document_title: Homestead Strike

question_text: how were the homestead and pullman strikes a defeat for the unions

text: Homestead Strike

text: Background[edit]

text: Carnegie Steel made major technological innovations in the 1880s, especially the installation of the open-hearth system at Homestead in 1886. It now became possible to make steel suitable for structural beams and for armor plate for the United States Navy, which paid far higher prices for the premium product. In addition, the plant moved increasingly toward the continuous system of production. Carnegie installed vastly improved systems of material-handling, like overhead cranes, hoists, charging machines, and buggies. All of this greatly sped up the process of steelmaking, and allowed the production of vastly larger quantities of the product. As the mills expanded, the labor force grew rapidly, especially with less skilled workers. In response, the more-skilled union members reacted with a strike designed to protect their historic position.[4]

text: Union[edit]

text: The Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers (AA) was an American labor union formed in 1876. It was a craft union representing skilled iron and steel workers.

text: The AA's membership was concentrated in ironworks west of the Allegheny Mountains. The union negotiated national uniform wage scales on an annual basis; helped regulate working hours, workload levels and work speeds; and helped improve working conditions. It also acted as a hiring hall, helping employers find scarce puddlers and rollers.[5]

text: The AA organized the independently-owned Pittsburgh Bessemer Steel Works in Homestead in 1881. The AA engaged in a bitter strike at the Homestead works on January 1, 1882 in an effort to prevent management from including a non-union clause in the workers' contracts, known as a "yellow-dog contract". Violence occurred on both sides, and the plant brought in numerous strikebreakers. The strike ended on March 20 in a complete victory for the union.[6]

text: The AA struck the steel plant again on July 1, 1889, when negotiations for a new three-year collective bargaining agreement failed. The strikers seized the town and once again made common cause with various immigrant groups. Backed by 2,000 townspeople, the strikers drove off a trainload of strikebreakers on July 10. When the sheriff returned with 125 newly deputized agents two days later, the strikers rallied 5,000 townspeople to their cause. Although victorious, the union agreed to significant wage cuts that left tonnage rates less than half those at the nearby Jones and Laughlin works, where technological improvements had not been made.[7]

text: Carnegie officials conceded that the AA essentially ran the Homestead plant after the 1889 strike. The union contract contained 58 pages of footnotes defining work-rules at the plant and strictly limited management's ability to maximize output.[8]

text: For its part, the AA saw substantial gains after the 1889 strike. Membership doubled, and the local union treasury had a balance of $146,000. The Homestead union grew belligerent, and relationships between workers and managers grew tense.[9]

text: Nature of the 1892 strike[edit]

text: The Homestead strike was organized and purposeful, a harbinger of the type of strike which marked the modern age of labor relations in the United States.[10] The AA strike at the Homestead steel mill in 1892 was different from previous large-scale strikes in American history such as the Great railroad strike of 1877 or the Great Southwest Railroad Strike of 1886. Earlier strikes had been largely leaderless and disorganized mass uprisings of workers.

text: Plans of Carnegie and Frick[edit]

text: Andrew Carnegie placed industrialist Henry Clay Frick in charge of his company's operations in 1881. Frick resolved to break the union at Homestead. "The mills have never been able to turn out the product they should, owing to being held back by the Amalgamated men," he complained in a letter to Carnegie.[11]

text: Carnegie was publicly in favor of labor unions. He condemned the use of strikebreakers and told associates that no steel mill was worth a single drop of blood.[12] But Carnegie agreed with Frick's desire to break the union and "reorganize the whole affair, and . . . exact good reasons for employing every man. Far too many men required by Amalgamated rules."[13] Carnegie ordered the Homestead plant to manufacture large amounts of inventory so the plant could weather a strike. He also drafted a notice (which Frick never released) withdrawing recognition of the union.[14]

text: With the collective bargaining agreement due to expire on June 30, 1892, Frick and the leaders of the local AA union entered into negotiations in February. With the steel industry doing well and prices higher, the AA asked for a wage increase; the AA represented about 800 of the 3,800 workers at the plant. Frick immediately countered with a 22% wage decrease that would affect nearly half the union's membership and remove a number of positions from the bargaining unit. Carnegie encouraged Frick to use the negotiations to break the union: "...the Firm has decided that the minority must give way to the majority. These works, therefore, will be necessarily non-union after the expiration of the present agreement."[15] Carnegie believed that the Amalgamated was a hindrance to efficiency; furthermore it was not representative of the workers. It admitted only a small group of skilled workers. It was in its own way an elitist, discriminatory organization that was not worthy of the Republic, Carnegie felt.[16]

text: Frick announced on April 30, 1892 that he would bargain for 29 more days. If no contract was reached, Carnegie Steel would cease to recognize the union. Carnegie formally approved Frick's tactics on May 4. Then Frick offered a slightly better wage scale and advised the Superintendent to tell the workers, "We do not care whether a man belongs to a union or not, nor do we wish to interfere. He may belong to as many unions or organizations as he chooses, but we think our employees at Homestead Steel Works would fare much better working under the system in vogue at Edgar Thomson and Duquesne."[17]

text: Lockout[edit]

text: Frick locked workers out of the plate mill and one of the open hearth furnaces on the evening of June 28. When no collective bargaining agreement was reached on June 29, Frick locked the union out of the rest of the plant. A high fence topped with barbed wire, begun in January, was completed and the plant sealed to the workers. Sniper towers with searchlights were constructed near each mill building, and high-pressure water cannons (some capable of spraying boiling-hot liquid) were placed at each entrance. Various aspects of the plant were protected, reinforced, or shielded.[18]

text: At a mass meeting on June 30, local AA leaders reviewed the final negotiating sessions and announced that the company had broken the contract by locking out workers a day before the contract expired. The Knights of Labor, which had organized the mechanics and transportation workers at Homestead, agreed to walk out alongside the skilled workers of the AA. Workers at Carnegie plants in Pittsburgh, Duquesne, Union Mills and Beaver Falls struck in sympathy the same day.[19]

text: The Declaration of the Strike Committee, dated July 20, 1892 reads in part,

text: The employees in the mill of Messrs. Carnegie, Phipps & Co., at Homestead, Pa., have built there a town with its homes, its schools and its churches; have for many years been faithful co-workers with the company in the business of the mill; have invested thousands of dollars of their savings in said mill in the expectation of spending their lives in Homestead and of working in the mill during the period of their efficiency. . . . “Therefore, the committee desires to express to the public as its firm belief that both the public and the employees aforesaid have equitable rights and interests in the said mill which cannot be modified or diverted without due process of law; that the employees have the right to continuous employment in the said mill during efficiency and good behavior without regard to religious, political or economic opinions or associations; that it is against public policy and subversive of the fundamental principles of American liberty that a whole community of workers should be denied employment or suffer any other social detriment on account of membership in a church, a political party or a trade union; that it is our duty as American citizens to resist by every legal and ordinary means the unconstitutional, anarchic and revolutionary policy of the Carnegie Company, which seems to evince a contempt [for] public and private interests and a disdain [for] the public conscience. . . .[20]

text: The strikers were determined to keep the plant closed. They secured a steam-powered river launch and several rowboats to patrol the Monongahela River, which ran alongside the plant. Men also divided themselves into units along military lines. Picket lines were thrown up around the plant and the town, and 24-hour shifts established. Ferries and trains were watched. Strangers were challenged to give explanations for their presence in town; if one was not forthcoming, they were escorted outside the city limits. Telegraph communications with AA locals in other cities were established to keep tabs on the company's attempts to hire replacement workers. Reporters were issued special badges which gave them safe passage through the town, but the badges were withdrawn if it was felt misleading or false information made it into the news. Tavern owners were even asked to prevent excessive drinking.[21]

text: Frick was also busy. The company placed ads for replacement workers in newspapers as far away as Boston, St. Louis and even Europe.[22]

text: But unprotected strikebreakers would be driven off. On July 4, Frick formally requested that Sheriff William H. McCleary intervene to allow supervisors access to the plant. Carnegie corporation attorney Philander Knox gave the go-ahead to the sheriff on July 5, and McCleary dispatched 11 deputies to the town to post handbills ordering the strikers to stop interfering with the plant's operation. The strikers tore down the handbills and told the deputies that they would not turn over the plant to nonunion workers. Then they herded the deputies onto a boat and sent them downriver to Pittsburgh.[23]

text: Frick had ordered the construction of a solid board fence topped with barbed wire around mill property. The workers dubbed the newly fortified mill "Fort Frick." With the mill ringed by striking workers, agents from the Pinkerton National Detective Agency, which Frick had contracted to provide security at the plant in April 1892, planned to access the plant grounds from the river. Three hundred Pinkerton detectives assembled on the Davis Island Dam on the Ohio River about five miles (8 km) below Pittsburgh at 10:30 p.m. on the night of July 5, 1892. They were given Winchester rifles, placed on two specially-equipped barges and towed upriver with the object of removing the workers by force. Upon their landing, a large mêlée between workers and Pinkerton detectives ensued. Several men were killed, nine workers among them, and the riot was ultimately quelled only by the intervention of 8,000 armed state militia. Among working-class Americans, Frick's actions against the strikers were condemned as excessive, and he soon became a target of even more union organizers.

text: Battle on July 6[edit]

text: Frick's intent was to open the works with nonunion men on July 6. Knox devised a plan to get the Pinkertons onto the mill property. With the mill ringed by striking workers, the agents would access the plant grounds from the river. Three hundred Pinkerton agents assembled on the Davis Island Dam on the Ohio River about five miles below Pittsburgh at 10:30 p.m. on the night of July 5, 1892. They were given Winchester rifles, placed on two specially-equipped barges and towed upriver.[24]

text: The strikers were prepared for them; the AA had learned of the Pinkertons as soon as they had left Boston for the embarkation point. The small flotilla of union boats went downriver to meet the barges. Strikers on the steam launch fired a few random shots at the barges, then withdrew—blowing the launch whistle to alert the plant. The strikers blew the plant whistle at 2:30 a.m., drawing thousands of men, women and children to the plant.[25]

text: Pinkertons attempt to land[edit]

text: The Pinkertons attempted to land under cover of darkness about 4 a.m. A large crowd of families had kept pace with the boats as they were towed by a tug into the town. A few shots were fired at the tug and barges, but no one was injured. The crowd tore down the barbed-wire fence and strikers and their families surged onto the Homestead plant grounds. Some in the crowd threw stones at the barges, but strike leaders shouted for restraint.[26]

text: The Pinkerton agents attempted to disembark, and shots were fired. Conflicting testimony exists as to which side fired the first shot. John T. McCurry, a boatman on the steamboat Little Bill (which had been hired by the Pinkerton Detective Agency to ferry its agents to the steel mill) and one of the men wounded by the strikers, said: "The armed Pinkerton men commenced to climb up the banks. Then the workmen opened fire on the detectives. The men shot first, and not until three of the Pinkerton men had fallen did they respond to the fire. I am willing to take an oath that the workmen fired first, and that the Pinkerton men did not shoot until some of their number had been wounded."[27] But according to The New York Times, the Pinkertons shot first.[28] The newspaper reported that the Pinkertons opened fire and wounded William Foy, a worker.[28] Regardless of which side opened fire first, the first two individuals wounded were Frederick Heinde, captain of the Pinkertons,[29] and Foy. The Pinkerton agents aboard the barges then fired into the crowd, killing two and wounding 11. The crowd responded in kind, killing two and wounding 12. The firefight continued for about 10 minutes.[30]

text: The strikers then huddled behind the pig and scrap iron in the mill yard, while the Pinkertons cut holes in the side of the barges so they could fire on any who approached. The Pinkerton tug departed with the wounded agents, leaving the barges stranded. The strikers soon set to work building a rampart of steel beams further up the riverbank from which they could fire down on the barges. Hundreds of women continued to crowd on the riverbank between the strikers and the agents, calling on the strikers to 'kill the Pinkertons'.[31]

text: The strikers continued to sporadically fire on the barges. Union members took potshots at the ships from their rowboats and the steam-powered launch. The burgess of Homestead, John McLuckie, issued a proclamation at 6:00 a.m. asking for townspeople to help defend the peace; more than 5,000 people congregated on the hills overlooking the steelworks. A 20-pounder brass cannon was set up on the shore opposite the steel mill, and an attempt was made to sink the barges. Six miles away in Pittsburgh, thousands of steelworkers gathered in the streets, listening to accounts of the attacks at Homestead; hundreds, many of them armed, began to move toward the town to assist the strikers.[32]

text: The Pinkertons attempted to disembark again at 8:00 a.m. A striker high up the riverbank fired a shot. The Pinkertons returned fire, and four more strikers were killed (one by shrapnel sent flying when cannon fire hit one of the barges). Many of the Pinkerton agents refused to participate in the firefight any longer; the agents crowded onto the barge farthest from the shore. More experienced agents were barely able to stop the new recruits from abandoning the ships and swimming away. Intermittent gunfire from both sides continued throughout the morning. When the tug attempted to retrieve the barges at 10:50 a.m., gunfire drove it off. More than 300 riflemen positioned themselves on the high ground and kept a steady stream of fire on the barges. Just before noon, a sniper shot and killed another Pinkerton agent.[33]

text: After a few more hours, the strikers attempted to burn the barges. They seized a raft, loaded it with oil-soaked timber and floated it toward the barges. The Pinkertons nearly panicked, and a Pinkerton captain had to threaten to shoot anyone who fled. But the fire burned itself out before it reached the barges. The strikers then loaded a railroad flatcar with drums of oil and set it afire. The flatcar hurtled down the rails toward the mill's wharf where the barges were docked. But the car stopped at the water's edge and burned itself out. Dynamite was thrown at the barges, but it only hit the mark once (causing a little damage to one barge). At 2:00 p.m., the workers poured oil onto the river, hoping the oil slick would burn the barges; attempts to light the slick failed.[34]

text: Calls for state intervention[edit]

text: The AA worked behind the scenes to avoid further bloodshed and defuse the tense situation. At 9:00 a.m., outgoing AA international president William Weihe rushed to the sheriff's office and asked McCleary to convey a request to Frick to meet. McCleary did so, but Frick refused. He knew that the more chaotic the situation became, the more likely it was that Governor Robert E. Pattison would call out the state militia.[35]

text: Sheriff McCleary resisted attempts to call for state intervention until 10 a.m. on July 7. In a telegram to Gov. Pattison, he described how his deputies and the Carnegie men had been driven off, and noted that the workers and their supporters actively resisting the landing numbered nearly 5,000. Pattison responded by requiring McCleary to exhaust every effort to restore the peace. McCleary asked again for help at noon, and Pattison responded by asking how many deputies the sheriff had. A third telegram, sent at 3:00 p.m., again elicited a response from the governor exhorting McCleary to raise his own troops.[36]

text: Pinkerton surrender[edit]

text: At 4:00 p.m., events at the mill quickly began to wind down. More than 5,000 men—most of them armed mill hands from the nearby South Side, Braddock and Duquesne works—arrived at the Homestead plant. Weihe wanted to prevent further trouble at Homestead, so he pleaded with Frick to confer with representatives of the Amalgamated to return to Homestead and stop the riot.[37][page needed] Weihe urged the strikers to let the Pinkertons surrender, but he was shouted down. Weihe tried to speak again, but this time his pleas were drowned out as the strikers bombarded the barges with fireworks left over from the recent Independence Day celebration. Hugh O'Donnell, a heater in the plant and head of the union's strike committee, then spoke to the crowd. He demanded that each Pinkerton be charged with murder, forced to turn over his arms and then be removed from the town. The crowd shouted their approval.[38]

text: The Pinkertons, too, wished to surrender. At 5:00 p.m., they raised a white flag and two agents asked to speak with the strikers. O'Donnell guaranteed them safe passage out of town. Upon arrival, their arms were stripped from them. With heads uncovered, to distinguish them from the mill hands, they passed along between two rows of guards armed with Winchesters.[39] As the Pinkertons crossed the grounds of the mill, the crowd formed a gauntlet through which the agents passed. Men and women threw sand and stones at the Pinkerton agents, spat on them and beat them. Several Pinkertons were clubbed into unconsciousness. Members of the crowd ransacked the barges, then burned them to the waterline.[40]

text: As the Pinkertons were marched through town to the Opera House (which served as a temporary jail), the townspeople continued to assault the agents. Two agents were beaten as horrified town officials looked on. The press expressed shock at the treatment of the Pinkerton agents, and the torrent of abuse helped turn media sympathies away from the strikers.[41]

text: The strike committee met with the town council to discuss the handover of the agents to McCleary. But the real talks were taking place between McCleary and Weihe in McCleary's office. At 10:15 p.m., the two sides agreed to a transfer process. A special train arrived at 12:30 a.m. on July 7. McCleary, the international AA's lawyer and several town officials accompanied the Pinkerton agents to Pittsburgh.[42]

text: But when the Pinkerton agents arrived at their final destination in Pittsburgh, state officials declared that they would not be charged with murder (per the agreement with the strikers) but rather simply released. The announcement was made with the full concurrence of the AA attorney. A special train whisked the Pinkerton agents out of the city at 10:00 a.m. on July 7.[43]

text: Arrival of the state militia[edit]

text: On July 7, the strike committee sent a telegram to Gov. Pattison to attempt to persuade him that law and order had been restored in the town. Pattison replied that he had heard differently. Union officials traveled to Harrisburg and met with Pattison on July 9. Their discussions revolved not around law and order, but the safety of the Carnegie plant.[44]

text: Pattison, however, remained unconvinced by the strikers' arguments. Although Pattison had ordered the Pennsylvania militia to muster on July 6, he had not formally charged it with doing anything. Pattison's refusal to act rested largely on his concern that the union controlled the entire city of Homestead and commanded the allegiance of its citizens. Pattison refused to order the town taken by force, for fear a massacre would occur. But once emotions had died down, Pattison felt the need to act. He had been elected with the backing of a Carnegie-supported political machine, and he could no longer refuse to protect Carnegie interests.[45]

text: The steelworkers resolved to meet the militia with open arms, hoping to establish good relations with the troops. But the militia managed to keep its arrival in the town a secret almost to the last moment. At 9:00 a.m. on July 12, the Pennsylvania state militia arrived at the small Munhall train station near the Homestead mill (rather than the downtown train station as expected). Their commander, Major General George R. Snowden, made it clear to local officials that he sided with the owners. When Hugh O'Donnell, the head of the union's strike committee attempted to welcome Snowden and pledge the cooperation of the strikers, Snowden told him that the strikers had not been law abiding, and that "I want you to distinctly understand that I am the master of this situation."[46] More than 4,000 soldiers surrounded the plant. Within 20 minutes they had displaced the picketers; by 10:00 a.m., company officials were back in their offices. Another 2,000 troops camped on the high ground overlooking the city.[47]

text: The company quickly brought in strikebreakers and restarted production under the protection of the militia. Despite the presence of AFL pickets in front of several recruitment offices across the nation, Frick easily found employees to work the mill. The company quickly built bunk houses, dining halls and kitchens on the mill grounds to accommodate the strikebreakers. New employees, many of them black, arrived on July 13, and the mill furnaces relit on July 15. When a few workers attempted to storm into the plant to stop the relighting of the furnaces, militiamen fought them off and wounded six with bayonets.[48] But all was not well inside the plant. A race war between nonunion black and white workers in the Homestead plant broke out on July 22, 1892.[49]

text: Desperate to find a way to continue the strike, the AA appealed to Whitelaw Reid, the Republican candidate for vice president, on July 16. The AA offered to make no demands or set any preconditions; the union merely asked that Carnegie Steel reopen the negotiations. Reid wrote to Frick, warning him that the strike was hurting the Republican ticket and pleading with him to reopen talks. Frick refused.[50]

text: Attempted assassination and collapse of the strike[edit]

text: Frick, too, needed a way out of the strike. The company could not operate for long with strikebreakers living on the mill grounds, and permanent replacements had to be found.

text: On July 18, the town was placed under martial law, further disheartening many of the strikers.[51]

text: National attention became riveted on Homestead when, on July 23, Alexander Berkman, a New York anarchist with no connection to steel or to organized labor, plotted with his lover Emma Goldman to assassinate Frick. He came in from New York, gained entrance to Frick's office, then shot and stabbed the executive. Frick survived and continued his role; Berkman was sentenced to 22 years in prison.[52]

text: The Berkman assassination attempt undermined public support for the union and prompted the final collapse of the strike. Hugh O'Donnell was removed as chair of the strike committee when he proposed to return to work at the lower wage scale if the unionists could get their jobs back. On August 12, the company announced that 1,700 men were working at the mill and production had resumed at full capacity. The national AFL refused to intervene, the East European workers ignored the union and it had no strategy left. The union voted to go back to work on Carnegie's terms; the strike had failed and the union had collapsed.[53]

text: Legal battles[edit]

text: The company had waged a second front in state court, and was winning. On July 18, 16 of the strike leaders were charged with conspiracy, riot and murder. Each man was jailed for one night and forced to post a $10,000 bond.

text: The union retaliated by charging company executives with murder as well. The company men, too, had to post a $10,000 bond, but they were not forced to spend any time in jail. One judge issued treason charges against the Advisory Committee on August 30 for making itself the law. Most of the men could not raise the bail bond, and went to jail or into hiding. A compromise was reached whereby both sides dropped their charges.[54]

text: The strike's conclusion[edit]

text: Support for the strikers evaporated. The AFL refused to call for a boycott of Carnegie products in September 1892. Wholesale crossing of the picket line occurred, first among Eastern European immigrants and then among all workers. The strike had collapsed so much that the state militia pulled out on October 13, ending the 95-day occupation. The AA was nearly bankrupted by the job action. Weekly Union relief for a member averaged $6.25 but totalled a staggering $10,000 per week when including 1,600 strikers. With only 192 out of more than 3,800 strikers in attendance, the Homestead chapter of the AA voted, 101 to 91, to return to work on November 20, 1892.[55]

text: In the end, only four workers were ever tried on the actual charges filed on July 18. Three AA members were found innocent of all charges. Hugh Dempsey, the leader of the local Knights of Labor District Assembly, was found guilty of conspiring to poison[56] nonunion workers at the plant—despite the state's star witness recanting his testimony on the stand. Dempsey served a seven-year prison term. In February 1893, Knox and the union agreed to drop the charges filed against one another, and no further prosecutions emerged from the events at Homestead.[57]

text: The striking AA affiliate in Beaver Falls gave in the same day as the Homestead lodge. The AA affiliate at Union Mills held out until August 14, 1893. But by then the union had only 53 members. The union had been broken; the company had been operating the plant at full capacity for almost a year, since September 1892.[58]

text: Aftermath[edit]

text: The Homestead strike broke the AA as a force in the American labor movement. Many employers refused to sign contracts with their AA unions while the strike lasted. A deepening in 1889 of the Long Depression led most steel companies to seek wage decreases similar to those imposed at Homestead.[59]

text: An organizing drive at the Homestead plant in 1896 was crushed by Frick. In May 1899, 300 Homestead workers actually formed an AA lodge, but Frick ordered the Homestead works shut down and the unionization effort collapsed.

text: De-unionization efforts throughout the Midwest began against the AA in 1897 when Jones and Laughlin Steel refused to sign a contract. By 1900, not a single steel plant in Pennsylvania remained unionized. The AA presence in Ohio and Illinois continued for a few more years, but the union continued to collapse. Many lodges disbanded, their members disillusioned. Others were easily broken in short battles. Carnegie Steel's Mingo Junction, Ohio, plant was the last major unionized steel mill in the country. But it, too, successfully withdrew recognition without a fight in 1903.[60]

text: AA membership sagged to 10,000 in 1894 from its high of over 24,000 in 1891. A year later, it was down to 8,000. A 1901 strike against Carnegie's successor company, U.S. Steel collapsed. By 1909, membership in the AA had sunk to 6,300. A nationwide steel strike of 1919 also was unsuccessful.[61]

text: The AA maintained a rump membership in the steel industry until its takeover by the Steel Workers Organizing Committee in 1936. The two organizations officially disbanded and formed the United Steelworkers May 22, 1942.

text: In 1999 the Bost Building in downtown Homestead, AA headquarters throughout the strike, was designated a National Historic Landmark. It is used as a museum devoted not only to the strike, but also the steel industry in the Pittsburgh area.

text: A railroad bridge over the Monongahela River near the site of the battle is named Pinkerton's Landing Bridge in honor of the dead.

text: Two sites were each designated with a Pennsylvania state historical marker: the site where Pinkerton attempted to land, and the two adjoining cemeteries of St. Mary's and Homestead where are buried the remains of six of the seven Carnegie Steel Company workers that were killed.[1] The Pinkerton landing site was also named a Pittsburgh History and Landmarks Foundation Historic Landmark.[2]

text: Modern site[edit]

text: The pumphouse where the gunfight occurred remains as a museum and meeting hall. There are several historical markers as well as a metal commemorative sign with the US Steel logo that reads "In Honor Of The Workers."


document_title: List of Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles of 2002

question_text: what was the number one song on december 9 2002

root

text: Chart history

text:
Key

The yellow background indicates the #1 song on Billboard's 2002 Year-End Chart of Pop Singles.

tag: table

text:
Issue date
Song
Artist(s)
Reference

January 5
"How You Remind Me"
Nickelback
[11]

January 12
[12]

January 19
"U Got It Bad"
Usher
[13]

January 26
[14]

February 2
[15]

February 9
[16]

February 16
[17]

February 23
"Always on Time"
Ja Rule featuring Ashanti
[18]

March 2
[19]

March 9
"Ain't It Funny"
Jennifer Lopez featuring Ja Rule
[20]

March 16
[21]

March 23
[22]

March 30
[23]

April 6
[24]

April 13
[25]

April 20
"Foolish"
Ashanti
[26]

April 27
[27]

May 4
[28]

May 11
[29]

May 18
[30]

May 25
[31][32]

June 1
[33]

June 8
[34]

June 15
[35]

June 22
[36]

June 29
"Hot in Herre"
Nelly
[37]

July 6
[38]

July 13
[39]

July 20
[40]

July 27
[41]

August 3
[42]

August 10
[43]

August 17
"Dilemma"
Nelly featuring Kelly Rowland
[44]

August 24
[45]

August 31
[46]

September 7
[47]

September 14
[48]

September 21
[49]

September 28
[50]

October 5
"A Moment Like This"
Kelly Clarkson
[51]

October 12
[52]

October 19
"Dilemma"
Nelly featuring Kelly Rowland
[53]

October 26
[54]

November 2
[55]

November 9
"Lose Yourself"
Eminem
[56]

November 16
[57]

November 23
[58]

November 30
[59]

December 7
[60]

December 14
[61]

December 21
[62]

December 28
[63]


document_title: Jerome

question_text: when did jerome translated the bible into latin

text: Jerome

text: Life[edit]

text: Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus was born at Stridon around 347 A.D.[8] He was of Illyrian ancestry and his native tongue was the Illyrian dialect.[9][10] He was not baptized until about 360–366 A.D., when he had gone to Rome with his friend Bonosus (who may or may not have been the same Bonosus whom Jerome identifies as his friend who went to live as a hermit on an island in the Adriatic) to pursue rhetorical and philosophical studies. He studied under the grammarian Aelius Donatus. There Jerome learned Latin and at least some Greek,[11] though probably not the familiarity with Greek literature he would later claim to have acquired as a schoolboy.[12]

tag: p

text: As a student in Rome, he engaged in the superficial escapades and homosexual wanton behaviour of students there, which he indulged in quite casually but for which he suffered terrible bouts of guilt afterwards..[13] To appease his conscience, he would visit on Sundays the sepulchres of the martyrs and the Apostles in the catacombs. This experience would remind him of the terrors of hell:

text: "Often I would find myself entering those crypts, deep dug in the earth, with their walls on either side lined with the bodies of the dead, where everything was so dark that almost it seemed as though the Psalmist's words were fulfilled, Let them go down quick into Hell.[14] Here and there the light, not entering in through windows, but filtering down from above through shafts, relieved the horror of the darkness. But again, as soon as you found yourself cautiously moving forward, the black night closed around and there came to my mind the line of Vergil, "Horror ubique animos, simul ipsa silentia terrent'".[15][16]

text: Jerome used a quote from Virgil—"On all sides round horror spread wide; the very silence breathed a terror on my soul"[17]—to describe the horror of hell. Jerome initially used classical authors to describe Christian concepts such as hell that indicated both his classical education and his deep shame of their associated practices, such as pederasty which was found in Rome. Although initially skeptical of Christianity, he was eventually converted.[18] After several years in Rome, he travelled with Bonosus to Gaul and settled in Trier where he seems to have first taken up theological studies, and where he copied, for his friend Tyrannius Rufinus, Hilary of Poitiers' commentary on the Psalms and the treatise De synodis. Next came a stay of at least several months, or possibly years, with Rufinus at Aquileia, where he made many Christian friends.

text: Some of these accompanied him when he set out about 373 on a journey through Thrace and Asia Minor into northern Syria. At Antioch, where he stayed the longest, two of his companions died and he himself was seriously ill more than once. During one of these illnesses (about the winter of 373–374), he had a vision that led him to lay aside his secular studies and devote himself to God. He seems to have abstained for a considerable time from the study of the classics and to have plunged deeply into that of the Bible, under the impulse of Apollinaris of Laodicea, then teaching in Antioch and not yet suspected of heresy.

text: Seized with a desire for a life of ascetic penance, he went for a time to the desert of Chalcis, to the southeast of Antioch, known as the "Syrian Thebaid", from the number of hermits inhabiting it. During this period, he seems to have found time for studying and writing. He made his first attempt to learn Hebrew under the guidance of a converted Jew; and he seems to have been in correspondence with Jewish Christians in Antioch. Around this time he had copied for him a Hebrew Gospel, of which fragments are preserved in his notes, and is known today as the Gospel of the Hebrews, and which the Nazarenes considered to be the true Gospel of Matthew.[19] Jerome translated parts of this Hebrew Gospel into Greek.[20]

text: Returning to Antioch in 378 or 379, he was ordained by Bishop Paulinus, apparently unwillingly and on condition that he continue his ascetic life. Soon afterward, he went to Constantinople to pursue a study of Scripture under Gregory Nazianzen. He seems to have spent two years there, then left, and the next three (382–385) he was in Rome again, as secretary to Pope Damasus I and the leading Roman Christians. Invited originally for the synod of 382, held to end the schism of Antioch as there were rival claimants to be the proper patriarch in Antioch. Jerome had accompanied one of the claimants, Paulinus back to Rome in order to get more support for him, and distinguished himself to the pope, and took a prominent place in his councils.

text: He was given duties in Rome, and he undertook a revision of the Latin Bible, to be based on the Greek manuscripts of the New Testament. He also updated the Psalter containing the Book of Psalms then at use in Rome based on the Septuagint. Though he did not realize it yet, translating much of what became the Latin Vulgate Bible would take many years and be his most important achievement (see Writings– Translations section below).

text: In Rome he was surrounded by a circle of well-born and well-educated women, including some from the noblest patrician families, such as the widows Lea, Marcella and Paula, with Paula's daughters Blaesilla and Eustochium. The resulting inclination of these women towards the monastic life, away from the indulgent lasciviousness in Rome, and his unsparing criticism of the secular clergy of Rome, brought a growing hostility against him among the Roman clergy and their supporters. Soon after the death of his patron Damasus (10 December 384), Jerome was forced by them to leave his position at Rome after an inquiry was brought up by the Roman clergy into allegations that he had an improper relationship with the widow Paula. Still, his writings were highly regarded by women who were attempting to maintain a vow of becoming a consecrated virgin. His letters were widely read and distributed throughout the Christian empire and it is clear through his writing that he knew these virgin women were not his only audience.[6]

text: Additionally, his condemnation of Blaesilla's hedonistic lifestyle in Rome had led her to adopt ascetic practices, but it affected her health and worsened her physical weakness to the point that she died just four months after starting to follow his instructions; much of the Roman populace were outraged at Jerome for causing the premature death of such a lively young woman, and his insistence to Paula that Blaesilla should not be mourned, and complaints that her grief was excessive, were seen as heartless, polarising Roman opinion against him.[22]

text: In August 385, he left Rome for good and returned to Antioch, accompanied by his brother Paulinian and several friends, and followed a little later by Paula and Eustochium, who had resolved to end their days in the Holy Land. In the winter of 385, Jerome acted as their spiritual adviser. The pilgrims, joined by Bishop Paulinus of Antioch, visited Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and the holy places of Galilee, and then went to Egypt, the home of the great heroes of the ascetic life.

text: At the Catechetical School of Alexandria, Jerome listened to the catechist Didymus the Blind expounding the prophet Hosea and telling his reminiscences of Anthony the Great, who had died 30 years before; he spent some time in Nitria, admiring the disciplined community life of the numerous inhabitants of that "city of the Lord", but detecting even there "concealed serpents", i.e., the influence of Origen of Alexandria. Late in the summer of 388 he was back in Palestine, and spent the remainder of his life working in a cave near Bethlehem, the very cave Jesus was born,[23] surrounded by a few friends, both men and women (including Paula and Eustochium), to whom he acted as priestly guide and teacher.

text: Amply provided by Paula with the means of livelihood and of increasing his collection of books, he led a life of incessant activity in literary production. To these last 34 years of his career belong the most important of his works; his version of the Old Testament from the original Hebrew text, the best of his scriptural commentaries, his catalogue of Christian authors, and the dialogue against the Pelagians, the literary perfection of which even an opponent recognized. To this period also belong most of his polemics, which distinguished him among the orthodox Fathers, including the treatises against the Origenism later declared anathema, of Bishop John II of Jerusalem and his early friend Rufinus. Later, as a result of his writings against Pelagianism, a body of excited partisans broke into the monastic buildings, set them on fire, attacked the inmates and killed a deacon, forcing Jerome to seek safety in a neighboring fortress (416).

text: It is recorded that Jerome died near Bethlehem on 30 September 420. The date of his death is given by the Chronicon of Prosper of Aquitaine. His remains, originally buried at Bethlehem, are said to have been later transferred to the basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome, though other places in the West claim some relics—the cathedral at Nepi boasting possession of his head, which, according to another tradition, is in the Escorial.

text: Translations and commentaries[edit]

text: Jerome was a scholar at a time when that statement implied a fluency in Greek. He knew some Hebrew when he started his translation project, but moved to Jerusalem to strengthen his grip on Jewish scripture commentary. A wealthy Roman aristocrat, Paula, funded his stay in a monastery in Bethlehem and he completed his translation there. He began in 382 by correcting the existing Latin language version of the New Testament, commonly referred to as the Vetus Latina. By 390 he turned to translating the Hebrew Bible from the original Hebrew, having previously translated portions from the Septuagint which came from Alexandria. He believed that the mainstream Rabbinical Judaism had rejected the Septuagint as invalid Jewish scriptural texts because of what were ascertained as mistranslations along with its Hellenistic heretical elements.[24] He completed this work by 405. Prior to Jerome's Vulgate, all Latin translations of the Old Testament were based on the Septuagint, not the Hebrew. Jerome's decision to use a Hebrew text instead of the previous translated Septuagint went against the advice of most other Christians, including Augustine, who thought the Septuagint inspired. Modern scholarship, however, has sometimes cast doubts on the actual quality of Jerome's Hebrew knowledge. Many modern scholars believe that the Greek Hexapla is the main source for Jerome's "iuxta Hebraeos" translation of the Old Testament.[25] However, detailed studies have shown that to a considerable degree Jerome was a competent Hebraist.[26]

text: For the next 15 years, until he died, Jerome produced a number of commentaries on Scripture, often explaining his translation choices in using the original Hebrew rather than suspect translations. His patristic commentaries align closely with Jewish tradition, and he indulges in allegorical and mystical subtleties after the manner of Philo and the Alexandrian school. Unlike his contemporaries, he emphasizes the difference between the Hebrew Bible "apocrypha" and the Hebraica veritas of the protocanonical books. In his Vulgate's prologues, he describes some portions of books in the Septuagint that were not found in the Hebrew as being non-canonical (he called them apocrypha);[27] for Baruch, he mentions by name in his Prologue to Jeremiah and notes that it is neither read nor held among the Hebrews, but does not explicitly call it apocryphal or "not in the canon".[28] His Preface to The Books of Samuel and Kings[29] includes the following statement, commonly called the Helmeted Preface:

text: This preface to the Scriptures may serve as a “helmeted” introduction to all the books which we turn from Hebrew into Latin, so that we may be assured that what is not found in our list must be placed amongst the Apocryphal writings. Wisdom, therefore, which generally bears the name of Solomon, and the book of Jesus, the Son of Sirach, and Judith, and Tobias, and the Shepherd are not in the canon. The first book of Maccabees I have found to be Hebrew, the second is Greek, as can be proved from the very style.

text: Although Jerome was once suspicious of the apocrypha, it is said that he later viewed them as Scripture. For example, in Jerome's letter to Eustochium he quotes Sirach 13:2.,[30] elsewhere Jerome also refers to Baruch, the Story of Susannah and Wisdom as scripture.[31][32][33]

text: Jerome's commentaries fall into three groups:

text:
His translations or recastings of Greek predecessors, including fourteen homilies on the Book of Jeremiah and the same number on the Book of Ezekiel by Origen (translated ca. 380 in Constantinople); two homilies of Origen of Alexandria on the Song of Solomon (in Rome, ca. 383); and thirty-nine on the Gospel of Luke (ca. 389, in Bethlehem). The nine homilies of Origen on the Book of Isaiah included among his works were not done by him. Here should be mentioned, as an important contribution to the topography of Palestine, his book De situ et nominibus locorum Hebraeorum, a translation with additions and some regrettable omissions of the Onomasticon of Eusebius. To the same period (ca. 390) belongs the Liber interpretationis nominum Hebraicorum, based on a work supposed to go back to Philo and expanded by Origen.
Original commentaries on the Old Testament. To the period before his settlement at Bethlehem and the following five years belong a series of short Old Testament studies: De seraphim, De voce Osanna, De tribus quaestionibus veteris legis (usually included among the letters as 18, 20, and 36); Quaestiones hebraicae in Genesim; Commentarius in Ecclesiasten; Tractatus septem in Psalmos 10–16 (lost); Explanationes in Michaeam, Sophoniam, Nahum, Habacuc, Aggaeum. After 395 he composed a series of longer commentaries, though in rather a desultory fashion: first on Jonah and Obadiah (396), then on Isaiah (ca. 395-ca. 400), on Zechariah, Malachi, Hoseah, Joel, Amos (from 406), on the Book of Daniel (ca. 407), on Ezekiel (between 410 and 415), and on Jeremiah (after 415, left unfinished).
New Testament commentaries. These include only Philemon, Galatians, Ephesians, and Titus (hastily composed 387–388); Matthew (dictated in a fortnight, 398); Mark, selected passages in Luke, Revelation, and the prologue to the Gospel of John.

tag: ul

text: Historical and hagiographic writings[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Jerome is also known as a historian. One of his earliest historical works was his Chronicle (or Chronicon or Temporum liber), composed ca. 380 in Constantinople; this is a translation into Latin of the chronological tables which compose the second part of the Chronicon of Eusebius, with a supplement covering the period from 325 to 379. Despite numerous errors taken over from Eusebius, and some of his own, Jerome produced a valuable work, if only for the impulse which it gave to such later chroniclers as Prosper, Cassiodorus, and Victor of Tunnuna to continue his annals.

text: Of considerable importance as well is the De viris illustribus, which was written at Bethlehem in 392, the title and arrangement of which are borrowed from Suetonius. It contains short biographical and literary notes on 135 Christian authors, from Saint Peter down to Jerome himself. For the first seventy-eight authors Eusebius (Historia ecclesiastica) is the main source; in the second section, beginning with Arnobius and Lactantius, he includes a good deal of independent information, especially as to western writers.

text: Four works of a hagiographic nature are:

text:
the Vita Pauli monachi, written during his first sojourn at Antioch (ca. 376), the legendary material of which is derived from Egyptian monastic tradition;
the Vitae Patrum (Vita Pauli primi eremitae), a biography of Saint Paul of Thebes;
the Vita Malchi monachi captivi (ca. 391), probably based on an earlier work, although it purports to be derived from the oral communications of the aged ascetic Malchus of Syria originally made to him in the desert of Chalcis;
the Vita Hilarionis, of the same date, containing more trustworthy historical matter than the other two, and based partly on the biography of Epiphanius and partly on oral tradition.

text: The so-called Martyrologium Hieronymianum is spurious; it was apparently composed by a western monk toward the end of the 6th or beginning of the 7th century, with reference to an expression of Jerome's in the opening chapter of the Vita Malchi, where he speaks of intending to write a history of the saints and martyrs from the apostolic times.

text: Saint Jerome's description of vitamin A deficiency[edit]

text: The following passage, taken from Saint Jerome’s “Life of St. Hilarion”, which was written about A.D. 392, appears to be the earliest account of the etiology, symptoms and cure of severe vitamin A deficiency. "From his thirty-first to his thirty-fifth year he had for food six ounces of barley bread, and vegetables slightly cooked without oil. But finding that his eyes were growing dim, and that his whole body was shrivelled with an eruption and a sort of stony roughness (impetigine et pumicea quad scabredine) he added oil to his former food, and up to the sixty-third year of his life followed this temperate course, tasting neither fruit nor pulse, nor anything whatsoever besides."[34]

text: Letters[edit]

text: Jerome's letters or epistles, both by the great variety of their subjects and by their qualities of style, form an important portion of his literary remains. Whether he is discussing problems of scholarship, or reasoning on cases of conscience, comforting the afflicted, or saying pleasant things to his friends, scourging the vices and corruptions of the time and against sexual immorality among the clergy,[35] exhorting to the ascetic life and renunciation of the world, or breaking a lance with his theological opponents, he gives a vivid picture not only of his own mind, but of the age and its peculiar characteristics. Because there was no distinct line between personal documents and those meant for publication, we frequently find in his letters both confidential messages and treatises meant for others besides the one to whom he was writing.[36]

text: Due to the time he spent in Rome among wealthy families belonging to the Roman upper-class, Jerome was frequently commissioned by women who had taken a vow of virginity to write them in guidance of how to live their life. As a result, he spent a great deal of his life corresponding to these women about certain abstentions and lifestyle practices.[6] These included the clothing she should wear, the interactions she should undertake and how to go about conducting herself during such interactions, and what and how she ate and drank. The letters most frequently reprinted or referred to are of a hortatory nature, such as Ep. 14, Ad Heliodorum de laude vitae solitariae; Ep. 22, Ad Eustochium de custodia virginitatis; Ep. 52, Ad Nepotianum de vita clericorum et monachorum, a sort of epitome of pastoral theology from the ascetic standpoint; Ep. 53, Ad Paulinum de studio scripturarum; Ep. 57, to the same, De institutione monachi; Ep. 70, Ad Magnum de scriptoribus ecclesiasticis; and Ep. 107, Ad Laetam de institutione filiae.

text:
Letter to Dardanus (Ep. 129)

You may delineate the Promised Land of Moses from the Book of Numbers (ch. 34): as bounded on the south by the desert tract called Sina, between the Dead Sea and the city of Kadesh-barnea, [which is located with the Arabah to the east] and continues to the west, as far as the river of Egypt, that discharges into the open sea near the city of Rhinocolara; as bounded on the west by the sea along the coasts of Palestine, Phoenicia, Coele‑Syria, and Cilicia; as bounded on the north by the circle formed by the Taurus Mountains[37] and Zephyrium and extending to Hamath, called Epiphany‑Syria; as bounded on the east by the city of Antioch Hippos and Lake Kinneret, now called Tiberias, and then the Jordan River which discharges into the salt sea, now called the Dead Sea.[38][39]

text: Theological writings[edit]

text: Practically all of Jerome's productions in the field of dogma have a more or less vehemently polemical character, and are directed against assailants of the orthodox doctrines. Even the translation of the treatise of Didymus the Blind on the Holy Spirit into Latin (begun in Rome 384, completed at Bethlehem) shows an apologetic tendency against the Arians and Pneumatomachoi. The same is true of his version of Origen's De principiis (ca. 399), intended to supersede the inaccurate translation by Rufinus. The more strictly polemical writings cover every period of his life. During the sojourns at Antioch and Constantinople he was mainly occupied with the Arian controversy, and especially with the schisms centering around Meletius of Antioch and Lucifer Calaritanus. Two letters to Pope Damasus (15 and 16) complain of the conduct of both parties at Antioch, the Meletians and Paulinians, who had tried to draw him into their controversy over the application of the terms ousia and hypostasis to the Trinity. At the same time or a little later (379) he composed his Liber Contra Luciferianos, in which he cleverly uses the dialogue form to combat the tenets of that faction, particularly their rejection of baptism by heretics.

text: In Rome (ca. 383) he wrote a passionate counterblast against the teaching of Helvidius, in defense of the doctrine of the perpetual virginity of Mary and of the superiority of the single over the married state. An opponent of a somewhat similar nature was Jovinianus, with whom he came into conflict in 392 (Adversus Jovinianum, Against Jovinianus) and the defense of this work addressed to his friend Pammachius, numbered 48 in the letters). Once more he defended the ordinary practices of piety and his own ascetic ethics in 406 against the Gallic presbyter Vigilantius, who opposed the cultus of martyrs and relics, the vow of poverty, and clerical celibacy. Meanwhile, the controversy with John II of Jerusalem and Rufinus concerning the orthodoxy of Origen occurred. To this period belong some of his most passionate and most comprehensive polemical works: the Contra Joannem Hierosolymitanum (398 or 399); the two closely connected Apologiae contra Rufinum (402); and the "last word" written a few months later, the Liber tertius seuten ultima responsio adversus scripta Rufini. The last of his polemical works is the skilfully composed Dialogus contra Pelagianos (415).

text: Reception by later Christianity[edit]

text: Jerome is the second most voluminous writer (after Augustine of Hippo) in ancient Latin Christianity. In the Roman Catholic Church, he is recognized as the patron saint of translators, librarians and encyclopedists.[40]

text: He acquired a knowledge of Hebrew by studying with a Jew who converted to Christianity, and took the unusual position (for that time) that the Hebrew, and not the Septuagint, was the inspired text of the Old Testament. The traditional view is that he used this knowledge to translate what became known as the Vulgate, and his translation was slowly but eventually accepted in the Catholic Church.[41] The later resurgence of Hebrew studies within Christianity owes much to him.

text: He showed more zeal and interest in the ascetic ideal than in abstract speculation. It was this strict asceticism that made Martin Luther judge him so severely. In fact, Protestant readers are not generally inclined to accept his writings as authoritative. The tendency to recognize a superior comes out in his correspondence with Augustine (cf. Jerome's letters numbered 56, 67, 102–105, 110–112, 115–116; and 28, 39, 40, 67–68, 71–75, 81–82 in Augustine's).[citation needed]

text: Despite the criticisms already mentioned, Jerome has retained a rank among the western Fathers. This would be his due, if for nothing else, on account of the great influence exercised by his Latin version of the Bible upon the subsequent ecclesiastical and theological development.[42]

text: In art[edit]

text: In art, Jerome is often represented as one of the four Latin doctors of the Church along with Augustine of Hippo, Ambrose, and Pope Gregory I. As a prominent member of the Roman clergy, he has often been portrayed anachronistically in the garb of a cardinal. Even when he is depicted as a half-clad anchorite, with cross, skull and Bible for the only furniture of his cell, the red hat or some other indication of his rank as cardinal is as a rule introduced somewhere in the picture. During Jerome's life, cardinals did not exist. However, by the time of the Renaissance and the Baroque it was common practice for a secretary to the pope to be a cardinal (as Jerome had effectively been to Damasus), and so this was reflected in artistic interpretations.

text: He is also often depicted with a lion, in reference to the popular hagiographical belief that Jerome had tamed a lion in the wilderness by healing its paw. The source for the story may actually have been the second century Roman tale of Androcles, or confusion with the exploits of Saint Gerasimus (Jerome in later Latin is "Geronimus").[43][44][45] Hagiographies of Jerome talk of his having spent many years in the Syrian desert, and artists often depict him in a "wilderness", which for West European painters can take the form of a wood or forest.[46]

text: The saint is often depicted in connection with the vanitas motif, the reflection on the meaninglessness of earthly life and the transient nature of all earthly goods and pursuits. In the 16th century Saint Jerome in his study by Pieter Coecke van Aelst and workshop the saint is depicted with a skull. Behind him on the wall is pinned an admonition, Cogita Mori (Think upon death). Further reminders of the vanitas motif of the passage of time and the imminence of death are the image of the Last Judgment visible in the saint's Bible, the candle and the hourglass.[47]

text: He is also sometimes depicted with an owl, the symbol of wisdom and scholarship.[48] Writing materials and the trumpet of final judgment are also part of his iconography.[48] He is commemorated on 30 September with a memorial.


document_title: List of presidents of the United States by age

question_text: who was the oldest elected president of the united states of america

text: Age of U.S. presidents[edit]

text: The median age upon accession to the presidency is 55 years and 3 months. This is how old Lyndon B. Johnson was at the time of his inauguration. The youngest person to assume the office was Theodore Roosevelt, who became president at the age of 42 years, 322 days, following William McKinley's assassination; the oldest was Donald Trump, who was 70 years, 220 days old at his inauguration. The youngest person to be elected president was John F. Kennedy, at 43 years, 163 days of age on election day; the oldest was Ronald Reagan, who was 73 years, 274 days old at the time of his election to a second term.

text: Assassinated three years into his term, John F. Kennedy was the youngest at the time of leaving office (46 years, 177 days); the youngest president to leave office at the conclusion of a normal transition was Theodore Roosevelt (50 years, 128 days). The oldest at the time of leaving office was Ronald Reagan (77 years, 349 days).

text: Born on May 29, 1917, John F. Kennedy was younger than four of his successors, the greatest number to date: Lyndon Johnson (8 years, 9 months, and 2 days); Ronald Reagan (6 years, 3 months, and 23 days); Richard Nixon (4 years, 4 months, and 16 days); and Gerald Ford (3 years, 10 months, and 15 days).

text: Born on February 6, 1911, Ronald Reagan was older than four of his predecessors, the greatest number to date: Richard Nixon (1 year, 11 months, and 7 days); Gerald Ford (2 years, 5 months, and 8 days); John F. Kennedy (6 years, 3 months, and 23 days); and Jimmy Carter (13 years, 7 months, and 25 days).

text: Three presidents—Donald Trump, George W. Bush, and Bill Clinton—were born in 1946 (all within the span of 9 weeks). This is the only calendar year in which three presidents have been born. Two presidents—James K. Polk and Warren G. Harding—were born on November 2 (70 years apart). This is the only day of the year having the birthday of multiple presidents.[1]

text: The oldest living U.S. president is George H. W. Bush, born June 12, 1924 (age 94 years, 76 days). On November 25, 2017, he also became the longest-lived president, surpassing the lifespan of Gerald Ford, who died at the age of 93 years, 165 days. The second oldest living president, Jimmy Carter, has the distinction of having the longest post-presidency in U.S. history, currently at 37 years, 219 days. He surpassed the previous record, held by Herbert Hoover (31 years, 230 days) on September 7, 2012. The youngest living president is Barack Obama, born August 4, 1961 (age 57 years, 23 days).

text: The shortest-lived president to have died by natural causes (thereby excluding John F. Kennedy and James A. Garfield, who were both assassinated) was James K. Polk, who died of cholera at the age of 53 years, 225 days; only 103 days after leaving office.

text: Six U.S. presidents have lived into their 90s, with two of them currently alive. They are (in order of birth):

text:
John Adams(aged 90 years, 247 days)

Herbert Hoover(aged 90 years, 71 days)

Ronald Reagan(aged 93 years, 120 days)

Gerald Ford(aged 93 years, 165 days)

George H. W. Bush(age 94 years, 76 days)

Jimmy Carter(age 93 years, 330 days)

text: Table[edit]

text:
President

Birthdate

Start of presidency

End of presidency

Post-presidency

Death

Date
Age
Date
Age
timespan
Date
Age

01 • George Washington

Feb 22, 1732[a]

Apr 30, 1789

7004208870000000000♠57 years, 67 days

Mar 4, 1797

7004237520000000000♠65 years, 10 days

7003101500000000000♠2 years, 285 days

Dec 14, 1799

7004247670000000000♠67 years, 295 days

02 • John Adams

Oct 30, 1735[a]

Mar 4, 1797

7004224060000000000♠61 years, 125 days

Mar 4, 1801

7004238660000000000♠65 years, 125 days

7003925300000000000♠25 years, 122 days

Jul 4, 1826

7004331190000000000♠90 years, 247 days

03 • Thomas Jefferson

Apr 13, 1743[a]

Mar 4, 1801

7004211440000000000♠57 years, 325 days

Mar 4, 1809

7004240660000000000♠65 years, 325 days

7003633100000000000♠17 years, 122 days

Jul 4, 1826

7004303970000000000♠83 years, 82 days

04 • James Madison

Mar 16, 1751[a]

Mar 4, 1809

7004211720000000000♠57 years, 353 days

Mar 4, 1817

7004240940000000000♠65 years, 353 days

7003705600000000000♠19 years, 116 days

Jun 28, 1836

7004311500000000000♠85 years, 104 days

05 • James Monroe

Apr 28, 1758

Mar 4, 1817

7004214940000000000♠58 years, 310 days

Mar 4, 1825

7004244160000000000♠66 years, 310 days

7003231300000000000♠6 years, 122 days

Jul 4, 1831

7004267290000000000♠73 years, 67 days

06 • John Q. Adams

Jul 11, 1767

Mar 4, 1825

7004210550000000000♠57 years, 236 days

Mar 4, 1829

7004225160000000000♠61 years, 236 days

7003693000000000000♠18 years, 356 days

Feb 23, 1848

7004294460000000000♠80 years, 227 days

07 • Andrew Jackson

Mar 15, 1767

Mar 4, 1829

7004226340000000000♠61 years, 354 days

Mar 4, 1837

7004255560000000000♠69 years, 354 days

7003301800000000000♠8 years, 96 days

Jun 8, 1845

7004285740000000000♠78 years, 85 days

08 • Martin Van Buren

Dec 5, 1782

Mar 4, 1837

7004198120000000000♠54 years, 89 days

Mar 4, 1841

7004212730000000000♠58 years, 89 days

7003781200000000000♠21 years, 142 days

Jul 24, 1862

7004290850000000000♠79 years, 231 days

09 • William H. Harrison

Feb 9, 1773

Mar 4, 1841

7004248590000000000♠68 years, 23 days

Apr 4, 1841[b]

7004248900000000000♠68 years, 54 days

00,0000 days

Apr 4, 1841

7004248900000000000♠68 years, 54 days

10 • John Tyler

Mar 29, 1790

Apr 4, 1841

7004186330000000000♠51 years, 6 days

Mar 4, 1845

7004200630000000000♠54 years, 340 days

7003616400000000000♠16 years, 320 days

Jan 18, 1862

7004262270000000000♠71 years, 295 days

11 • James K. Polk

Nov 2, 1795

Mar 4, 1845

7004180190000000000♠49 years, 122 days

Mar 4, 1849

7004194800000000000♠53 years, 122 days

7002103000000000000♠103 days

Jun 15, 1849

7004195830000000000♠53 years, 225 days

12 • Zachary Taylor

Nov 24, 1784

Mar 4, 1849

7004234750000000000♠64 years, 100 days

Jul 9, 1850[b]

7004239670000000000♠65 years, 227 days

00,0000 days

Jul 9, 1850

7004239670000000000♠65 years, 227 days

13 • Millard Fillmore

Jan 7, 1800

Jul 9, 1850

7004184450000000000♠50 years, 183 days

Mar 4, 1853

7004194140000000000♠53 years, 56 days

7003767400000000000♠21 years, 4 days

Mar 8, 1874

7004270880000000000♠74 years, 60 days

14 • Franklin Pierce

Nov 23, 1804

Mar 4, 1853

7004176330000000000♠48 years, 101 days

Mar 4, 1857

7004190940000000000♠52 years, 101 days

7003460100000000000♠12 years, 218 days

Oct 8, 1869

7004236950000000000♠64 years, 319 days

15 • James Buchanan

Apr 23, 1791

Mar 4, 1857

7004240560000000000♠65 years, 315 days

Mar 4, 1861

7004255170000000000♠69 years, 315 days

7003264600000000000♠7 years, 89 days

Jun 1, 1868

7004281630000000000♠77 years, 39 days

16 • Abraham Lincoln

Feb 12, 1809

Mar 4, 1861

7004190130000000000♠52 years, 20 days

Apr 15, 1865[b]

7004205160000000000♠56 years, 62 days

00,0000 days

Apr 15, 1865

7004205160000000000♠56 years, 62 days

17 • Andrew Johnson

Dec 29, 1808

Apr 15, 1865

7004205610000000000♠56 years, 107 days

Mar 4, 1869

7004219800000000000♠60 years, 65 days

7003234000000000000♠6 years, 149 days

Jul 31, 1875

7004243200000000000♠66 years, 214 days

18 • Ulysses S. Grant

Apr 27, 1822

Mar 4, 1869

7004171130000000000♠46 years, 311 days

Mar 4, 1877

7004200350000000000♠54 years, 311 days

7003306300000000000♠8 years, 141 days

Jul 23, 1885

7004230980000000000♠63 years, 87 days

19 • Rutherford B. Hayes

Oct 4, 1822

Mar 4, 1877

7004198750000000000♠54 years, 151 days

Mar 4, 1881

7004213360000000000♠58 years, 151 days

7003433700000000000♠11 years, 319 days

Jan 17, 1893

7004256730000000000♠70 years, 105 days

20 • James A. Garfield

Nov 19, 1831

Mar 4, 1881

7004180030000000000♠49 years, 105 days

Sep 19, 1881[b]

7004182020000000000♠49 years, 304 days

00,0000 days

Sep 19, 1881

7004182020000000000♠49 years, 304 days

21 • Chester A. Arthur

Oct 5, 1829

Sep 19, 1881

7004189770000000000♠51 years, 349 days

Mar 4, 1885

7004202390000000000♠55 years, 150 days

7002624000000000000♠1 year, 259 days

Nov 18, 1886

7004208630000000000♠57 years, 44 days

22 • Grover Cleveland

Mar 18, 1837

Mar 4, 1885

7004175180000000000♠47 years, 351 days

Mar 4, 1889

7004189790000000000♠51 years, 351 days

15 years, 112 days[c]

Jun 24, 1908

7004260300000000000♠71 years, 98 days

23 • Benjamin Harrison

Aug 20, 1833

Mar 4, 1889

7004202850000000000♠55 years, 196 days

Mar 4, 1893

7004217460000000000♠59 years, 196 days

7003293000000000000♠8 years, 9 days

Mar 13, 1901

7004246760000000000♠67 years, 205 days

24 • Grover Cleveland

Mar 18, 1837

Mar 4, 1893

7004204400000000000♠55 years, 351 days

Mar 4, 1897

7004219010000000000♠59 years, 351 days

15 years, 112 days[c]

Jun 24, 1908

7004260300000000000♠71 years, 98 days

25 • William McKinley

Jan 29, 1843

Mar 4, 1897

7004197580000000000♠54 years, 34 days

Sep 14, 1901[b]

7004214120000000000♠58 years, 228 days

00,0000 days

Sep 14, 1901

7004214120000000000♠58 years, 228 days

26 • Theodore Roosevelt

Oct 27, 1858

Sep 14, 1901

7004156620000000000♠42 years, 322 days

Mar 4, 1909

7004183900000000000♠50 years, 128 days

7003359500000000000♠9 years, 308 days

Jan 6, 1919

7004219850000000000♠60 years, 71 days

27 • William H. Taft

Sep 15, 1857

Mar 4, 1909

7004187970000000000♠51 years, 170 days

Mar 4, 1913

7004202580000000000♠55 years, 170 days

7003621300000000000♠17 years, 4 days

Mar 8, 1930

7004264710000000000♠72 years, 174 days

28 • Woodrow Wilson

Dec 28, 1856

Mar 4, 1913

7004205190000000000♠56 years, 66 days

Mar 4, 1921

7004234410000000000♠64 years, 66 days

7003106600000000000♠2 years, 336 days

Feb 3, 1924

7004245070000000000♠67 years, 37 days

29 • Warren G. Harding

Nov 2, 1865

Mar 4, 1921

7004202100000000000♠55 years, 122 days

Aug 2, 1923[b]

7004210910000000000♠57 years, 273 days

00,0000 days

Aug 2, 1923

7004210910000000000♠57 years, 273 days

30 • Calvin Coolidge

Jul 4, 1872

Aug 2, 1923

7004186550000000000♠51 years, 29 days

Mar 4, 1929

7004206960000000000♠56 years, 243 days

7003140300000000000♠3 years, 307 days

Jan 5, 1933

7004220990000000000♠60 years, 185 days

31 • Herbert Hoover

Aug 10, 1874

Mar 4, 1929

7004199290000000000♠54 years, 206 days

Mar 4, 1933

7004213900000000000♠58 years, 206 days

7004115530000000000♠31 years, 230 days

Oct 20, 1964

7004329430000000000♠90 years, 71 days

32 • Franklin D. Roosevelt

Jan 30, 1882

Mar 4, 1933

7004186600000000000♠51 years, 33 days

Apr 12, 1945[b]

7004230820000000000♠63 years, 72 days

00,0000 days

Apr 12, 1945

7004230820000000000♠63 years, 72 days

33 • Harry S. Truman

May 8, 1884

Apr 12, 1945

7004222530000000000♠60 years, 339 days

Jan 20, 1953

7004250930000000000♠68 years, 257 days

7003728000000000000♠19 years, 341 days

Dec 26, 1972

7004323730000000000♠88 years, 232 days

34 • Dwight D. Eisenhower

Oct 14, 1890

Jan 20, 1953

7004227430000000000♠62 years, 98 days

Jan 20, 1961

7004256650000000000♠70 years, 98 days

7003298900000000000♠8 years, 67 days

Mar 28, 1969

7004286540000000000♠78 years, 165 days

35 • John F. Kennedy

May 29, 1917

Jan 20, 1961

7004159420000000000♠43 years, 236 days

Nov 22, 1963[b]

7004169780000000000♠46 years, 177 days

00,0000 days

Nov 22, 1963

7004169780000000000♠46 years, 177 days

36 • Lyndon B. Johnson

Aug 27, 1908

Nov 22, 1963

7004201750000000000♠55 years, 87 days

Jan 20, 1969

7004220610000000000♠60 years, 146 days

7003146300000000000♠4 years, 2 days

Jan 22, 1973

7004235240000000000♠64 years, 148 days

37 • Richard Nixon

Jan 9, 1913

Jan 20, 1969

7004204650000000000♠56 years, 11 days

Aug 9, 1974[d]

7004224920000000000♠61 years, 212 days

7003719600000000000♠19 years, 256 days

Apr 22, 1994

7004296880000000000♠81 years, 103 days

38 • Gerald Ford

Jul 14, 1913

Aug 9, 1974

7004223060000000000♠61 years, 26 days

Jan 20, 1977

7004232010000000000♠63 years, 190 days

7004109320000000000♠29 years, 340 days

Dec 26, 2006

7004341330000000000♠93 years, 165 days

39 • Jimmy Carter

Oct 1, 1924

Jan 20, 1977

7004191040000000000♠52 years, 111 days

Jan 20, 1981

7004205650000000000♠56 years, 111 days

7004137330000000000♠37 years, 219 days

2018-08-27

7004342980000000000♠93 years, 330 days

40 • Ronald Reagan

Feb 6, 1911

Jan 20, 1981

7004255510000000000♠69 years, 349 days

Jan 20, 1989

7004284730000000000♠77 years, 349 days

7003561500000000000♠15 years, 137 days

Jun 5, 2004

7004340880000000000♠93 years, 120 days

41 • George H. W. Bush

Jun 12, 1924

Jan 20, 1989

7004235980000000000♠64 years, 222 days

Jan 20, 1993

7004250590000000000♠68 years, 222 days

7003935000000000000♠25 years, 219 days

2018-08-27

7004344090000000000♠94 years, 76 days

42 • Bill Clinton

Aug 19, 1946

Jan 20, 1993

7004169560000000000♠46 years, 154 days

Jan 20, 2001

7004198780000000000♠54 years, 154 days

7003642800000000000♠17 years, 219 days

2018-08-27

7004263060000000000♠72 years, 8 days

43 • George W. Bush

Jul 6, 1946

Jan 20, 2001

7004199220000000000♠54 years, 198 days

Jan 20, 2009

7004228440000000000♠62 years, 198 days

7003350600000000000♠9 years, 219 days

2018-08-27

7004263500000000000♠72 years, 52 days

44 • Barack Obama

Aug 4, 1961

Jan 20, 2009

7004173360000000000♠47 years, 169 days

Jan 20, 2017

7004202580000000000♠55 years, 169 days

7002584000000000000♠1 year, 219 days

2018-08-27

7004208420000000000♠57 years, 23 days

45 • Donald Trump

Jun 14, 1946

Jan 20, 2017

7004257880000000000♠70 years, 220 days

2018-08-27

7004288540000000000♠78 years, 364 days

2018-08-27

7004263720000000000♠72 years, 74 days

President

Birthdate

Date
Age

Date
Age

Post-presidency

Date
Age

Start of presidency

End of presidency

timespan

Death

text: Notes[edit]

text:
^ Jump up to: a b c d Birthdate as changed to New Style.

^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Died in office.

^ Jump up to: a b Cleveland was retired for 1,461 days between his two terms (1889–1893), and then another 4,129 days from the end of his 2nd term (1897) until his death (1908).

Jump up ^ Resigned from office.

tag: ol

text: Oldest living U.S. presidents[edit]

text: Of the 44 persons who have served as president, 24 have become the oldest such individual of their time. Herbert Hoover held this distinction for the longest period of any, from the death of Calvin Coolidge in January 1933 until his own death 31 years later. Lyndon B. Johnson held it for the shortest, from the death of Harry S. Truman in December 1972 until his own death only 27 days later.

text: On three occasions the oldest living president lost this distinction not by his death, but by the inauguration of a president who was older. Theodore Roosevelt (born 1858) lost this distinction when William Taft (born 1857) was inaugurated, then four years later Taft lost it when Woodrow Wilson (born 1856) was inaugurated. More recently, Richard Nixon (born 1913) ceased being the oldest living president when Ronald Reagan (born 1911) was inaugurated. Furthermore, although Theodore Roosevelt was the youngest ever to become both the oldest living president (at age 49) and a former president (at age 50), he was the only living president or former president by the end of his term. Consequently, Taft was the oldest living president twice: first during his presidency (having succeeded the younger Roosevelt), and a second time after Wilson (his successor as president but an older man) died. Gerald Ford was the oldest individual to acquire this distinction, at the age of 90.

text: On seven occasions, the oldest living president has acquired this distinction during his term in office. In the cases of John Adams, Ulysses S. Grant, Theodore Roosevelt, Herbert Hoover and Richard Nixon, this happened at the same time as their becoming the only living president; in the cases of Andrew Jackson and Benjamin Harrison, the only other living president at the time was a younger predecessor (John Quincy Adams and Grover Cleveland respectively). By contrast, the president who acquired this distinction furthest from his time in office was Gerald Ford, who had been retired for 7003999800000000000♠27 years, 137 days.

text:
President

Dates

Age atstart date

Age atend date

Length

George Washington

April 30, 1789 – December 14, 1799

7004208870000000000♠57 years, 67 days

7004247670000000000♠67 years, 295 days

7003388000000000000♠10 years, 228 days

John Adams

December 14, 1799 – July 4, 1826

7004234210000000000♠64 years, 45 days

7004331190000000000♠90 years, 247 days

7003969800000000000♠26 years, 202 days

James Madison

July 4, 1826 – June 28, 1836

7004275030000000000♠75 years, 110 days

7004311500000000000♠85 years, 104 days

7003364700000000000♠9 years, 360 days

Andrew Jackson

June 28, 1836 – June 8, 1845

7004253070000000000♠69 years, 105 days

7004285740000000000♠78 years, 85 days

7003326700000000000♠8 years, 345 days

John Quincy Adams

June 8, 1845 – February 23, 1848

7004284560000000000♠77 years, 332 days

7004294460000000000♠80 years, 227 days

7002990000000000000♠2 years, 260 days

Martin Van Buren

February 23, 1848 – July 24, 1862

7004238200000000000♠65 years, 80 days

7004290850000000000♠79 years, 231 days

7003526500000000000♠14 years, 151 days

James Buchanan

July 24, 1862 – June 1, 1868

7004260240000000000♠71 years, 92 days

7004281630000000000♠77 years, 39 days

7003213900000000000♠5 years, 313 days

Millard Fillmore

June 1, 1868 – March 8, 1874

7004249820000000000♠68 years, 146 days

7004270880000000000♠74 years, 60 days

7003210600000000000♠5 years, 280 days

Andrew Johnson

March 8, 1874 – July 31, 1875

7004238100000000000♠65 years, 69 days

7004243200000000000♠66 years, 214 days

7002510000000000000♠1 year, 145 days

Ulysses S. Grant

July 31, 1875 – July 23, 1885

7004194530000000000♠53 years, 95 days

7004230980000000000♠63 years, 87 days

7003364500000000000♠9 years, 357 days

Rutherford B. Hayes

July 23, 1885 – January 17, 1893

7004229380000000000♠62 years, 292 days

7004256730000000000♠70 years, 105 days

7003273500000000000♠7 years, 178 days

Benjamin Harrison

January 17, 1893 – March 13, 1901

7004217000000000000♠59 years, 150 days

7004246760000000000♠67 years, 205 days

7003297600000000000♠8 years, 55 days

Grover Cleveland

March 13, 1901 – June 24, 1908

7004233700000000000♠63 years, 360 days

7004260300000000000♠71 years, 98 days

7003266000000000000♠7 years, 103 days

Theodore Roosevelt

June 24, 1908 – March 4, 1909

7004181370000000000♠49 years, 241 days

7004183900000000000♠50 years, 128 days

7002253000000000000♠253 days

William Howard Taft

March 4, 1909 – March 4, 1913

7004187970000000000♠51 years, 170 days

7004202580000000000♠55 years, 170 days

7003146100000000000♠4 years, 0 days

Woodrow Wilson

March 4, 1913 – February 3, 1924

7004205190000000000♠56 years, 66 days

7004245070000000000♠67 years, 37 days

7003398800000000000♠10 years, 336 days

William Howard Taft

February 3, 1924 – March 8, 1930

7004242460000000000♠66 years, 141 days

7004264710000000000♠72 years, 174 days

7003222500000000000♠6 years, 33 days

Calvin Coolidge

March 8, 1930 – January 5, 1933

7004210650000000000♠57 years, 247 days

7004220990000000000♠60 years, 185 days

7003103400000000000♠2 years, 303 days

Herbert Hoover

January 5, 1933 – October 20, 1964

7004213320000000000♠58 years, 148 days

7004329430000000000♠90 years, 71 days

7004116110000000000♠31 years, 289 days

Harry S. Truman

October 20, 1964 – December 26, 1972

7004293840000000000♠80 years, 165 days

7004323730000000000♠88 years, 232 days

7003298900000000000♠8 years, 67 days

Lyndon B. Johnson

December 26, 1972 – January 22, 1973

7004234970000000000♠64 years, 121 days

7004235240000000000♠64 years, 148 days

7001270000000000000♠27 days

Richard Nixon

January 22, 1973 – January 20, 1981

7004219280000000000♠60 years, 13 days

7004248480000000000♠68 years, 11 days

7003292000000000000♠7 years, 364 days

Ronald Reagan

January 20, 1981 – June 5, 2004

7004255510000000000♠69 years, 349 days

7004340880000000000♠93 years, 120 days

7003853700000000000♠23 years, 137 days

Gerald Ford

June 5, 2004 – December 26, 2006

7004331990000000000♠90 years, 327 days

7004341330000000000♠93 years, 165 days

7002934000000000000♠2 years, 204 days

George H. W. Bush

December 26, 2006 – present

7004301470000000000♠82 years, 197 days

Current

7003426200000000000♠11 years, 244 days

President

Dates

Age atstart date

Age atend date

Length


document_title: Bendy and the Ink Machine

question_text: who do you play as in bendy and the ink machine

text: Bendy and the Ink Machine

text: Plot[edit]

text:
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text: Chapter One: Moving Pictures[edit]

text: The player plays as Henry, an animator, who gets an invitation to his old workplace, an animation studio called Joey Drew Studios, by the eponymous owner and Henry's old friend, Joey Drew. Upon arriving, the place seems deserted and run through with ink pipes. While exploring, Henry finds the Ink Machine, as well as evidence that Joey began practicing with the occult. He also finds a mutilated corpse of Boris the Wolf, one of the cartoon characters appearing in Joey's cartoon posters. After finding the power switch to the Ink Machine, he looks for the six items (a Bendy doll, a record, a wrench, a book, an inkwell, and a cog) needed to activate the ink pressure system. Upon restoring the ink pressure and activating the Ink Machine, Henry is attacked by a living ink version of another one of the cartoon characters named Bendy. Henry runs to the exit but falls into a secret underground room as the floor collapses. He then uses an ax to break into another room with a pentagram painted on the ground with ink. Upon approaching the pentagram, Henry gets flashbacks of the Ink Machine, a wheelchair and "Bendy" before passing out.

text: Chapter Two: The Old Song[edit]

text: Upon waking up, Henry begins to find more evidence of Drew and musical director Sammy Lawrence performing in Satanic rituals. Apparently stuck in the studio, Lawrence went insane and began worshiping Bendy as a form of appeasement, believing that the cartoon devil is a literal demon. Using an axe to help clear a path through the underground rooms, Henry ends up in the Music Department of the studio by following tracks through recordings to find his way out. While trying to escape, he encounters the Searchers, who are humanoid ink monsters that try to kill Henry. After pressing three buttons to open a gate, he comes across a pool of ink flooding a staircase and locates the drain switch in Lawrence's office, which is blocked by a large puddle of ink. Henry finds the key to a closet in a trash can and learns that he must play Lawrence's favorite song to open the way to the drain value. Once the way to Lawrence's office is clear, Henry is finally able to drain the flooded staircase, but is knocked unconscious by Lawrence. Lawrence ties up Henry and explains that he has to sacrifice Henry to get "Bendy" to release him from his ink body and return him to normal. When "Bendy" arrives, he attacks and kills Lawrence instead, and eventually chases after Henry. After getting away, Henry finds a living version of Boris the Wolf as the chapter ends. After the credits, the player is shown Sammy Lawrence's remains: a puddle of ink with his mask in the middle.

text: Chapter Three: Rise and Fall[edit]

text: In Chapter Three, Henry wakes up in a safe room; upon exiting the room and turning a corner, he sees Boris. In order to leave Boris' safe-house, Henry needs to find three cans of soup and make them for Boris, after which he will supply Henry with the lever handle required to open the door. As Henry and Boris leave the safe-house, Henry finds a flashlight to help find their way through a dark room eventually reach a dead end, and Boris crawls through a small hatch that closes behind him. Henry enters a large room with a sign titled 'Heavenly Toys', and as he keeps walking, he enters a smaller room, which abruptly goes dark. Alice Angel suddenly appears, smashes the glass window of a space at the back of the room, and then escapes into the studio. He later catches up to Boris, who hands him a pipe to use as a weapon. After opening a gate and reaching an elevator, Alice Angel invites Henry and Boris down to level 9, where she has set up residence. There, they discover many Boris corpses. After witnessing her killing one of the forms of a member of the Butcher Gang, she instructs Henry to complete a series of tasks for her while providing him with tools to help him, such as a wrench, an ink syringe, a plunger, an axe, and a tommy gun, (which is only obtainable by making the ink bowl from an ink machine (by Shawn Flynn's voice tape), choosing the Path of the Demon at the crossroads, and avoiding death until you are offered the tommy gun). The tasks consist of finding special gears, collecting gobs of extra thick ink from the Swollen Searchers, obtaining power cores from valve boxes, destroying Bendy cutouts (in which he must then run from "Bendy", who doesn't like his cutouts being destroyed as warned by "Alice"), fighting off the "Butcher Gang" who are trying to get to Alice's room, and getting five ink hearts from the very bottom floor, where the Projectionist resides. Once these tasks are completed, Alice will allow him to leave. The number of items to collect are random. However, Boris unfortunately gets on the lift with Henry, and Alice brings the lift plummeting down, screaming that Henry has robbed her of the Boris that she needs to become "beautiful" again. Once the lift reaches the floor level 9, Alice Angel appears, walking towards an unsuspecting Boris as he attempts to revive an unconscious Henry, and she pulls him away into her lair, ending the chapter. There are two paths to choose in the chapter: choosing the Path of the Angel causes an Alice Angel teaser to appear, which shows Boris tied up, an axe lying on the table, and Alice Angel's shadow on the wall. If Henry chooses the Path of the Demon, "Bendy" is shown in an ink-filled room with the "Butcher Gang" enemies (Piper, Fisher, and Striker) and a Searcher.

text: Characters[edit]

text: This section may need to be rewritten entirely to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards. You can help. The discussion page may contain suggestions. (October 2017)

text: Henry[edit]

text: Henry is the main protagonist of the game. He is a retired cartoonist and animator who used to work with Joey Drew at his workshop 30 years prior to the beginning of the game's story. The opening cut scene in the game shows a letter that Henry received from Drew, where he reminisces about their time making cartoons together. Drew finishes off inviting Henry to visit the studio once more with the mention of having "something" he needs to show him. Henry sets the game in motion by visiting the old workshop, as requested by Drew, and getting trapped in it. He is voiced by TheMeatly.

text: Due to the game having a first-person perspective, Henry's physical appearance is yet to be shown in-game, and little is learned about his psychological traits other than he is concerned and dismayed by the state of the workshop and is shocked by the thought of Drew having had a hand in it. From his tone when voicing his reaction to events, it is also suggested that he has some resistance to being surprised. It is also worth noting that, shortly after encountering Bendy for the first time, Henry begins having fast, blurry flashbacks of Bendy and the rituals before falling unconscious and setting in motion the second chapter of the story.

text: Bendy[edit]

text: During the events of the three chapters of the story this far, it is heavily implied that, for reasons yet unknown, Drew and other close employees began dabbling in occult magic and dark rituals that resulted in Bendy coming to life as a humanoid monster whose physical body is made mostly of ink. Evidence of this includes cardboard cutouts of Bendy littered around pentagrams in multiple rooms, as well as a room with coffins, a substance that appears to be blood, and more pentagrams in it. In addition to his frightening appearance, Bendy's presence has apparently resulted in the entire animation studio becoming haunted, leading to paranormal activity and the animation of both shapeless monsters (which act as enemies that the player must defeat to progress), and other characters from his cartoon show. So far, whenever Bendy appears ink begins to pour down from the walls and a chase begins where the player must rush to an available exit before Bendy catches up, an event that would lead to an instant Game Over.

text: Bendy is yet to speak in-game and appears only in certain parts of the story, so very little is shown about his psychological characteristics other than his apparently aggressive behavior. So far, all characters that make contact with him are presumed to be killed in an unspecified fashion, although in Sammy Lawrence's case, he is implied to have been melted into a puddle of ink by a post-credits cutscene in Chapter 2. Due to his enigmatic background, Bendy's motives are yet to be officially revealed, although most fans theorize (and a few pieces of evidence in the game appear to support this) that Bendy is driven by a grudge against his own creator for having "betrayed" him. It is also theorized that Bendy is actually Joey Drew.

text: Boris[edit]

text: A secondary character from Bendy's show, Boris is an anthropomorphic wolf that bears considerable resemblance to Disney's Goofy. In Bendy's cartoon show, it is suggested (from the promotional posters around Joey Drew's studio) that Boris and Bendy share a rival-like relationship.

text: Within the game's story, shortly after entering the studio Henry comes across the corpse of a real-life Boris tied to a table with his chest cavity torn open (complete with ink-black "blood" dripping out, and a pair of "X" instead of eyes) and a message on the wall that reads "who's laughing now?". At the end of Chapter 2, a fully alive and unharmed Boris appears before Henry after the cartoonist managed to escape Bendy for the second time. It is currently unknown whether Boris came to life alongside Bendy, or whether his animation was accidental. It is implied in Chapter 3 that the Boris corpse from Chapter 1 was, in fact, a different Boris, as Alice Angel has been harvesting Boris clones for their parts, hoping to use them to recreate her body. This also implies that he is the last remaining Boris. It is worth noting that, unlike Bendy, Boris's real-life appearance is identical to his cartoon depiction. In Chapter 3, Boris seems friendly and almost helpful to Henry until he disappears at the end when Alice kidnaps him to use for her recreation.

text: Alice Angel[edit]

text: Another character from Bendy's cartoon show, Alice Angel is a young woman who acts as a supportive character in the show. Alice Angel's model first appeared in chapter three. Alice Angel is apparently based on the cartoon trope of the protagonist's girlfriend being taller and proportionally more attractive than the protagonist himself, a theme that can be seen in the case of cartoons like Roger Rabbit, Felix the Cat or Betty Boop (from Fleischer Studios).

text: Alice Angel makes her debut in chapter three of Bendy and the Ink Machine, as an imperfect, angel/demon hybrid, who at first seems to be a benevolent taskmaster, but becomes vengeful once she discovers the iteration of Boris she needs is going up in the lift with Henry, whom she has allowed to return to the outside world. After she and the protagonist, Henry, first meet, she sends him on a series of missions, in order to collect certain items for her. Alice seems to fear the Searchers and the other creatures wandering the studio, claiming they if they touch her, she will get dragged back into the ink that she had spawned from. One of the rooms of her lair contains multiple mutilated corpses of Boris the wolf, the hearts of which Alice has taken to give herself the shape that she has desired. It is implied that she is really her former voice actress, Susie Campbell, who was transformed like Sammy Lawrence and Norman Polk. If the player chooses the Path of the Angel at the crossroads, it is revealed in an audio log that Campbell was replaced by a woman named Allison Pendle to play the voice of Alice Angel, which makes her extremely depressed. At the end of the chapter, Boris is seen being taken away by Alice Angel for her recreation.

text: Sammy Lawrence[edit]

text: Sammy Lawrence is the lead music composer for Bendy's cartoon show. Within Joey Drew's workshop, Lawrence worked alongside other musicians in a music room to add soundtracks, music and songs to Bendy's show and had his own office that he enjoyed isolating himself in. He is voiced by Aaron Landon.

text: In Chapter two, Sammy makes his appearance as an antagonist who worships Bendy as a true demon and sees him as his "savior", going so far as to trap Henry and attempts to sacrifice him in order to appease Bendy. For unknown reasons, after being summoned by Lawrence, Bendy ends up assaulting and presumably killing him instead of going for Henry, an event that takes place off camera and is evidenced by Lawrence's screams and pleas of mercy.

text: Lawrence's physical appearance in-game is shown as an ink-black humanoid figure wearing heavily stained overalls and the face of a cardboard Bendy cutout as a mask. Whether his appearance is unintended or is the result of his insane zealotry for Bendy is unknown. It is also unknown if he was actually human when introduced, as earlier in-game he was shown to disappear from sight, but it is implied that may have been human before he was turned into an ink humanoid figure. At the end of the chapter, a screenshot of Sammy Lawrence as an ink puddle with a mask beside it is shown, indicating that Sammy is dead.

text: The Searchers[edit]

text: The Searchers are humanoid figures made of animated ink that appear throughout the game in attempt to attack Henry. Contact with them damages Henry, resulting in a Game Over if he sustains too much damage. They have no discernible facial features and lack lower bodies, forcing them to creep at Henry in order to attack him. Searchers disguise themselves as ink puddles that become hostile when approached and appear during certain parts of the story. In order to kill them, Henry must use his weapon to fight them, causing them to collapse and then reform at the location where they first spawned. After collapsing enough times, they disappear completely.

text: The Searchers are, so far, the only standard enemies found in the game. Their origin and reason for their behavior are unknown, although most fans theorize that they are the reanimated remains of Joey Drew's studio employees that were dissolved into ink and are being controlled by Bendy's demonic presence.

text: The Swollen Searchers[edit]

text: In Chapter 3, one of the missions from Alice Angel will be to collect extra thick ink with the ink syringe from these monsters on level 11. Their appearance is similar to their original counterparts, except they are slightly larger and covered with large lumps. Unlike other enemies, they do not harm Henry.

text: The Projectionist[edit]

text: The Projectionist is a monster who has a projector for a head. It is actually the remains of Norman Polk, the lead projectionist working at Joey Drew Studios. The Projectionist's domain is the very bottom level of the studio, Level 14, but it isn't confined to the area, and will roam throughout the studio aimlessly. It will chase after Henry if he is seen in its light. Unlike the other, more human members of the studio, The Projectionist can be killed. Upon killing the Projectionist, the player will receive an achievement titled 'Norman's Fate.' It is also possible that all of the employees have something to do with one of the ink monsters like the Projectionist. Norman Polk aka The Projectionist can be killed by using a tommy gun (which is only obtainable by making the ink bowl from an ink machine (by Shawn Flynn's voice tape), choosing the Path of the Demon at the crossroads, and avoiding death will allow the player to gain the tommy gun).

text: Piper[edit]

text: A member of the Butcher Gang. His real name is Charley.

text: Fisher[edit]

text: A member of the Butcher Gang. His real name is Barley.

text: Striker[edit]

text: A member of the Butcher Gang. His real name is Edgar.