document_title: List of flag bearers for the United States at the Olympics

question_text: who carried the us flag at opening ceremony

root

text: Firsts[edit]

text: US team manager[1] Matthew Halpin was the first to carry the flag at the 1906 Intercalated Games,[2] though that event is no longer considered by the International Olympic Committee to be part of Olympic history.[3] Ralph Rose became the first competitor to have the honor when he led the team out at the 1908 Summer Games,[2] the first official Olympic Games to feature a parade of nations.[4] The first woman to represent the United States was fencer Janice Romary in 1968, her sixth consecutive Summer Olympics.[5] Taffy Abel was the first person to represent the United States at the Winter Olympics when he was chosen to carry the flag at the inaugural Games in Chamonix in 1924.[2]

tag: p

text: Irish-born Pat McDonald, one of the "Irish Whales", became the first athlete to be selected as the flag bearer twice when he performed his second duty in 1924.[2][6] In 1956 two other athletes led the U.S. team out for a second time, James Bickford at the Winter Olympics and Norman Armitage at the Summer Games.[2]

text: Selection and reactions[edit]

text: The flag bearers are chosen by a vote of the team captains of each sport.[7]

text: Athletes view their selection of flag bearer as a great honour:

text:
"It's more than a dream. "I keep saying, I'm not sure if this is true or not true. I'm making the team and now I'm the first guy coming to the stadium and the whole world will be watching me carry the flag. There are no words to describe it."

"I feel happy, honored. I'm feeling so blessed to get an opportunity to present the United States of America, to present the United States flag in front of my team."

text: "I'm still shaking. I was incredibly surprised when Brian [Martin] told me, and I'm still trying to process it all. To be the person leading the U.S. team into the opening ceremony is just such a great honor."

text: Flag dipping[edit]

text: Olympic protocol is that the flag bearer dips their flag to the head of state as part of the parade. It has become tradition that the U.S. flag is not dipped, though the origins of this are surrounded by legend and are widely misreported:[9][10]

text: "The motives for the original refusal, the identity of the flag-bearer and the truth behind the quotation and other issues remain much murkier in the historical record than legend-tellers portray ... The evolution of this flag mythology reveals a great deal about the complex strains of early 20th century American nationalism."

text: The parade of nations was introduced at the 1906 Intercalated Games with Matthew Halpin as the U.S. flag bearer. Halpin gladly dipped the flag, noting that when he did so King George I of Greece "staked me to a smile that made me feel like I belonged".[11] The controversy began at the 1908 Summer Olympics in London where flag bearers were expected to dip the flag to Edward VII on two occasions. Research by the International Society of Olympic Historians concluded that the flag bearer was Ralph Rose and that he might not have dipped the flag to the British King on one of those occasions. Martin Sheridan is often attributed with the explanation of this supposed disrespect by stating at the time "This flag dips to no earthly king" but no evidence of this can be found.[11] Modern versions of the story describe how the Stars and Stripes have never been dipped during the parade of nations since 1908 but this is apocryphal. It has been dipped on three occasions since then: 1912, 1924, and 1932.[10]

text: The 1932 winter games were held in Lake Placid and, though head of state President Herbert Hoover would normally have greeted the parade of nations, the duty was passed to New York governor Franklin Roosevelt.[11] This was the last time that the flag was dipped at the Olympics as political forces intervened thereafter. The head of state awaiting the athletes at the 1936 Summer Games was Adolf Hitler, to whom the U.S. refused to lower their flag.[10] The 1940 Olympics were cancelled due to the onset of World War II and, in 1942, the United States Congress introduced the United States Flag Code which stated: "That no disrespect should be given to the flag of the United States of America, the flag should not be dipped to any person or thing."[11][12] However, since the Flag Code is legally unenforceable, it appears to be merely codified tradition.

text: Foreign-born representatives[edit]

text: Several foreign-born athletes have represented the United States at the opening ceremonies. Irishman Pat McDonald was the first in 1920 and he, at the age of 42, became the oldest Olympic track & field champion. Though he did not compete, he also went on to lead the U.S. team at the following Summer Olympics.[6]

text: Rolf Monsen, a multi-discipline Winter sports athlete born in Oslo, Norway, competed as an American in 1928 and 1932. He qualified for the 1936 Games and though an injury prevented him from taking part, he was still chosen to carry the flag.[13]

text: The American team at the 1936 Summer Games were led by Berlin-born, highly regarded gymnast Al Jochim.[2][14]

text: Olga Fikotová was a discus-thrower at the 1956 Summer Olympics and the only athlete to win a gold medal for her home country Czechoslovakia in that year. She began a much-publicised romance with American athlete Harold Connolly, much to the frustration of the Communist authorities. Fikotová was accused of being a traitor and the Czechoslovak Olympic Committee banned her from representing her country again. Now living in the U.S., she would go on to compete for her adopted country in the next four Summer Games. Despite not being able to replicate her success, Fikotová was chosen to lead the American team at the 1972 Games in Munich, West Germany.[15]

text: Lopez Lomong carried the flag at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, China and became the fifth flag bearer to be born outside the United States.[2] As a teenager in war-torn Sudan, Lomong was one of several thousand boys brought to America as a refugee in 2001.[7] His selection came during a time when the U.S. and other Western countries had been critical of the Chinese government's close links with Sudan, a country accused of human rights violations and war crimes.[16]

text: Other notes[edit]

text: Godfrey Dewey, son of Melvil Dewey the inventor of Dewey Decimal Classification,[17] was the president of the Lake Placid Organizing Committee and was largely responsible for the successful candidature of Lake Placid for the 1932 Winter Olympics.[18] In addition to his role as the U.S. ski team manager he was chosen as the flag bearer for the 1928 Games in St. Moritz, Switzerland.[19]

text: List of flag bearers[edit]

text: List of flag bearers:[2]

text:
#
Event year
Season
Ceremony
Flag bearer
Sex
State/Country
Sport

62
2018
Winter
Closing
Diggins, JessicaJessica Diggins
F
Minnesota
Cross-country skiing

61
2018
Winter
Opening
Hamlin, ErinErin Hamlin
F
New York
Luge

60
2016
Summer
Closing
Biles, SimoneSimone Biles
F
Texas
Gymnastics

59
2016
Summer
Opening
Phelps, MichaelMichael Phelps
M
Maryland
Swimming

58
2014
Winter
Closing
Chu, JulieJulie Chu
F
Connecticut
Hockey

57
2014
Winter
Opening
Lodwick, ToddTodd Lodwick
M
Colorado
Nordic combined

56
2012
Summer
Closing
Nellum, BryshonBryshon Nellum
M
California
Athletics

55
2012
Summer
Opening
Zagunis, MarielMariel Zagunis
F
Oregon
Fencing

54
2010
Winter
Closing
Demong, BillBill Demong
M
New York
Nordic combined

53
2010
Winter
Opening
Grimmette, MarkMark Grimmette
M
Michigan
Luge

52
2008
Summer
Closing
Lorig, KhatunaKhatuna Lorig
F
Georgia (country)
Archery

51
2008
Summer
Opening
Lomong, LopezLopez Lomong
M
Sudan (now South Sudan)
Athletics

50
2006
Winter
Closing
Cheek, JoeyJoey Cheek
M
North Carolina
Speed skating

49
2006
Winter
Opening
Witty, ChrisChris Witty
F
Wisconsin
Speed skating

48
2004
Summer
Closing
Hamm, MiaMia Hamm
F
Texas
Women's soccer

47
2004
Summer
Opening
Staley, DawnDawn Staley
F
Pennsylvania
Basketball

46
2002
Winter
Closing
Shimer, BrianBrian Shimer
M
Florida
Bobsleigh

45
2002
Winter
Opening
Peterson, AmyAmy Peterson
F
Minnesota
Short track speed skating

44
2000
Summer
Closing
Gardner, RulonRulon Gardner
M
Wyoming
Wrestling

43
2000
Summer
Opening
Meidl, CliffCliff Meidl
M
California
Canoeing

42
1998
Winter
Closing
Granato, CammiCammi Granato
F
Illinois
Hockey

41
1998
Winter
Opening
Flaim, EricEric Flaim
M
Massachusetts
Speed skating

40
1996
Summer
Closing
Matz, MichaelMichael Matz
M
Pennsylvania
Equestrian

39
1996
Summer
Opening
Baumgartner, BruceBruce Baumgartner
M
New Jersey
Wrestling

38
1994
Winter
Closing
Jansen, DanDan Jansen
M
Wisconsin
Speed skating

37
1994
Winter
Opening
Myler, CammyCammy Myler
F
New York
Luge

36
1992
Summer
Closing
Westbrook, PeterPeter Westbrook
M
Missouri
Fencing

35
1992
Summer
Opening
Larrieu Smith, FrancieFrancie Larrieu Smith
F
California
Athletics

34
1992
Winter
Opening
Koch, BillBill Koch
M
Vermont
Cross-country skiing

33
1988
Summer
Opening
Ashford, EvelynEvelyn Ashford
F
Louisiana
Athletics

32
1988
Winter
Opening
Nelson, LyleLyle Nelson
M
Idaho
Biathlon

31
1984
Summer
Opening
Burke, EdEd Burke
M
California
Athletics

30
1984
Winter
Opening
Masley, FrankFrank Masley
M
Delaware
Luge

29
1980
Winter
Opening
Hamilton, ScottScott Hamilton
M
Ohio
Figure skating

28
1976
Summer
Opening
Hall, GaryGary Hall
M
North Carolina
Swimming

27
1976
Winter
Opening
Nelson, CindyCindy Nelson
F
Minnesota
Alpine skiing

26
1972
Summer
Opening
Fikotová, OlgaOlga Fikotová
F
Czechoslovakia (now Czech Republic)
Athletics

25
1972
Winter
Opening
Holum, DianneDianne Holum
F
Illinois
Speed skating

24
1968
Summer
Opening
Romary, JaniceJanice Romary
F
California
Fencing

23
1968
Winter
Opening
McDermott, TerryTerry McDermott
M
Michigan
Speed skating

22
1964
Summer
Opening
O'Brien, ParryParry O'Brien
M
California
Athletics

21
1964
Winter
Opening
Disney, BillBill Disney
M
Kansas
Speed skating

20
1960
Summer
Opening
Johnson, RaferRafer Johnson
M
Texas
Athletics

19
1960
Winter
Opening
McDermott, DonDon McDermott
M
New York
Speed skating

18
1956
Summer
Opening
Armitage, NormanNorman Armitage
M
New York
Fencing

17
1956
Winter
Opening
Bickford, JamesJames Bickford
M
New York
Bobsleigh

16
1952
Summer
Opening
Armitage, NormanNorman Armitage
M
New York
Fencing

15
1952
Winter
Opening
Bickford, JamesJames Bickford
M
New York
Bobsleigh

14
1948
Summer
Opening
Craig, RalphRalph Craig
M
Michigan
Athletics

13
1948
Winter
Opening
Heaton, JackJack Heaton
M
Connecticut
Skeleton

12
1936
Summer
Opening
Jochim, AlAl Jochim
M
Germany
Gymnastics

11
1936
Winter
Opening
Monsen, RolfRolf Monsen
M
Norway
Cross-country skiing

10
1932
Summer
Opening
Taylor, MorganMorgan Taylor
M
Iowa
Athletics

9
1932
Winter
Opening
Fiske, BillyBilly Fiske
M
Illinois
Bobsleigh

8
1928
Summer
Opening
Houser, BudBud Houser
M
Missouri
Athletics

7
1928
Winter
Opening
Dewey, GodfreyGodfrey Dewey
M
Florida
President of Lake Placid Organizing Committee

6
1924
Summer
Opening
McDonald, PatPat McDonald
M
Ireland
Athletics

5
1924
Winter
Opening
Abel, TaffyTaffy Abel
M
Michigan
Hockey

4
1920
Summer
Opening
McDonald, PatPat McDonald
M
Ireland
Athletics

3
1912
Summer
Opening
Bonhag, GeorgeGeorge Bonhag
M
Massachusetts
Athletics

2
1908
Summer
Opening
Rose, RalphRalph Rose
M
California
Athletics & tug of war

1
1906
Summer
Opening
Halpin, MatthewMatthew Halpin
M
New York
Team manager

tag: table


document_title: List of countries by Internet connection speeds

question_text: who has the best internet in the world

question_tokens: who has the best internet in the world

text: Akamai Q4 2015 global average connection speeds rankings

text:
Rank
Country/Territory
Avg. connection speed
(Mb/s)[2]
Relative speed

-
Global
5.6
5.6

1
 South Korea
26.7
26.7

2
 Sweden
19.1
19.1

3
 Norway
18.8
18.8

4
 Japan
17.4
17.4

5
 Netherlands
17.0
17

6
 Hong Kong
16.8
16.8

7
 Latvia
16.7
16.7

8
  Switzerland
16.7
16.7

9
 Finland
16.6
16.6

10
 Denmark
16.1
16.1

text: Akamai Q4 2015 global average peak connection speeds rankings

text:
Rank
Country/Territory
Avg. Peak Connection speed
(Mb/s)[3]
Relative speed

-
Global
32.5
32.5

1
 Singapore
135.7
135.7

2
 Hong Kong
105.2
105.2

3
 South Korea
95.3
95.3

4
 Macau
83.1
83.1

5
 Japan
82.9
82.9

6
 Indonesia
79.8
79.8

7
 Mongolia
78.9
78.9

8
 Taiwan
78.8
78.8

9
 Qatar
77.8
77.8

10
 Romania
73.6
73.6

text: Akamai Q3 2015 rankings

text:
Country/Territory
Avg. connection speed (Mb/s)
Avg. Peak Connection Speed (Mb/s)
Above 4 Mbit/s
Above 10 Mbit/s
Above 15 Mbit/s

Global
5.1
32.2
65%
27%
15%

 Argentina
4.2
26.9
39%
3.10%
0.50%

 Bolivia
1.8
13.9
2.80%
0.20%
0.10%

 Brazil
3.6
29
32%
2.20%
0.60%

 Canada
11.9
52.4
87%
43%
21%

 Chile
5.7
42
62%
7.10%
1.60%

 Colombia
4.2
28.1
48%
1.70%
0.40%

 Costa Rica
3.2
16.4
20%
1.10%
0.50%

 Ecuador
4.1
25.5
36%
2.50%
0.60%

 Mexico
5.5
27.3
64%
6.40%
1.70%

 Panama
3.5
16.9
33%
1.50%
0.40%

 Paraguay
1.5
13.4
2.10%
0.10%
0.10%

 Peru
4.4
30.4
46%
2.90%
0.60%

 United States
12.6
57.3
80%
46%
24%

 Uruguay
5.9
60.2
68%
7.70%
1.60%

 Venezuela
1.5
11.8
2.10%
0.20%
0.10%

 Australia
7.8
41.9
72%
18%
7.40%

 China
3.7
23.1
33%
1.60%
0.30%

 Hong Kong
15.8
101.1
92%
59%
36%

 India
6.5
29.7
67%
23%
8%

 Indonesia
7.45
31
17%
0.90%
0.40%

 Japan
15
78.4
90%
54%
32%

 Malaysia
4.9
38.3
52%
4.00%
0.90%

 New Zealand
8.7
42
87%
22%
8.20%

 Philippines
2.8
25.3
10%
0.90%
0.30%

 Singapore
12.5
135.4
87%
51%
27%

 South Korea
20.5
86.6
96%
68%
45%

 Sri Lanka
5.1
33.5
76%
2.20%
0.60%

 Taiwan
10.1
77.9
88%
29%
13%

 Thailand
8.2
58.3
93%
18%
5.80%

 Vietnam
3.4
25.5
31%
0.60%
0.10%

 Austria
11.4
44
90%
33%
17%

 Belgium
12.8
59.3
91%
52%
26%

 Czech Republic
14.5
50.9
86%
46%
27%

 Denmark
14
50.1
94%
51%
29%

 Finland
14.8
57.4
91%
51%
28%

 France
8.2
38.9
74%
21%
8.70%

 Germany
11.5
49.2
87%
37%
19%

 Hungary
10.7
53.9
90%
36%
18%

 Ireland
12.4
52
76%
41%
23%

 Israel
11.2
70
94%
36%
14%

 Italy
6.5
30.1
71%
9.20%
3.40%

 Netherlands
15.6
63.5
95%
60%
34%

 Norway
16.4
55.9
88%
54%
37%

 Poland
10.6
45.6
88%
34%
17%

 Portugal
10.6
47.9
85%
37%
19%

 Romania
13.1
72.9
94%
57%
27%

 Russia
10.2
57.9
87%
38%
15%

 Slovakia
11.2
49
85%
28%
17%

 South Africa
3.7
18.9
22%
2.90%
1.70%

 Spain
10.4
53.5
85%
34%
17%

 Sweden
17.4
69
92%
55%
38%

  Switzerland
16.2
62.6
93%
61%
36%

 Turkey
6.2
38.5
77%
7.60%
2.90%

 United Arab Emirates
6.8
45.8
85%
10%
2.30%

 United Kingdom
13
54.2
87%
46%
28%


document_title: Three-point field goal

question_text: when was the 3 point shot added to high school basketball

text: Three-point field goal

text: History[edit]

text: The three-point line was first tested at the collegiate level in a 1945 NCAA game between Columbia and Fordham but it was not kept as a rule. At the direction of Abe Saperstein, the American Basketball League became the first basketball league to institute the rule in 1961. Its three-point line was a radius of 25 feet (7.62 m) from the baskets, except along the sides.[2] The Eastern Professional Basketball League followed in its 1963–64 season.

text: The three-point shot later became popularized by the American Basketball Association after its introduction in the 1967–68 season. ABA commissioner George Mikan stated the three-pointer "would give the smaller player a chance to score and open up the defense to make the game more enjoyable for the fans."[3] During the 1970s, the ABA used the three-point shot, along with the slam dunk, as a marketing tool to compete with the National Basketball Association (NBA).

text: In the 1979–80 season, after having tested it in the previous pre-season, the NBA adopted the three-point line despite the view of many that it was a gimmick.[4] Chris Ford of the Boston Celtics is widely credited with making the first three-point shot in NBA history on October 12, 1979. Kevin Grevey of the Washington Bullets also made one on the same day.

text: The sport's international governing body, FIBA, introduced the three-point line in 1984, at a distance of 6.25 m (20 ft 6 in).

text: The NCAA's Southern Conference became the first collegiate conference to use the three-point rule, adopting a 22-foot (6.71 m) line for the 1980–81 season.[5][6] Ronnie Carr of Western Carolina University was the first to score a three-point field goal in college basketball history on November 29, 1980.[6][7][8] Over the following five years, NCAA conferences differed in their use of the rule and distance required for a three-pointer. The line was as close as 17 ft 9 in (5.41 m) in the Atlantic Coast Conference, and as far away as 22 feet in the Big Sky Conference.[9] Used in conference play, it was adopted by the NCAA for the 1986–87 men's season at 19 ft 9 in (6.02 m), and was first used in the NCAA Tournament in 1987.[10] In the same 1986–87 season, the NCAA adopted the three-pointer in women's basketball on an experimental basis, using the same 19 ft 9 in distance, and made its use mandatory beginning in 1987–88.[11] In 2007, the NCAA lengthened the men's three-point distance to 20 ft 9 in (6.32 m), with the rule coming into effect at the beginning of the 2008–09 season.[12] The NCAA women's three-point distance was moved to match the men's distance in 2011–12.[11] American high schools, along with elementary and middle schools, adopted a 19 ft 9 in (6.02 m) line nationally in 1987, a year after the NCAA.[13] The NCAA used the FIBA three-point line (see below) in the 2018 National Invitation Tournament.[14]

text: During the 1994–95, 1995–96, and 1996–97 seasons, the NBA attempted to address decreased scoring by shortening the distance of the line from 23 ft 9 in (7.24 m) (22 ft (6.71 m) at the corners) to a uniform 22 ft (6.71 m) around the basket. From the 1997–98 season on, the NBA reverted the line to its original distance of 23 ft 9 in (22 ft at the corners, with a 3 inch differential). Ray Allen is currently the NBA all-time leader in career made three-pointers with 2,973.[15]

text: In 2008, FIBA announced that the distance would be increased by 50 cm (19.69 in) to 6.75 m (22 ft 1 3⁄4 in), with the change being phased in beginning in October 2010. In December 2012, the WNBA announced that it would be using FIBA's distance, too, as of the 2013 season. The NBA has discussed adding a four-point line, according to president Rod Thorn.[16]

text: In the NBA, three-point field goals have become increasingly more frequent along the years, with effectiveness increasing slightly. The 1979-80 season had an average 2.2 three-point goals per game and 6.6 attempts (28% effectiveness). The 1989-90 season had an average 4.8 three-point goals per game and 13.7 attempts (35% effectiveness). The 2009-10 season had an average 6.4 three-point goals per game and 18.1 attempts (36% effectiveness). The 2016-17 season had an average 9.7 three-point goals per game and 27.0 attempts (36% effectiveness).[17]

text: Rule specifications[edit]

text: A three-point line consists of an arc at a set radius measured from the point on the floor directly below the center of the basket, and two parallel lines equidistant from each sideline extending from the nearest end line to the point at which they intersect the arc. In the NBA and FIBA standard, the arc spans the width of the court until it is a specified minimum distance from each sideline. The three-point line then becomes parallel to the sidelines from those points to the baseline. The unusual formation of the three-point line at these levels allows players some space from which to attempt a three-point shot at the corners of the court; the arc would be less than 2 feet (0.61 m) from each sideline at the corners if it was a continuous arc. In the NCAA and American high school standards, the arc spans 180° around the basket, then becomes parallel to the sidelines from the plane of the basket center to the baseline (5 feet 3 inches or 1.60 metres). The distance of the three-point line to the center of the hoop varies by level:

text:
Arc radius
Minimum distance from sidelines

National Basketball Association
23 feet 9 inches (7.24 m)
3 feet (0.91 m)
[18]

FIBA (also used by WNBA)
6.75 meters (22 ft 2 in)
0.90 meters (2 ft 11 in)
[19]

National Collegiate Athletic Association
20 feet 9 inches (6.32 m)
4 feet 3 inches (1.30 m)
[20]

American high school basketball
19 feet 9 inches (6.02 m)
5 feet 3 inches (1.60 m)
[21]

text: A player's feet must be completely behind the three-point line at the time of the shot or jump in order to make a three-point attempt; if the player's feet are on or in front of the line, it is a two-point attempt. A player is allowed to jump from outside the line and land inside the line to make a three-point attempt, as long as the ball is released in mid-air.

text: An official raises his/her arm with three fingers extended to signal the shot attempt. If the attempt is successful, he/she raises his/her other arm with all fingers fully extended in manner similar to a football official signifying successful field goal to indicate the three-point goal. The official must recognize it for it to count as three points. Instant replay has sometimes been used, depending on league rules. The NBA,[22] WNBA, FIBA and the NCAA specifically allow replay for this purpose. In NBA, FIBA, and WNBA games, video replay does not have to occur immediately following a shot; play can continue and the officials can adjust the scoring later in the game, after reviewing the video. However, in late game situations, play may be paused pending a review.

text: If a shooter is fouled while attempting a three-pointer and subsequently misses the shot, the shooter is awarded three free-throw attempts. If a player completes a three-pointer while being fouled, the player is awarded one free-throw for a possible 4-point play. Conceivably, if a player completed a three-pointer while being fouled, and that foul was ruled as either a Flagrant 1 or a Flagrant 2 foul, the player would be awarded two free throws for a possible 5-point play.

text: Related concepts[edit]

text: Major League Lacrosse features a two-point line which forms a 15-yard (14 m) arc around the front of the goal. Shots taken from behind this line count for two points, as opposed to the standard one point.

text: In gridiron football, a standard field goal is worth three points; various professional and semi-pro leagues have experimented with four-point field goals. NFL Europe and the Stars Football League adopted a rule similar to basketball's three-point line in which an additional point was awarded for longer field goals; in both leagues any field goal of 50 yards (46 m) or more was worth four points. The Arena Football League awards four points for any successful drop kicked field goal (like the three-point shot, the drop kick is more challenging than a standard place kick, as the bounce of the ball makes a kick less predictable, and arena football also uses narrower goal posts for all kicks than the outdoor game does).

text: During the existence of the World Hockey Association in the 1970s, there were proposals for two-point hockey goals for shots taken beyond an established distance (one proposal was a 44-foot (13.4m) arc, which would have intersected the faceoff circles), but this proposal gained little support and faded after the WHA merged with the NHL. It was widely believed that long-distance shots in hockey had little direct relation to skill (usually resulting more from goalies' vision being screened or obscured), plus with the lower scoring intrinsic to the sport a two-point goal was seen as disruptive of the structure of the game.

text: The Super Goal is a similar concept in Australian rules football, in which a 50-meter (55 yd) arc determines the value of a goal; within the arc, it is the usual 6 points, but 9 points are scored for a "super goal" scored from outside the arc. To date the super goal is only used in pre-season games and not in the season proper.[23]

text: The National Professional Soccer League II, which awarded two points for all goals except those on the power play, also used a three-point line, drawn 45 feet (14 m) from the goal. It has since been adopted by some other indoor soccer leagues.


document_title: Lagaan (soundtrack)

question_text: how many songs track are there in movie lagaan

text: Lagaan (soundtrack)

text:
Lagaan: The Official Motion Picture Soundtrack
Soundtrack album by A. R. RahmanReleased
6 April 2001 (2001-04-06)[1]Recorded
2000–2001Panchathan Record Inn, ChennaiGenre
Feature film soundtrack, world music, western classical musicLength
41:58Label
Sony MusicProducer
A. R. RahmanA. R. Rahman chronology

Love You Hamesha(2001)Love You Hamesha2001

Lagaan(2001)

Star(2001)Star2001

text: The acclaimed soundtrack of the film  Lagaan (also called Lagaan: Once Upon a Time in India) was composed by A. R. Rahman, with lyrics by Javed Akhtar. There are six songs and two instrumental pieces in this film. Rahman incorporated several music styles and genres to create the soundtrack.

text: Upon release, the soundtrack became highly popular, with all songs becoming huge hits. It also received high critical acclaim, with many reviewers stating it as a "Magnum Opus" by A. R. Rahman. It is described as one of Rahman's finest and most successful works to date. The rich background score of the film also got great critical acclaim and is said to have contributed immensely to the film's success.

text: Track listing[edit]

text: No.TitleSinger(s)Length1."Ghanan Ghanan"Udit Narayan, Sukhwinder Singh, Alka Yagnik, Shankar Mahadevan, Shaan, Chorus6:112."Mitwa"Udit Narayan, Sukhwinder Singh, Alka Yagnik, Srinivas6:473."Radha Kaise Na Jale"Asha Bhosle, Udit Narayan, Vaishali Samant, Chorus5:344."O Rey Chhori"Udit Narayan, Alka Yagnik, Vasundhara Das5:595."Chale Chalo"A. R. Rahman, Srinivas, Chorus6:406."Waltz for a Romance (in 'A' Major)" (Instrumental) 2:297."O Paalanhaare"Lata Mangeshkar, Sadhana Sargam, Udit Narayan & Choruses5:198."Lagaan..... Once Upon a Time in India"Anuradha Sriram, ChorusStrings arranged by R. Prasanna4:12Total length:41:58

text: Reception[edit]

text: The Los Angeles Times said that the "songs and dances are not mere interludes inserted in the action, bringing it to a halt—a Bollywood trademark—but are fully integrated into the plot and marked by expressive, dynamic singing and dancing that infuse a historical drama with energy and immediacy."[2] A review of the tracks suggests that "the music is true to the time period (the British Raj)".[3] Another review said: "A. R. Rahman is again at his prodigious best. His score for Aamir Khan's period drama Lagaan is a delectable blend of Indian classical music, folk melodies and jazzy snazzy tunes."[4] The reviewer of Screen India said, "Great music, heard after a long time, which elevates your senses. That Rahman's among the best is proved here."[5] The soundtrack was ranked No. 44 on Amazon.com's "The 100 Greatest World Music Albums of All Time".[6][7] The soundtrack won 3 National Film Awards in three categories. A. R. Rahman won the award for the best music, Udit Narayan won the Best Male Playback Singer Award for "Mitwa" and Javed Akhtar won the Best Lyrics Award for "Ghanan Ghanan" and "Radha Kaise Na Jale".[8] Lagaan also became the biggest audio hit of the year by topping the music charts and selling 3.5 million records within a year.[9] According to the Indian trade website Box Office India, with around 28,00,000 units sold, this film's soundtrack album was the year's fourth highest-selling.[10]


document_title: The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas (film)

question_text: who plays bruno in the boy in the striped pajamas

text: The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: The film opens with the quote "Childhood is measured out by sounds and smells and sights, before the dark hour of reason grows." by John Betjeman. A young boy named Bruno (Asa Butterfield) lives with his family in Berlin, in Nazi Germany during the Holocaust. He learns that his father Ralf (David Thewlis) has been promoted, due to which their family, including Bruno's mother Elsa (Vera Farmiga) and sister Gretel (Amber Beattie), relocate to the countryside. Bruno hates his new home as there is no one to play with and very little to explore. After commenting that he has spotted people working on what he thinks is a farm in the distance, he is also forbidden from playing in the back garden.

text: Bruno and Gretel get a private tutor, Herr Liszt (Jim Norton), who pushes an agenda of antisemitism and nationalist propaganda. As a result, Gretel becomes extremely fanatical in her support for the Third Reich, to the point of covering her bedroom wall with Nazi propaganda posters. Bruno is confused as the Jews he has seen, in particular the family's Jewish servant Pavel (David Hayman), do not resemble the caricatures in Liszt's teachings.

text: One day, Bruno disobeys his parents and sneaks off into the woods, eventually arriving at an electric barbed wire fence surrounding a camp. He befriends a boy his own age named Shmuel (Jack Scanlon). The pair's lack of knowledge on the true nature of the camp is revealed: Bruno thinks that the striped uniforms that Shmuel, Pavel, and the other prisoners wear are pyjamas and Shmuel believes his grandparents died from an illness during their journey to the camp. Bruno starts meeting Shmuel regularly, sneaking him food and playing board games with him. He eventually learns that Shmuel is a Jew and was brought to the camp with his father and mother.

text: One day, Elsa discovers the reality of Ralf's assignment after Lieutenant Kurt Kotler (Rupert Friend) lets slip that the black smoke coming from the camp's chimneys is due to the burning corpses of Jews. She confronts Ralf, disgusted and heartbroken. At dinner that night, Kotler admits that his father had left his family and moved to Switzerland. Upon hearing this, Ralf tells Kotler that he should have informed the authorities of his father's disagreement with the current political regime as it was his duty. The embarrassed Kotler then gets infuriated with Pavel for accidentally spilling a glass of wine and violently beats him up, presumably killing him. The next morning the maid, Maria (Cara Horgan), is seen scrubbing the blood stains.

text: Later that day, Bruno sees Shmuel working in his home. Shmuel is there to clean wine glasses because they needed someone with small hands to do it. Bruno offers him some cake and willingly Shmuel accepts it. Unfortunately, Kotler happens to walk into the room where Bruno and Shmuel are socialising. Kotler is furious and yells at Shmuel for talking to Bruno. In the midst of his scolding, Kotler notices Shmuel chewing the food Bruno gave him. When Kotler asks Shmuel where he got the food, he says Bruno offered the cake, but Bruno, fearful of Kotler, denies this. Believing Bruno, Kotler tells Shmuel that they will have a "little chat" later. Distraught, Bruno goes to apologise to Shmuel, but finds him gone. Every day, Bruno returns to the same spot by the camp but does not see Shmuel. Eventually, Shmuel reappears behind the fence, sporting a black eye. Bruno apologises and Shmuel forgives him, renewing the friendship.

text: After the funeral of his mother, who was killed in Berlin by an enemy bombing, Ralf tells Bruno and Gretel that their mother suggests that they go to live with a relative because it isn't safe there. Their mother suggests this because she doesn't want her children living with their murderous father. Shmuel has problems of his own; his father has gone missing after those with whom he participated in a march did not return to the camp. Bruno decides to redeem himself by helping Shmuel find his father. The next day, Bruno, who is due to leave that afternoon, dons a striped prisoners' outfit and a cap to cover his unshaven hair, and digs under the fence to join Shmuel in the search. Bruno soon discovers the true nature of the camp after seeing the many sick and weak-looking Jews, much to his shock. While searching, the boys are taken on a march with other inmates by Sonderkommandos.

text: At the house, Gretel and Elsa discover Bruno's disappearance. After they discover the open window he went through Elsa bursts into Ralf's meeting to alert him that Bruno is missing. Ralf and his men mount a search. Led by a dog tracking Bruno's scent they find his discarded clothing outside the fence. Elsa and Gretel are following along behind. They enter the camp, looking for him; Bruno, Shmuel and the other inmates are stopped inside a changing room and are told to remove their clothes for a "shower". They are packed into a gas chamber, where Bruno and Shmuel hold each other's hands. A Schutzstaffel soldier pours some Zyklon B pellets inside, and the prisoners start panicking, yelling and banging on the metal door. When Ralf realises that a gassing is taking place, he cries out his son's name, and Elsa and Gretel fall to their knees in despair and mourn Bruno. The film ends by showing the closed door of the now-silent gas chamber, indicating that all prisoners, including Bruno and Shmuel, are dead.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Asa Butterfield as Bruno
Jack Scanlon as Shmuel, a young Jew sent to a camp
Vera Farmiga as Elsa, Bruno's mother
David Thewlis as Ralf, Bruno's father
Amber Beattie as Gretel, Bruno's older sister
Rupert Friend as Lieutenant Kurt Kotler
David Hayman as Pavel
Sheila Hancock as Natalie, Bruno's grandmother
Richard Johnson as Matthias, Bruno's grandfather
Cara Horgan as Maria
Jim Norton as Herr Liszt

tag: ul

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas has a 63% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 135 reviews, with an average rating of 6.2/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "A touching and haunting family film that deals with the Holocaust in an arresting and unusual manner, and packs a brutal final punch of a twist."[5] On Metacritic, the film has a normalized score of 55 out of 100, based on 28 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[6]

text: James Christopher, of The Times, referred to the film as "a hugely affecting film. Important, too."[7] Manohla Dargis, of The New York Times said the film "trivialized, glossed over, kitsched up, commercially exploited and hijacked [the Holocaust] for a tragedy about a Nazi family."[8]

text: Historical accuracy[edit]

text: Some critics have criticised the premise of the book and subsequent film. Reviewing the original book, Rabbi Benjamin Blech wrote: "Note to the reader: There were no 9-year-old Jewish boys in Auschwitz – the Nazis immediately gassed those not old enough to work."[9] Rabbi Blech affirmed the opinion of a Holocaust survivor friend that the book is "not just a lie and not just a fairytale, but a profanation." Blech acknowledges the objection that a "fable" need not be factually accurate; he counters that the book trivialises the conditions in and around the death camps and perpetuates the "myth that those not directly involved can claim innocence," and thus undermines its moral authority. Students who read it, he warns, may believe the camps "weren't that bad" if a boy could conduct a clandestine friendship with a Jewish captive of the same age, unaware of "the constant presence of death."[9]

text: Kathryn Hughes, whilst agreeing about the implausibility of the plot, argues that "Bruno's innocence comes to stand for the wilful refusal of all adult Germans to see what was going on under their noses."[10] In the Chicago Sun-Times, Roger Ebert says the film is not a reconstruction of Germany during the war, but is "about a value system that survives like a virus."[11]

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
Year
Award
Category
Recipient(s)
Result

2008
British Independent Film Awards[12]
Best Actress
Vera Farmiga
Won

Best Director
Mark Herman
Nominated

Most Promising Newcomer
Asa Butterfield
Nominated

2009
Premio Goya
Best European Film
The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas
Nominated

Irish Film and Television Awards[13]
Best International Film
Nominated

Young Artist Awards[14]
Best Leading Performance (International Feature Film)
Asa Butterfield & Jack Scanlon
Nominated


document_title: Bardo Thodol

question_text: in tibetan buddhism what term describes an intermediate or transition state

text: Bardo Thodol

text: Etymology[edit]

text: Bardo thosgroll (Tibetan: བར་དོ་ཐོས་གྲོལ, Wylie: bar do thos grol):

text:
bar do, Sanskrit antarabhāva: "intermediate state", "transitional state", "in-between state", "liminal state". Valdez: "Used loosely, the term "bardo" refers to the state of existence intermediate between two lives on earth."[4] Valdez: "[The] concept arose soon after the Buddha's passing, with a number of earlier Buddhist groups accepting the existence of such an intermediate state, while other schools rejected it."[4]
thos grol: "liberation", which is synonymous with the Sanskrit word bodhi, "awakening", "understanding", "enlightenment", and synonymous with the term nirvana, "blowing out", "extinction", "the extinction of illusion".[5]

text: Original text[edit]

text: Origins and dating[edit]

text: According to Tibetan tradition, the Liberation Through Hearing During the Intermediate State was composed in the 8th century by Padmasambhava, written down by his primary student, Yeshe Tsogyal, buried in the Gampo hills in central Tibet and subsequently discovered by a Tibetan terton, Karma Lingpa, in the 14th century.[6][7][8]

text: bar do thos grol[edit]

text: The Tibetan title is bar do thos grol,[9] Liberation Through Hearing During the Intermediate State.[1] It consists of two comparatively long texts:[1]

text:
"Great Liberation through Hearing: The Supplication of the Bardo of Dharmata" (chos nyid bar do'i gsol 'debs thos grol chen mo), the bardo of dharmata (including the bardo of dying);
"Great Liberation through Hearing: The Supplication Pointing Out the Bardo of Existence" (strid pa'i bar do ngo sprod gsol 'debs thos grol chen mo), the bardo of existence.

text: Within the texts themselves, the two combined are referred to as Liberation through Hearing in the Bardo, Great Liberation through Hearing, or just Liberation through Hearing.[note 2]

text: kar-gling zhi-khro[edit]

text: It is part of a larger terma cycle, Profound Dharma of Self-Liberation through the Intention of the Peaceful and Wrathful Ones,[1] (zab-chos zhi khro dgongs pa rang grol, also known as kar-gling zhi-khro,[2] popularly known as "Karma Lingpa's Peaceful and Wrathful Ones."[1]

text: The Profound Dharma of Self-Liberation is known in several versions, containing varying numbers of sections and subsections, and arranged in different orders, ranging from around ten to thirty-eight titles.[1] The individual texts cover a wide range of subjects, including meditation instructions, visualizations of deities, liturgies and prayers, lists of mantras, descriptions of the signs of death, indications of future rebirth, and texts such as the bar do thos grol that are concerned with the bardo-state.[1]

text: Three bardos[edit]

text: The Bardo Thodol differentiates the intermediate state between lives into three bardos:

text:
The chikhai bardo or "bardo of the moment of death", which features the experience of the "clear light of reality", or at least the nearest approximation of which one is spiritually capable;
The chonyid bardo or "bardo of the experiencing of reality", which features the experience of visions of various Buddha forms, or the nearest approximations of which one is capable;
The sidpa bardo or "bardo of rebirth", which features karmically impelled hallucinations which eventually result in rebirth, typically yab-yum imagery of men and women passionately entwined.

tag: ol

text: The Liberation Through Hearing During the Intermediate State also mentions three other bardos:[note 3]

text:
"Life", or ordinary waking consciousness;
"Dhyana" (meditation);
"Dream", the dream state during normal sleep.

text: Together these "six bardos" form a classification of states of consciousness into six broad types. Any state of consciousness can form a type of "intermediate state", intermediate between other states of consciousness. Indeed, one can consider any momentary state of consciousness a bardo, since it lies between our past and future existences; it provides us with the opportunity to experience reality, which is always present but obscured by the projections and confusions that are due to our previous unskillful actions.

text: English translations[edit]

text: Evans-Wentz's The Tibetan Book of the Dead[edit]

text: The bar do thos grol is known in the west as The Tibetan Book of the Dead, a title popularized by Walter Evans-Wentz's edition,[9][10] but as such virtually unknown in Tibet.[11][1] The Tibetan Book of the Dead was first published in 1927 by Oxford University Press. Dr. Walter Y. Evans-Wentz chose this title because of the parallels he found with the Egyptian Book of the Dead.[12]

text: According to John Myrdhin Reynolds, Evans-Wentz's edition of the Tibetan Book of the Dead introduced a number of misunderstandings about Dzogchen.[13] In fact, Evans-Wentz' collected seven texts about visualization of the after-death experiences and he introduced this work collection as "The Tibetan Book of Death." Evans-Wentz was well acquainted with Theosophy and used this framework to interpret the translation of The Tibetan Book of the Dead, which was largely provided by two Tibetan lamas who spoke English, Lama Sumdhon Paul and Lama Lobzang Mingnur Dorje.[14] Evans-Wentz was not familiar with Tibetan Buddhism,[13] and his view of Tibetan Buddhism was "fundamentally neither Tibetan nor Buddhist, but Theosophical and Vedantist."[15] He introduced a terminology into the translation which was largely derived from Hinduism, as well as from his Theosophical beliefs.[13] Contrary to the general belief spread in the West by Evans-Wentz, in Tibetan Buddhist practice the Tibetan Book of Dead is not read to the people who are passing away, but it is rather used during life by those who want to learn to visualize what will come after death. [16]

text: Also Jung's introduction betrays a misunderstanding of Tibetan Buddhism, using the text to discuss his own theory of the unconsciousness.[17]

text: Other translations and summaries[edit]

text:
Conze, Edward (1959) Buddhist Scriptures Harmondsworth: Penguin (includes a précis)
Fremantle, Francesca & Chögyam Trungpa (1975) The Tibetan Book of the Dead: The Great Liberation through Hearing in the Bardo by Guru Rinpoche according to Karma Lingpa. Boulder: Shambhala ISBN 0-394-73064-X, ISBN 1-59030-059-9 (reissued 2003)
Thurman, Robert (trans.) (1994) The Tibetan Book of the Dead, as popularly known in the West; known in Tibet as "The Great Book of Natural Liberation Through Understanding in the Between"; composed by Padma Sambhava; discovered by Karma Lingpa; foreword by the Dalai Lama London: Harper Collins ISBN 1-85538-412-4
Coleman, Graham, with Thupten Jinpa (eds.) (2005) The Tibetan Book of the Dead [English title]: The Great Liberation by Hearing in the Intermediate States [Tibetan title]; composed by Padma Sambhava: revealed by Karma Lingpa; translated by Gyurme Dorje. London: Penguin Books ISBN 978-0-14-045529-8 (the first complete translation). Also: New York: Viking Penguin, NY, 2006. ISBN 0-670-85886-2 (hc); ISBN 978-0-14-310494-0 (pbk)
Thupten Jinpa (ed.) (2005) The Tibetan Book of the Dead (Penguin Classics). London: Penguin Books (2005) ISBN 0-7139-9414-2

text: Popular influence[edit]

text: The Psychedelic Experience[edit]

text: The Psychedelic Experience, published in 1964, is a guide for LSD-trips, written by Timothy Leary, Ralph Metzner and Richard Alpert, loosely based on Evan-Wentz's translation of the Tibetan Book of the Dead.[18][19] Aldous Huxley introduced the Tibetan Book of the Dead to Timothy Leary.[19] According to Leary, Metzer and Alpert, the Tibetan Book of the Dead is

text: ... a key to the innermost recesses of the human mind, and a guide for initiates, and for those who are seeking the spiritual path of liberation.[20]

text: They construed the effect of LSD as a "stripping away" of ego-defenses, finding parallels between the stages of death and rebirth in the Tibetan Book of the Dead, and the stages of psychological "death" and "rebirth" which Leary had identified during his research.[21] According to Leary, Metzer and Albert it is....

text: ... one of the oldest and most universal practices for the initiate to go through the experience of death before he can be spiritually reborn. Symbolically he must die to his past, and to his old ego, before he can take his place in the new spiritual life into which he has been initiated.[22]

text: Musical and cinematic works[edit]

text:
Finnish composer Erik Bergman composed a work titled Bardo Thödol in 1974 for a speaker, mezzo-soprano, baritone, mixed choir and orchestra; the text was based on a German translation of the Book of the Dead[23]
"When I Was Done Dying", by American musician and composer Dan Deacon, is strongly inspired by the Bardo Thodol. The narrator's "story" begins at the very moment of his death, through multiple incarnations (a plant, a crab and, at the end, a human). The song. featured in an [adult swim] Off Air segment.
The late 1960s band The Third Bardo took their name from the western title of this text.
1985 2-part documentary filmed in Ladakh and the States, first part entitled "The Tibetan Book of the Dead: A Way of Life"; the second part "The Tibetan Book of the Dead: The Great Liberation" was a co-production between NHK (Japan), Mistral (France) and FBC (Canada). Narration in the English version is by Leonard Cohen. See links below.
Screenwriter and film producer Bruce Joel Rubin, who once lived in a Tibetan Buddhist monastery, considered his film Jacob's Ladder a modern interpretation of the Bardo Thodol.[24][25]
In 2007, The History Channel released a documentary film, Tibetan Book of the Dead.[web 1][note 4]
Country musician Sturgill Simpson's song "Just Let Go" from his 2014 album Metamodern Sounds in Country Music is about ego death and the transition between living and dying, and being reborn.
In 1994, the Modern Rock band Live had a second album, Throwing Copper. On which, track 9, a song titled "T.B.D." (4:28) stands for Tibetan Book of the Dead.[web 2]
In 1996, Delerium Records released the Liberation Thru' Hearing CD which contains spoken/chanted readings from the Bardo Thodol set to music.[web 3]
Enter the Void, a 2009 French film written and directed by Gaspar Noé, is loosely based on the Tibetan Book of the Dead.[web 4]
The Beatles song Tomorrow Never Knows contains lyrics inspired by The Tibetan Book of the Dead. [26]


document_title: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

question_text: final step of the dhcp discovery process is known as

text: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

text: Overview[edit]

text: TCP/IP defines how devices on one network communicate with devices on another network, and the DHCP server can manage TCP/IP settings for devices on a network, by automatically or dynamically assigning IP addresses to the devices.

text: The DHCP operates based on the client–server model. When a computer or other device connects to a network, the DHCP client software sends a DHCP broadcast query requesting the necessary information. Any DHCP server on the network may service the request. The DHCP server manages a pool of IP addresses and information about client configuration parameters such as default gateway, domain name, the name servers, and time servers. On receiving a DHCP request, the DHCP server may respond with specific information for each client, as previously configured by an administrator, or with a specific address and any other information valid for the entire network and for the time period for which the allocation (lease) is valid. A DHCP client typically queries for this information immediately after booting, and periodically thereafter before the expiration of the information. When a DHCP client refreshes an assignment, it initially requests the same parameter values, but the DHCP server may assign a new address based on the assignment policies set by administrators.

text: On large networks that consist of multiple links, a single DHCP server may service the entire network when aided by DHCP relay agents located on the interconnecting routers. Such agents relay messages between DHCP clients and DHCP servers located on different subnets.

text: Depending on implementation, the DHCP server may have three methods of allocating IP addresses:

text: DHCP is used for Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) and IPv6. While both versions serve the same purpose, the details of the protocol for IPv4 and IPv6 differ sufficiently that they may be considered separate protocols.[3] For the IPv6 operation, devices may alternatively use stateless address autoconfiguration. IPv6 hosts may also use link-local addressing to achieve operations restricted to the local network link.

text: Operation[edit]

text: The DHCP employs a connectionless service model, using the User Datagram Protocol (UDP). It is implemented with two UDP port numbers for its operations which are the same as for the BOOTP protocol. UDP port number 67 is the destination port of a server, and UDP port number 68 is used by the client.

text: DHCP operations fall into four phases: server discovery, IP lease offer, IP lease request, and IP lease acknowledgement. These stages are often abbreviated as DORA for discovery, offer, request, and acknowledgement.

text: The DHCP operation begins with clients broadcasting a request. If the client and server are on different subnets, a DHCP Helper or DHCP Relay Agent may be used. Clients requesting renewal of an existing lease may communicate directly via UDP unicast, since the client already has an established IP address at that point. Additionally, there is a BROADCAST (B) flag the client can use to indicate in which way (broadcast or unicast) it can receive the DHCPOFFER: 0x8000 for broadcast, 0x0000 for unicast.[5] Usually, the DHCPOFFER is sent through unicast. For those hosts which cannot accept unicast packets before IP addresses are configured, this flag can be used to work around this issue.

text: DHCP discovery[edit]

text: The DHCP client broadcasts a DHCPDISCOVER message on the network subnet using the destination address 255.255.255.255 or the specific subnet broadcast address. A DHCP client may also request its last-known IP address. If the client remains connected to the same network, the server may grant the request. Otherwise, it depends whether the server is set up as authoritative or not. An authoritative server denies the request, causing the client to issue a new request. A non-authoritative server simply ignores the request, leading to an implementation-dependent timeout for the client to expire the request and ask for a new IP address.

text: For example, if HTYPE is set to 1, to specify that the medium used is Ethernet, HLEN is set to 6 because an Ethernet address (MAC address) is 6 octets long. The CHADDR is set to the MAC address used by the client. Some options are set as well.

text:
Example DHCPDISCOVER message

IP: source=0.0.0.0; destination=255.255.255.255
UDP: source port=68; destination port=67

Octet 0
Octet 1
Octet 2
Octet 3

OP
HTYPE
HLEN
HOPS

0x01
0x01
0x06
0x00

XID

0x3903F326

SECS
FLAGS

0x0000
0x0000

CIADDR (Client IP address)

0x00000000

YIADDR (Your IP address)

0x00000000

SIADDR (Server IP address)

0x00000000

GIADDR (Gateway IP address)

0x00000000

CHADDR (Client hardware address)

0x00053C04

0x8D590000

0x00000000

0x00000000

192 octets of 0s, or overflow space for additional options; BOOTP legacy.

Magic cookie

0x63825363

DHCP options

0x350101 53: 1 (DHCP Discover)

0x3204c0a00164 50: 192.168.1.100 requested

0x370401030f06 55 (Parameter Request List):

1 (Request Subnet Mask),
3 (Router),
15 (Domain Name),
6 (Domain Name Server)

0xff 255 (Endmark)

text: DHCP offer[edit]

text: When a DHCP server receives a DHCPDISCOVER message from a client, which is an IP address lease request, the DHCP server reserves an IP address for the client and makes a lease offer by sending a DHCPOFFER message to the client. This message contains the client's MAC address, the IP address that the server is offering, the subnet mask, the lease duration, and the IP address of the DHCP server making the offer.

text: The DHCP server determines the configuration based on the client's hardware address as specified in the CHADDR (client hardware address) field. Here the server, 192.168.1.1, specifies the client's IP address in the YIADDR (your IP address) field.

text:
DHCPOFFER message

IP: source=192.168.1.1; destination=192.168.1.100
UDP: source port=67; destination port=68

Octet 0
Octet 1
Octet 2
Octet 3

OP
HTYPE
HLEN
HOPS

0x02
0x01
0x06
0x00

XID

0x3903F326

SECS
FLAGS

0x0000
0x0000

CIADDR (Client IP address)

0x00000000

YIADDR (Your IP address)

0xC0A80164 (192.168.1.100)

SIADDR (Server IP address)

0xC0A80101 (192.168.1.1)

GIADDR (Gateway IP address)

0x00000000

CHADDR (Client hardware address)

0x00053C04

0x8D590000

0x00000000

0x00000000

192 octets of 0s; BOOTP legacy.

Magic cookie

0x63825363

DHCP options

53: 2 (DHCP Offer)

1 (subnet mask): 255.255.255.0

3 (Router): 192.168.1.1

51 (IP address lease time): 86400s (1 day)

54 (DHCP server): 192.168.1.1

6 (DNS servers):

9.7.10.15,
9.7.10.16,
9.7.10.18

text: DHCP request[edit]

text: In response to the DHCP offer, the client replies with a DHCPREQUEST message, broadcast to the server,[a] requesting the offered address. A client can receive DHCP offers from multiple servers, but it will accept only one DHCP offer. Based on required server identification option in the request and broadcast messaging, servers are informed whose offer the client has accepted.[7]:Section 3.1, Item 3 When other DHCP servers receive this message, they withdraw any offers that they have made to the client and return the offered IP address to the pool of available addresses.

text:
DHCPREQUEST message

IP: source=0.0.0.0 destination=255.255.255.255;[a]
UDP: source port=68; destination port=67

Octet 0
Octet 1
Octet 2
Octet 3

OP
HTYPE
HLEN
HOPS

0x01
0x01
0x06
0x00

XID

0x3903F326

SECS
FLAGS

0x0000
0x0000

CIADDR (Client IP address)

0x00000000

YIADDR (Your IP address)

0x00000000

SIADDR (Server IP address)

0xC0A80101

GIADDR (Gateway IP address)

0x00000000

CHADDR (Client hardware address)

0x00053C04

0x8D590000

0x00000000

0x00000000

192 octets of 0s; BOOTP legacy.

Magic cookie

0x63825363

DHCP options

53: 3 (DHCP Request)

50: 192.168.1.100 requested

54 (DHCP server): 192.168.1.1

text: DHCP acknowledgement[edit]

text: When the DHCP server receives the DHCPREQUEST message from the client, the configuration process enters its final phase. The acknowledgement phase involves sending a DHCPACK packet to the client. This packet includes the lease duration and any other configuration information that the client might have requested. At this point, the IP configuration process is completed.

text: The protocol expects the DHCP client to configure its network interface with the negotiated parameters.

text: After the client obtains an IP address, it should probe the newly received address[8] (e.g. with ARP Address Resolution Protocol) to prevent address conflicts caused by overlapping address pools of DHCP servers.

text:
DHCPACK message

IP: source=192.168.1.1; destination=192.168.1.100
UDP: source port=67; destination port=68

Octet 0
Octet 1
Octet 2
Octet 3

OP
HTYPE
HLEN
HOPS

0x02
0x01
0x06
0x00

XID

0x3903F326

SECS
FLAGS

0x0000
0x0000

CIADDR (Client IP address)

0x00000000

YIADDR (Your IP address)

0xC0A80164

SIADDR (Server IP address)

0xC0A80101

GIADDR (Gateway IP address switched by relay)

0x00000000

CHADDR (Client hardware address)

0x00053C04

0x8D590000

0x00000000

0x00000000

192 octets of 0s. BOOTP legacy

Magic cookie

0x63825363

DHCP options

53: 5 (DHCP ACK) or 6 (DHCP NAK)

1 (subnet mask): 255.255.255.0

3 (Router): 192.168.1.1

51 (IP address lease time): 86400s (1 day)

54 (DHCP server): 192.168.1.1

6 (DNS servers):

9.7.10.15,
9.7.10.16,
9.7.10.18

text: DHCP information[edit]

text: A DHCP client may request more information than the server sent with the original DHCPOFFER. The client may also request repeat data for a particular application. For example, browsers use DHCP Inform to obtain web proxy settings via WPAD.

text: DHCP releasing[edit]

text: The client sends a request to the DHCP server to release the DHCP information and the client deactivates its IP address. As client devices usually do not know when users may unplug them from the network, the protocol does not mandate the sending of DHCP Release.

text: Client configuration parameters[edit]

text: A DHCP server can provide optional configuration parameters to the client. RFC 2132 describes the available DHCP options defined by Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) - DHCP and BOOTP PARAMETERS.[9]

text: A DHCP client can select, manipulate and overwrite parameters provided by a DHCP server. In Unix-like systems this client-level refinement typically takes place according to the values in the configuration file /etc/dhclient.conf.

text: DHCP options[edit]

text: Options are octet strings of varying length. The first octet is the option code, the second octet is the number of following octets and the remaining octets are code dependent. For example, the DHCP Message type option for an Offer would appear as 0x35, 0x01, 0x02, where 0x35 is code 53 for "DHCP Message Type", 0x01 means one octet follows and 0x02 is the value of "Offer".

text: Documented in RFC 2132[edit]

text: The following tables list the available DHCP options, as listed in RFC 2132.[10]

text:
RFC 1497 (BOOTP Vendor Information Extensions) vendor extensions[10]:Section 3

Code
Name
Length
Notes

0
Pad[10]:Section 3.1
0 octets
Can be used to pad other options so that they are aligned to the word boundary; is not followed by length byte

1
Subnet Mask[10]:Section 3.3
4 octets
Must be sent after the router option (option 3) if both are included

2
Time Offset[10]:Section 3.4
4 octets

3
Router
Multiples of 4 octets
Available routers, should be listed in order of preference

4
Time Server
Multiples of 4 octets
Available time servers to synchronise with, should be listed in order of preference

5
Name Server
Multiples of 4 octets
Available IEN 116 name servers, should be listed in order of preference

6
Domain Name Server
Multiples of 4 octets
Available DNS servers, should be listed in order of preference

7
Log Server
Multiples of 4 octets
Available log servers, should be listed in order of preference.

8
Cookie Server
Multiples of 4 octets
"Cookie" in this case means "fortune cookie" or "quote of the day," a pithy or humorous anecdote often sent as part of a logon process on large computers; it has nothing to do with cookies sent by websites.

9
LPR Server
Multiples of 4 octets

10
Impress Server
Multiples of 4 octets

11
Resource Location Server
Multiples of 4 octets

12
Host Name
Minimum of 1 octet

13
Boot File Size
2 octets
Length of the boot image in 4KiB blocks

14
Merit Dump File
Minimum of 1 octet
Path where crash dumps should be stored

15
Domain Name
Minimum of 1 octet

16
Swap Server
4 octets

17
Root Path
Minimum of 1 octet

18
Extensions Path
Minimum of 1 octet

255
End
0 octets
Used to mark the end of the vendor option field

text:
IP Layer Parameters per Host[10]:Section 4

Code
Name
Length
Notes

19
IP Forwarding Enable/Disable
1 octet

20
Non-Local Source Routing Enable/Disable
1 octet

21
Policy Filter
Multiples of 8 octets

22
Maximum Datagram Reassembly Size
2 octets

23
Default IP Time-to-live
1 octet

24
Path MTU Aging Timeout
4 octets

25
Path MTU Plateau Table
Multiples of 2 octets

text:
IP Layer Parameters per Interface[10]:Section 5

Code
Name
Length
Notes

26
Interface MTU
2 octets

27
All Subnets are Local
1 octet

28
Broadcast Address
4 octets

29
Perform Mask Discovery
1 octet

30
Mask Supplier
1 octet

31
Perform Router Discovery
1 octet

32
Router Solicitation Address
4 octets

33
Static Route
Multiples of 8 octets
A list of destination/router pairs

text:
Link Layer Parameters per Interface[10]:Section 6

Code
Name
Length
Notes

34
Trailer Encapsulation Option
1 octet

35
ARP Cache Timeout
4 octets

36
Ethernet Encapsulation
1 octet

text:
TCP Parameters[10]:Section 7

Code
Name
Length
Notes

37
TCP Default TTL
1 octet

38
TCP Keepalive Interval
4 octets

39
TCP Keepalive Garbage
1 octet

text:
Application and Service Parameters[10]:Section 8

Code
Name
Length
Notes

40
Network Information Service Domain
Minimum of 1 octet

41
Network Information Servers
Multiples of 4 octets

42
Network Time Protocol Servers
Multiples of 4 octets

43
Vendor Specific Information
Minimum of 1 octets

44
NetBIOS over TCP/IP Name Server
Multiples of 4 octets

45
NetBIOS over TCP/IP Datagram Distribution Server
Multiples of 4 octets

46
NetBIOS over TCP/IP Node Type
1 octet

47
NetBIOS over TCP/IP Scope
Minimum of 1 octet

48
X Window System Font Server
Multiples of 4 octets

49
X Window System Display Manager
Multiples of 4 octets

64
Network Information Service+ Domain
Minimum of 1 octet

65
Network Information Service+ Servers
Multiples of 4 octets

68
Mobile IP Home Agent
Multiples of 4 octets

69
Simple Mail Transport Protocol (SMTP) Server
Multiples of 4 octets

70
Post Office Protocol (POP3) Server
Multiples of 4 octets

71
Network News Transport Protocol (NNTP) Server
Multiples of 4 octets

72
Default World Wide Web (WWW) Server
Multiples of 4 octets

73
Default Finger Server
Multiples of 4 octets

74
Default Internet Relay Chat (IRC) Server
Multiples of 4 octets

75
StreetTalk Server
Multiples of 4 octets

76
StreetTalk Directory Assistance (STDA) Server
Multiples of 4 octets

text:
DHCP Extensions[10]:Section 9

Code
Name
Length
Notes

50
Requested IP address
4 octets

51
IP address Lease Time
4 octets

52
Option Overload
1 octet

53
DHCP Message Type
1 octet

54
Server Identifier
4 octets

55
Parameter Request List
Minimum of 1 octet

56
Message
Minimum of 1 octet

57
Maximum DHCP Message Size
2 octets

58
Renewal (T1) Time Value
4 octets

59
Rebinding (T2) Time Value
4 octets

60
Vendor class identifier
Minimum of 1 octet

61
Client-identifier
Minimum of 2 octets

66
TFTP server name
Minimum of 1 octet

67
Bootfile name
Minimum of 1 octet

text: DHCP client vendor identification[edit]

text: An option exists to identify the vendor and functionality of a DHCP client. The information is a variable-length string of characters or octets which has a meaning specified by the vendor of the DHCP client. One method that a DHCP client can utilize to communicate to the server that it is using a certain type of hardware or firmware is to set a value in its DHCP requests called the Vendor Class Identifier (VCI) (Option 60).

text: This method allows a DHCP server to differentiate between the two kinds of client machines and process the requests from the two types of modems appropriately. Some types of set-top boxes also set the VCI (Option 60) to inform the DHCP server about the hardware type and functionality of the device. The value this option is set to gives the DHCP server a hint about any required extra information that this client needs in a DHCP response.

text: Documented Elsewhere[edit]

text:
Documented DHCP Options

Code
Name
Length
RFC

82
Relay Agent Information Option
Minimum of 2 octets
RFC 3046[11]

85
NDS Servers Option
Minimum of 4 octets, multiple of 4 octets
RFC 2241[12]:Section 2

86
NDS Tree Name Option
Variable
RFC 2241[12]:Section 3

87
NDS Context Option
Variable
RFC 2241[12]:Section 4

119
Domain Search Option
Variable
RFC 3397[13]

121
Classless Static Route Option
Variable
RFC 3442[14]

text: Relay Agent Information Sub-options[edit]

text: The Relay Agent Information Option (option 82)[11] specifies container for attaching sub-options to DHCP requests transmitted between a DHCP relay and a DHCP server.

text:
Relay Agent Sub-options

Code
Name
Length
RFC

4
DOCSIS (Data-Over-Cable Service Interface Specifications) Device Class
4 octets
RFC 3256[15]

text: DHCP relaying[edit]

text: In small networks, where only one IP subnet is being managed, DHCP clients communicate directly with DHCP servers. However, DHCP servers can also provide IP addresses for multiple subnets. In this case, a DHCP client that has not yet acquired an IP address cannot communicate directly with the DHCP server using IP routing, because it doesn't have a routable IP address, doesn't know the IP address of a router, and doesn't know the IP address of the DHCP server.

text: In order to allow DHCP clients on subnets not directly served by DHCP servers to communicate with DHCP servers, DHCP relay agents can be installed on these subnets. The DHCP client broadcasts on the local link; the relay agent receives the broadcast and transmits it to one or more DHCP servers using unicast. The relay agent stores its own IP address in field GIADDR field of the DHCP packet. The DHCP server uses the GIADDR-value to determine the subnet on which the relay agent received the broadcast, and allocates an IP address on that subnet. When the DHCP server replies to the client, it sends the reply to the GIADDR-address, again using unicast. The relay agent then retransmits the response on the local network.

text: In this situation, the communication between the relay agent and the DHCP server typically uses both a source and destination UDP port of 67.

text: Reliability[edit]

text: The DHCP ensures reliability in several ways: periodic renewal, rebinding,[7]:Section 4.4.5 and failover. DHCP clients are allocated leases that last for some period of time. Clients begin to attempt to renew their leases once half the lease interval has expired.[7]:Section 4.4.5 Paragraph 3 They do this by sending a unicast DHCPREQUEST message to the DHCP server that granted the original lease. If that server is down or unreachable, it will fail to respond to the DHCPREQUEST. However, in that case the client repeats the DHCPREQUEST from time to time,[7]:Section 4.4.5 Paragraph 8[b] so if the DHCP server comes back up or becomes reachable again, the DHCP client will succeed in contacting it and renew the lease.

text: If the DHCP server is unreachable for an extended period of time,[7]:Section 4.4.5 Paragraph 5 the DHCP client will attempt to rebind, by broadcasting its DHCPREQUEST rather than unicasting it. Because it is broadcast, the DHCPREQUEST message will reach all available DHCP servers. If some other DHCP server is able to renew the lease, it will do so at this time.

text: In order for rebinding to work, when the client successfully contacts a backup DHCP server, that server must have accurate information about the client's binding. Maintaining accurate binding information between two servers is a complicated problem; if both servers are able to update the same lease database, there must be a mechanism to avoid conflicts between updates on the independent servers. A proposal for implementing fault-tolerant DHCP servers was submitted to the Internet Engineering Task Force, but never formalized[16][c]

text: If rebinding fails, the lease will eventually expire. When the lease expires, the client must stop using the IP address granted to it in its lease.[7]:Section 4.4.5 Paragraph 9 At that time it will restart the DHCP process from the beginning by broadcasting a DHCPDISCOVER message. Since its lease has expired, it will accept any IP address offered to it. Once it has a new IP address (presumably from a different DHCP server) it will once again be able to use the network. However, since its IP address has changed, any ongoing connections will be broken.

text: Security[edit]

text: The base DHCP does not include any mechanism for authentication.[17] Because of this, it is vulnerable to a variety of attacks. These attacks fall into three main categories:

text:
Unauthorized DHCP servers providing false information to clients.[18]
Unauthorized clients gaining access to resources.[18]
Resource exhaustion attacks from malicious DHCP clients.[18]

text: Because the client has no way to validate the identity of a DHCP server, unauthorized DHCP servers (commonly called "rogue DHCP") can be operated on networks, providing incorrect information to DHCP clients.[19] This can serve either as a denial-of-service attack, preventing the client from gaining access to network connectivity,[20] or as a man-in-the-middle attack.[21] Because the DHCP server provides the DHCP client with server IP addresses, such as the IP address of one or more DNS servers,[18] an attacker can convince a DHCP client to do its DNS lookups through its own DNS server, and can therefore provide its own answers to DNS queries from the client.[22][23] This in turn allows the attacker to redirect network traffic through itself, allowing it to eavesdrop on connections between the client and network servers it contacts, or to simply replace those network servers with its own.[22]

text: Because the DHCP server has no secure mechanism for authenticating the client, clients can gain unauthorized access to IP addresses by presenting credentials, such as client identifiers, that belong to other DHCP clients.[19] This also allows DHCP clients to exhaust the DHCP server's store of IP addresses—by presenting new credentials each time it asks for an address, the client can consume all the available IP addresses on a particular network link, preventing other DHCP clients from getting service.[19]

text: DHCP does provide some mechanisms for mitigating these problems. The Relay Agent Information Option protocol extension (RFC 3046, usually referred to in the industry by its actual number as Option 82 [24][25]) allows network operators to attach tags to DHCP messages as these messages arrive on the network operator's trusted network. This tag is then used as an authorization token to control the client's access to network resources. Because the client has no access to the network upstream of the relay agent, the lack of authentication does not prevent the DHCP server operator from relying on the authorization token.[17]

text: Another extension, Authentication for DHCP Messages (RFC 3118), provides a mechanism for authenticating DHCP messages. Unfortunately, as of 2002, RFC 3118 had not seen widespread adoption because of the problems of managing keys for large numbers of DHCP clients.[26] A 2007 book about DSL technologies remarked that

text: there were numerous security vulnerabilities identified against the security measures proposed by RFC 3118. This fact, combined with the introduction of 802.1x, slowed the deployment and take-rate of authenticated DHCP, and it has never been widely deployed.[27]

text: A 2010 book notes that

text: [t]here have been very few implementations of DHCP Authentication. The challenges of key management and processing delays due to hash computation have been deemed too heavy a price to pay for the perceived benefits.[28]

text: Architectural proposals from 2008 involve authenticating DHCP requests using 802.1x or PANA (both of which transport EAP).[29] An IETF proposal was made for including EAP in DHCP itself, the so-called EAPoDHCP;[30] this does not appear to have progressed beyond IETF draft level, the last of which dates to 2010.[31]

text: IETF standards documents[edit]

text:
RFC 2131, Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
RFC 2132, DHCP Options and BOOTP Vendor Extensions
RFC 3046, DHCP Relay Agent Information Option
RFC 3397, Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) Domain Search Option
RFC 3942, Reclassifying Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol Version Four (DHCPv4) Options
RFC 4242, Information Refresh Time Option for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol for IPv6
RFC 4361, Node-specific Client Identifiers for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol Version Four (DHCPv4)
RFC 4436, Detecting Network Attachment in IPv4 (DNAv4)
RFC 3442, Classless Static Route Option for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) version 4