed cardinal John Paparo as papal legate, and sent him to Ireland with pallia for the four archbishops.

text: Cardinal Paparo's first attempt to reach Ireland was stalled when king Stephen refused him safe conduct through England unless he pledged himself to do nothing in Ireland that would injure England’s interests there. This was not acceptable for Paparo, who returned to Rome. It seems likely that this was an attempt by Stephen to prevent Paparo from bringing papal confirmation for an arrangement in Ireland that would finally extinguish Canterbury’s claims in Ireland.[62] In 1151 he returned and this time reached Ireland, his journey being facilitated by David I of Scotland. The Synod of Kells-Mellifont was convened in 1152, with Paparo presiding as papal legate. The decrees from the synod are no longer extant, but some information is preserved through the Annals of the Four Masters[63] and Geoffrey Keating's Foras Feasa ar Éirinn. The main result of the synod was the official papal sanctioning of the episcopal structure as created in 1111 and refined in 1148.

text: Norman invasion[edit]

text: The Norman invasion of Ireland was a two-stage process, which began on 1 May 1169 when a force of individual Norman knights led by Raymond Fitzgerald landed near Bannow, County Wexford. This was at the request of Dermot MacMurrough (Diarmait Mac Murchada), the ousted King of Leinster who sought their help in regaining his kingdom.

text: Then on 18 October 1171, Henry II landed a much bigger force in Waterford to at least ensure his continuing control over the Norman force. In the process he took Dublin and had accepted the fealty of the Irish kings and bishops by 1172, so creating the "Lordship of Ireland", which formed part of his Angevin Empire.

text: Slavery in Ireland[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Gaelic Ireland and Scotland were among the last areas of Christian Europe to give up their institution of slavery. Under Gaelic custom, prisoners of war were routinely taken as slaves. However, ironically, it was during the period that slavery was disappearing across most of western Europe that it was reaching its zenith in Ireland and Scotland; during the Viking invasions and the subsequent warring between Scandinavians and the native Irish the number of captives taken as slaves drastically increased. The Irish church was vehemently opposed to slavery, and blamed the 1169 Norman invasion on the persistence of the practice, as well as the practices of polygyny and divorce.