document_title: Life of the Party (2018 film)

question_text: who plays the dad on life of the party

question_tokens: who plays the dad on life of the party

text: Life of the Party (2018 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text:
After dropping off their daughter Maddie (Molly Gordon) to her senior year at Decatur University in Atlanta, Dan tells Deanna (Melissa McCarthy) that he wants a divorce because he has fallen in love with another woman, a realtor Marcie (Julie Bowen), and he also wants to sell their house under his name. Heartbroken, Deanna visits her parents Mike (Stephen Root) and Sandy (Jacki Weaver) to tell them what happened, but Mike is frustrated because Dan made Deanna drop out of her college because she was pregnant, as well as his overbearing ways during their marriage.
Deanna goes to see Maddie in her dorm to tell the news about her divorce and her plans to study again at the university to earn a degree in Archaeology. Maddie initially has doubts about her plan but she ultimately accepts it. Maddie introduces Deanna to her friends - Amanda (Adria Arjona), neurotic Debbie (Jessie Ennis), and Helen (Gillian Jacobs). Deanna later meets her agoraphobic and chronically depressed roommate Leonor (Heidi Gardner).

text: On the first day of school, she meets demeaning girls, Jennifer (Debby Ryan) and her friend Trina (Yani Simone), who mocks Deanna's age. Deanna later signed the divorce papers, with her best friend Christine, in front of Dan and Marcie. At night, Maddie and her friends take Deanna to the party, where she meets a boy named Jack (Luke Benward), who later falls in love with her and, the next day, they have sex inside the library. In another night, they attend an 80's-themed party where Deanna has a dance-off with Jennifer, resulting in earning the respect of her schoolmates. Deanna later has stage fright during her oral presentation and she faints.

text: While Deanna hanging out for the dinner with Christine, her husband, and their couple friends, Dan and Marcie unexpectedly show up, who declare that they are getting married. Jack turns out to be Marcie's son and knowing about Deanna sleeping with Jack, Marcie walks out in disgust. On the night of Dan and Marcie's wedding, Deanna and her friends get high from chocolate bark laced with weed, and they head to the reception, where they start wrecking the wedding hall. Dan, Marcie, and Maddie find them and Marcie tells Deanna she is cut off financially from Dan. Deanna is filled with shame, if only because of how Maddie saw her.

text: Deanna tries to make amends with Maddie, but she tells her that she is leaving college since she has no means of completing the rest of the year on her own. The girls then come up with a plan to throw a party to raise money to pay for Deanna's tuition. Since everyone is at Christina Aguilera concert, Helen posts the message on her Twitter, claiming Aguilera will be at the party after her show. Christine shows up with her husband, as do Mike and Sandy. Mike offers to give Deanna a 401K check to pay her tuition, but Deanna refuses to take it. The party is not a success until Aguilera (who ends up being Leonor’s cousin) arrives and she puts on a show with Deanna and the girls to an excited crowd.

text: Later on, Deanna is due to repeat her presentation in class. She is still nervous until Maddie, Helen, Amanda, Debbie, and all the sorority sisters show up to support her, and Deanna manages to give the presentation with ease. At the end of the year, Deanna and Maddie graduate together, with all their friends and family there to support them. Maddie encourages Deanna to throw her cap in the air. She does so, and it hits Dan in the face, knocking out an earring he was wearing while Marcie berates him for losing the expensive diamond stud.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Melissa McCarthy as Deanna "Dee Rock" Miles (née Cook)
Molly Gordon as Maddie Miles, Dan and Deanna's daughter
Gillian Jacobs as Helen, a sorority sister who is older than the rest due to having been in a coma for eight years.
Maya Rudolph as Christine Davenport, Deanna's neurotic and heavy drinking best friend
Jessie Ennis as Debbie, a sorority sister with "issues"
Adria Arjona as Amanda, another sorority sister with "issues"
Matt Walsh as Daniel "Dan" Miles, Deanna's ex-husband, Maddie's father
Julie Bowen as Marcie Strong, a real estate agent, Deanna's nemesis and Dan's lover
Debby Ryan as Jennifer, a "mean girl" in Deanna's archaeology class
Stephen Root as Michael "Mike" Cook, Deanna's father and Maddie's grandfather
Jacki Weaver as Sandy Cook, Deanna's mother and Maddie's grandmother
Luke Benward as Jack Strong, a frat boy infatuated with Deanna
Jimmy O. Yang as Tyler, Maddie's boyfriend and Jack's friend
Chris Parnell as Wayne Truzack, Deanna's professor
Heidi Gardner as Leonor, Deanna's reclusive Goth roommate
Yani Smone as Trina, Jennifer's snarky sidekick
Damon Jones as Frank Davenport, Christine's husband
Ben Falcone as Dale, the Uber driver
Nat Faxon as Lance
Sarah Baker as Gildred
Karen Maruyama as Mediator
Steve Mallory as Bill
Courtney Patterson as Amy
Steve Falcone (Ben Falcone's real-life father) as Older Man #1 / Vince
Michael D. McCarthy (Melissa McCarthy's real-life father) as Older Man #2 / Dennis
Christina Aguilera as herself (cameo)

text: Production[edit]

text: Filming began in August 2016 in the metro Atlanta area. The sorority house used in the film is The Twelve Oaks Bed & Breakfast (www.thetwelveoaks.com) located in Covington, GA. The interior of the mansion was replicated in a warehouse in Decatur, GA for the interior scenes and the exterior scenes were filmed on location at the inn.[citation needed]

text: Release[edit]

text: Life of the Party was released on May 11, 2018.[5] The first official trailer for the film was released on February 5, 2018.[6]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: Life of the Party grossed 52.9 million in the United States and Canada, and $12.8 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $65.7 million.[3]

text: In the United States and Canada, Life of the Party was released alongside Breaking In, and was projected to gross $18–21 million from 3,656 theaters in its opening weekend.[7] It made $4.9 million on its first day, including $700,000 from Thursday night previews, down from the $985,000 McCarthy's The Boss grossed in March 2016, and similar to the $650,000 grossed by Snatched on the Thursday before the same weekend the previous year.[2] The film went on to debut to $17.9 million, and finished second behind Avengers: Infinity War ($62 million in its third week); 80% of its audience was over the age of 25, while 70% was female.[8] It fell 57% in its second weekend, to $7.6 million, finishing fourth at the box office,[9] and another 33% to $5.1 million in its third, finishing fifth.[10]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 38% based on 129 reviews, and an average rating of 5/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Life of the Party's good-natured humor and abundance of onscreen talent aren't enough to make up for jumbled direction and a script that misses far more often than it hits."[11] On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 46 out of 100, based on reviews from 32 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews."[12] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale, higher than the "C+" earned by McCarthy and Falcone's previous two film collaborations.[8]

text: Matt Zoller-Seitz of RogerEbert.com gave the film two out of four stars, calling it "the latest Melissa McCarthy star vehicle that fails to do justice to the sheer awesomeness of its leading lady."[13] Leigh Monson from Birth.MoviesDeath wrote, "One hundred minutes of self-indulgence and tedium, even if it's well-meaning in its intentions."[14]

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
Award

Category

Recipient

Result

Teen Choice Awards

Choice Summer Movie

Nominated

Choice Summer Movie Actress

Melissa McCarthy

Nominated

People's Choice Awards

The Comedy Movie Star of 2018

Pending


document_title: Radio in the United States

question_text: when did the radio became a household item

root

text: Radio in the United States

text: History[edit]

text: Pioneers[edit]

text: In 1912, most amateur-radio transmissions were restricted to wavelengths below 200 meters (i.e., frequencies above 1500 kHz) to prevent interference to future commercial broadcasters.[1] The beginning of regular, commercially licensed radio broadcasting in the United States in 1920, along with the concurrent development of sound and color film in that decade, ended the print monopoly of mass media and opened the doors to the immediate (and pervasive) electronic media. By 1928, the United States had three national radio networks: two owned by NBC (the National Broadcasting Company), and one by CBS (the Columbia Broadcasting System). Until 1943, there were four major national radio networks: two owned by NBC, one owned by CBS and one owned by Mutual Broadcasting System. Stations were connected by broadcast-quality, leased telephone lines. NBC's second network became ABC, the American Broadcasting Company.[2]

tag: p

text: By 1919, after the war, radio pioneers across the country resumed transmissions. The early stations gained new call signs. Some early stations were started by newspapers: the first to do this was 8MK (today WWJ) in Detroit, which was owned by the Detroit News. [3] While many sources cite KDKA in Pittsburgh as the first station, and give its first broadcast as November 2, 1920, the question of who came first is still in dispute among historians. [4] For example, there is evidence 8MK was on the air with Michigan state election returns on August 31, 1920 [5] Many other early stations were owned by small companies, such as AMRAD (the American Radio and Research Company, Medford Hillside MA); by some accounts, it broadcast voice and music as early as March 1916 [6], and was on the air sporadically till it began a daily schedule in May 1921, using call letters 1XE and later, WGI. [7] Perhaps the best-known early station began as experimental station 8XK, which became KDKA in 1920. AM radio signals traveled long distances, and KDKA's signal covered much of the country. The existence of early experimental radio stations encouraged young men (and a small number of young women) to build crystal sets (with ear phones) to listen to the new technical marvel. Entrepreneurs set up stations primarily with the goal of selling expensive console radio sets that the whole family could listen to, or which restaurants and shops would buy to attract customers.[8][9]

text: Until early 1922, there were fewer than forty commercial stations broadcasting. [10] But in mid-1922, the so-called "radio craze" began, when several hundred new stations took to the airwaves, and thousands of people wanted to buy their own radio set. Even President Warren G. Harding had a radio installed in the White House. [11]

text: While "direct advertising" was not allowed in radio's formative years, per the order of then-head of the Department of Commerce Herbert Hoover [12], station owners wanted this policy changed, since it was very expensive to operate a radio station. By 1926, when the National Broadcasting Company went on the air, advertising was gradually allowed. Madison Avenue recognized the importance of radio as a new advertising medium. Advertising provided the major funding for most stations. The United States never had a license fee for set users.[13]

text: The National Broadcasting Company began regular broadcasting in 1926, with telephone links between New York and other Eastern cities. NBC became the dominant radio network, splitting into Red and Blue Networks. The Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) began in 1927 owned and directed by William S. Paley.[14]

text: Prior to 1927, U.S. radio was supervised by the Department of Commerce. Then, the Radio Act of 1927 created the Federal Radio Commission (FRC). One of the FRC's early major moves was the implementation of General Order 40, designating AM radio stations as Clear Channel, Regional, and Local. Most stations' frequencies were changed to implement General Order 40 at 3:00 am EST on November 11, 1928.

text: Battle with the newspapers[edit]

text: In the early 1930s, a furious battle broke out as the newspaper industry tried to block the transmission of news by radio. Advertising revenues were plunging during the Great Depression, and newspapers were desperate to protect their main flow of income from the upstart's threat to the status quo. In one particular incident, the newspapers attempted to claim that a broadcast of the H. G. Wells story The War of the Worlds caused a mass hysteria among listeners who thought the broadcast was real news, a myth that continues to the present day. Hollywood briefly became involved, by preventing its stars from appearing on the radio; it soon realized, however, that radio was not a direct competition and the greater visibility for their stars met even larger audiences. The newspaper attack failed, and the networks set up their own newsgathering and reporting system, which played a major role during World War II.[15]

text: In 1934, the FRC was renamed the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), and remains in operation under this name.[16]

text: An FCC decision in 1939 required NBC to divest itself of its Blue Network. That decision was sustained by the Supreme Court in a 1943 decision, National Broadcasting Co. v. United States, which established the framework that the "scarcity" of radio-frequency meant that broadcasting was subject to greater regulation than other media. This Blue Network network became the American Broadcasting Company (ABC). Around 1946, ABC, NBC, and CBS began regular television broadcasts. The small DuMont Television Network, was founded earlier; it disbanded in 1956. In 1934, several independent stations formed the Mutual Broadcasting System to exchange syndicated programming, including The Lone Ranger and Amos 'n' Andy.

text: Advertising as the basis of profitability[edit]

text: Paley at CBS was the first to fully realize that profitability depended primarily on maximizing the sales of commercials, which in turn meant reaching as large an upscale audience as possible. Surveys and polls could be used to determine not only the size of the audience, but their affluence. Frank Stanton, the president of CBS, worked with Columbia University sociologist Paul Lazarsfeld to develop techniques for measuring audiences.[17]

text: Before Paley, owners typically viewed their stations as stand-alone outlets or as the broadcast equivalent of local newspapers. It was their job to sell ads to local business. Individual stations bought programming from the network and, thus, were considered the network's clients. Paley changed the business model by looking at national advertisers as the critical element. CBS therefore provided network programming to affiliate stations at a nominal cost, thereby ensuring the widest possible distribution for both the programming and the advertising. The advertisers then became the network's primary clients and, because of the wider distribution brought by the growing network, Paley was able to charge more for the ad time. Affiliates were required to carry programming offered by the network for part of the broadcast day, receiving a portion of the network's fees from advertising revenue. At other times in the broadcast day, affiliates were free to offer local programming and sell advertising time locally.[18]

text: Growing importance of news[edit]

text: By 1940, the greatest audience attention was on the networks' evening programs of variety shows, music, and comedy and drama. In the morning and afternoon, smaller audiences (chiefly housewives) listened to 61 soap operas. Phone-in talk shows were rare, but disk jockeys attracted a following through their chatter between records. The most popular radio shows during the Golden Age of Radio. The Jack Benny Program, Fibber McGee and Molly, The Goldbergs and other top-rated American radio shows were heard by 30–35 percent of the radio audience.[19][20]

text: In a major technical move, the FCC mandated that 795 of the 883 United States broadcasters on the AM band shift their broadcast frequencies on March 29, 1941, in what was called "Radio Movin' Day" in the press, and was the implementation of the North American Regional Broadcasting Agreement. The goal was to improve AM reception inside the United States, and reduce interference to and from stations outside the United States.[21]

text: President Franklin Roosevelt's opponents had control of most newspapers in the 1930s; press reports were under their control and involved hostile editorial commentary. Roosevelt's solution was a series of 30 evening broadcasts in an informal, almost casual setting, dubbed "Fireside chats." Historian Douglas B. Craig says that he, "offered voters a chance to receive information unadulterated by newspaper proprietors' bias" through the new medium of radio."[22]

text: Roosevelt's radio audiences averaged 18 percent during peacetime, and 58 percent during the war. His address of May 27, 1941, was heard by 70 percent of the radio audience.[23]

text: Radio's instant, on-the-spot reports of dramatic events drew large audiences starting in 1938 in the run-up to World War II.[24][25]

text: Local radio in the Golden Age[edit]

text: All broadcast stations are licensed locally, in the past with mandated obligations to their "city of service," fulfillment of which for license renewal is today largely passé. For many a "250-watt station in my hometown," expensive facilities emulated the networks' in the form of multiple, acoustically fine studios in art deco style for local origination of music and variety programs, featuring local, mostly volunteer, talented teens and energetic young adults motivated by the possibility of being discovered. Local programs were "sustaining" (covered by general ad revenue), or the talent found their own sponsors and bought station time. Often paid just over minimum wage, "combo operator-announcers," later called DJs, nevertheless came to consider themselves entertainers, often in fact becoming local celebrities, who cultivated "on-air personalities," sometimes pairing one who was straight-laced with one playing the clown. Practical jokes by full-time staff were common, the unseeing audience none the wiser unless someone broke up laughing.

text: Continuous station operations were manual (until automation debuted in the 1970s), and could originate programming only three ways: live; live via remote telephone line (including network feeds as well as store openings and church services around town); or played from "electrical transcription" (ET) phonograph discs. ETs up to 16in diameter played 15 minute syndicated programs, mailed to stations by the thousands, many for government sales of savings bonds and military recruiting. Magnetic tape arrived after 1947 and the Bing Crosby/Ampex alliance. All sound was monophonic until introduction of the stereo LP in 1958, when sister stations "simulcast" the left signal on AM, the right on FM, requiring audiofans to set up two receivers. For both practitioners and attentive listeners, local radio during the Golden Age was fun.[26]

text: Education[edit]

text: Radio in education began as early as April 1922, when Medford Hillside's WGI Radio broadcast the first of an ongoing series of educational lectures from Tufts College professors. These lectures were described by the press as a sort of "wireless college."[27] Soon, other colleges across the U.S. began adding radio broadcasting courses to their curricula; some, like the University of Iowa, even provided what today would be known as distance-learning credits.[28] Curry College in Massachusetts introduced one of the nation's first broadcasting majors in 1932 when the college teamed up with WLOE in Boston to have students broadcast programs. In the 1950s, television courses became popular.[29] After 2000, Internet-based transmission of college courses came on line. 2012 was the "year of the MOOC" (massive open online course).[30]

text: Television era[edit]

text: After 1955 television's visual images replaced the audio-only limitation of radio as the predominant entertainment and news vehicle. Radio adapted by replacing entertainment programs with schedules of music interspersed with news and features, a free-form format adopted by NBC when it launched its popular weekend-long Monitor in 1955. During the 1950s automobile manufacturers began offering car radios as standard accessories, and radio received a boost as Americans listened to their car radios as they drove to and from work. Although this period saw the overall decline of the AM radio, some new stations, like the WGIV station in Charlotte dedicated to African American Music, were still coming up.

text: In the 1950s, as a result of television's increased popularity coupled with dramatically loosened restrictions on playing recorded music on air, the network model of radio dramatically declined. In its place was the first music radio format: top 40, the forerunner to modern contemporary hit radio. Top 40 stations could be operated locally and gave rise to the disc jockeys, who became prominent local celebrities in their own right. Top 40 became the outlet for the relatively new style of music known as rock and roll.

text: FM broadcasting[edit]

text: FM radio, which was the successor to the failed Apex band (also known as ultra-shortwave) experiments of the 1930s, arrived in the United States in 1941, but it was not until the 1960s that it saw broad adoption. This was due in large part to a 1945 Federal Communication Commission decision which shifted FM's allocation of frequencies from 42-50 MHZ to 88-108 MHz. This allowed FM much more room for growth when listeners arrived after 1960, but rendered hundreds of thousands of already-existing Armstrong-FM sets useless overnight, and set adoption of FM in the United States back years. The FCC later decided to reduce program duplication on AM and FM sister stations, giving the younger medium space to grow. The better sound fidelity of FM, the less static, dated a natural for musical programming. The first FM stations were primarily instrumental, featuring formats that would come to be known as easy listening and beautiful music, and were targeted at shopping centers. Other, later FM sign-ons became known for experimentation; the early freeform stations eventually evolved into progressive rock, the first radio format designed specifically to showcase rock music. From progressive rock came album-oriented rock, which in turn spawned the modern formats of classic rock, active rock and adult album alternative.[31]

text: Top 40 radio would begin arriving on the FM band in the 1970s as FM reached critical mass. As the amount of archival music from the rock and roll era began to expand, oldies radio stations began to appear, later evolving into the modern classic hits and later adult hits formats. FM radio made a major expansion in the late 1980s with the FCC's Docket 80-90, which expanded the number of available FM licenses in the suburban areas of the United States. Country music in particular, previously only heard on rural AM stations particularly in the Southern and Western United States, benefited from this docket, moving en masse to FM; the beautiful music and easy listening formats mostly died out, with adult contemporary music taking its place.

text: Talk radio[edit]

text: Meanwhile, the AM band began declining. All-news radio became popular in the major cities in the late 1960s. As each successive radio format moved to FM, AM radio stations were left with fewer and fewer options. One of the last "AM only" formats was MOR, or "middle-of-the-road", the direct forerunner of adult contemporary music and adult standards. Talk radio, although it had a small following in the cities, did not achieve mainstream popularity until the 1980s, when a combination of factors led to the rise of conservative talk radio. The politically charged format swept the country, bringing stardom to one of its pioneers, Rush Limbaugh. Also rising to popularity in the late 1980s was sports radio, which was dedicated to talk about sports as well as the broadcasting of sports events.[32] What few country stations remained on AM typically shifted to classic country and focused primarily on older music.

text: While shock jocks had been in existence since at least the 1970s (see, for example, Don Imus) and the morning zoo radio format was popular among local stations beginning in the 1980s, the first shock jock to make a major national impact was Howard Stern, whose New York-based show was syndicated nationwide beginning in the early 1990s. Stern built a multimedia empire that incorporated television, books and feature films, which led to him bestowing upon himself the title of "King of All Media." Stern left terrestrial radio in 2005.

text: Satellite broadcasting[edit]

text: Satellite networks began replacing landline-based models in the 1980s, making possible wider and quicker national distribution of both talk and music radio. At the same time, the traditional networks started collapsing: NBC Radio and Mutual both were acquired by syndication company Westwood One, while ABC (both radio and television) was acquired by Capital Cities Communications. CBS would later acquire Westwood One, only to spin it off in 2007; as of 2015, Westwood One is now in the hands of Cumulus Media. ABC would end up in the hands of The Walt Disney Company, who broke the radio network up in 2007; Disney owns portions of the old network, while the rest of it is in the hands of Cumulus. Mutual was dissolved in 1999, replaced by CNN Radio, which itself was dissolved in 2012. CBS still owns much of its original network, the last of the four major networks of the Golden Age to do so; its programming is mostly funneled through Cumulus.

text: Two other major commercial networks have appeared since the 1990s: Premiere Networks, the division of iHeartMedia, and the Salem Radio Network. Premiere owns the radio distribution rights to the current "fourth major network", Fox (which owns no radio stations), and distributes that company's news and sports radio broadcasts. iHeart's immediate predecessor, Clear Channel Communications, benefited from the Telecommunications Act of 1996, which allowed for greater media consolidation, and built a large empire of both large and small market radio stations; Clear Channel, having overextended itself, jettisoned most of its small-market stations (as well as its now-dissolved television division) in the late 2000s. The Salem Radio Network, a division of Salem Communications (which outside of radio also has a large Internet operation), primarily has a Christian/conservative focus and specializes in Christian music, preaching stations and conservative talk radio, both owning stations and producing original content. Oaktree Capital Management briefly attempted a foray into building a radio network when it purchased the assets of several struggling radio networks in the late 2000s; while it still owns stations through its Townsquare Media holding company, it has since spun off its network holdings (which operated under the Dial Global brand) to Cumulus.

text: Direct-to-consumer subscription satellite radio began appearing in the United States in the early 2000s, but despite heavy investment in programming has continually lost money and has less than a tenth of the reach of terrestrial radio. The two competing satellite radio services, Sirius and XM, merged to form Sirius XM Radio in 2009 and now has a government-regulated monopoly on the format.

text: Broadcast call signs[edit]

text: While broadcast radio stations will often brand themselves with plain-text names, identities such as "cool FM", "rock 105" or "the ABC network" are not unique. Another station, in another city or country, may (and often will) have a similar brand; the name of a broadcast station for legal purposes is, therefore, normally its ITU call sign.

text: Broadcast stations in North America generally use call letters in the international series, with common conventions followed in each country. In the United States, the first letter generally is K for stations west of the Mississippi River and W for those east of the Mississippi; all new call signs have had four characters since 1930,[33] although there are historical three-character calls still in use (such as WOR in New York City, WBZ in Boston, WOL in Washington DC, WSB in Atlanta, WMC in Memphis, WGN in Chicago, KOA in Denver, KSL in Salt Lake City, KEX in Portland, Oregon, KUT in Austin, and KFI in Los Angeles).[34]

text: Modern era[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: The expansion and dominance of FM radio, which has better audio quality but a more-limited broadcast range than AM, represented the major technical change in radio during the 1970s and 1980s. FM radio (aided by the development of smaller portable radios and "Walkman" headsets) dominates music programming, while AM has largely shifted to talk and news formats. Talk radio became more popular during the 1980s as a result of improved satellite communications, the repeal of the Fairness Doctrine and (by the mid-1990s) extensive concentration of media ownership stemming from the Telecommunications Act of 1996. While before the 1980s talk radio was primarily a local phenomenon, the development of national spoken-word programming contributed to the renewed popularity of AM radio. However, this popularity is fading as previously AM-only stations begin moving their operations to FM simulcasts or translators, and as the audience of talk radio ages.

text: Both FM and AM radio have become increasingly specialized. Music formats (for instance) comprise a variety of specializations, the top five in 1991 being "country and western", "adult contemporary", "Top 40", "religion" and "oldies". Radio has been shaped by demographics, although to a lesser degree than television; modern radio formats target groups of people by age, gender, urban (or rural) setting and race. As such, freeform stations with broad-spanning playlists have become uncommon on commercial radio.

text: In an era in which TV is the predominant medium, the reach of radio is still extensive. Ninety-nine percent of American households in 1999 had at least one radio; the average is five per household. Every day, radio reaches 80 percent of the U.S. population. Revenue more than doubled in a decade, from $8.4 billion in 1990 to more than $17 billion in 2000.[citation needed] Radio continues to prevail in automobiles and offices, where attention can be kept on the road (or the task at hand) while radio is an audio background. The popularity of car radios has led to drive time being the most listened-to dayparts on most radio stations, followed by midday (or the "at work" shift). Transistor radios, a technology that has been available since the 1950s, were the method of choice for listening to music on the go for most of the late 20th century, before digital media players and later smartphones (many of which have FM radios as part of their hardware) took those roles in the 20th century.

text: The majority of programming in the United States is in English, with Spanish the second-most popular broadcast language; these are the only two languages with domestically produced, national radio networks. In the largest urban areas of the United States, "world ethnic" stations may be found with a wide variety of languages (including Russian, Chinese, Korean and the languages of India); relatively widespread languages French and German have comparatively few radio outlets (in the case of German, due to the fact that most of its speakers are Amish or from similar sects and thus shun radio technology). French speakers can generally receive programming direct from Canadian broadcasters, which are receivable across the Canada–US border and a handful of local stations serving the Haitian diaspora and Creole populations also serve areas in the southeast.

text: Until the 1980s, most commercial radio stations were affiliated with large networks such as ABC, CBS, the Mutual Broadcasting System, NBC, and others (e.g., RKO in the 1980s). The traditional major networks that had dominated the history of American radio up to that point began to be dissolved in the 1980s; RKO was forced to break up in a billing scandal, while NBC Radio and Mutual sold their assets to up-and-coming syndicator Westwood One, which itself would be bought by rival CBS in the 1990s. ABC maintained most of its radio network until 2007, when it sold off most of its stations to Citadel Broadcasting and later Cumulus Media (it maintains two specialty networks, sports-oriented ESPN Radio and youth top 40 Radio Disney, the latter of which has largely shifted to Internet radio; ABC still produces radio programming in addition to its terrestrial networks). CBS sold off Westwood One to private equity interests in the late 2000s as well, but unlike its rivals maintained ownership of its flagship stations. As of 2012, most commercial radio stations are controlled by media conglomerates and private equity firms such as Bain Capital (Clear Channel Communications), Oaktree Capital Management (Townsquare Media) and Cumulus Media.

text: Public radio[edit]

text: Unlike most countries, the national and state governments in the U.S. do not operate any stations or networks directed at its own domestic citizens. It does operate networks overseas through the Broadcasting Board of Governors; the most widely known of these networks is Voice of America, which serves a general worldwide audience; other networks target specific geographic regions. Broadcasting Board of Governors networks were, until 2013, expressly forbidden from being marketed to American citizens; they still neither own nor affiliate with any AM or FM station. The U.S. also provides the American Forces Network, a service for American armed servicemen stationed overseas that mostly relays commercial programming; AFN broadcasts are restricted to listeners in Japan, Korea and parts of Europe. In lieu of a national broadcaster, the United States government instead subsidizes nonprofit radio programming through the Corporation for Public Broadcasting.[35]

text: In 1998, the number of U.S. commercial radio stations had grown to 4,793 AM stations and 5,662 FM stations. In addition, there are 1,460 public radio stations. Most of these stations are run by private foundations, universities and public authorities for educational purposes and are financed by donations, foundations, subscriptions and corporate underwriting. Much public-radio broadcasting is supplied by NPR (formerly National Public Radio). NPR was incorporated in February 1970 under the Public Broadcasting Act of 1967; its television counterpart, PBS, was also created by the same legislation. (NPR and PBS are operated separately from each other.)[36]

text: The BBC World Service has been distributed in the United States since 1986; until July 2012 by PRI, and since then by APM.[37]

text: Recent developments[edit]

text: A new form of radio which is gaining popularity is satellite radio. Sirius XM Radio has a monopoly on the technology after the merger of Sirius Satellite Radio and XM Satellite Radio. Unlike terrestrial-radio broadcasting, most channels feature few (or no) commercials. Satellite-radio content is not regulated by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC).[38]

text: Cable radio, a slightly older technology, has also become widespread; Music Choice is the market leader in this field, with its primary competitors being Sirius XM, Muzak, DMX, Sonic Tap and Canada-based Galaxie. CRN Digital Talk Radio Networks specialize in talk radio. Cable radio has the disadvantage that it requires a cable TV hookup, limiting its use outside the home.[39]

text: Unlike the mandated digital television transition, the U.S. government has not mandated a transition to digital radio, although it allows digital radio to be broadcast. The national standard is HD Radio, a proprietary in-band on-channel format that allows digital and analog signals to be broadcast simultaneously. Radio companies aggressively marketed HD Radio throughout the 2000s, touting its clearer signal and capacity for digital subchannels, but the technology never caught on with the general public. The negatives were cost, signal reception problems, a general lack of quality programming on the subchannels, and (especially on AM HD stations) adjacent-channel interference. HD Radio's primary use has been to exploit an FCC loophole to allow low-power broadcast translators to carry HD subchannels in analog, thus giving radio station groups the ability to program more program services in a market than the federally mandated maximum number of stations allowed. FMeXtra is another subchannel service authorized for use in the United States, although that service is generally limited to voice transmissions due to lower bandwidth.[40]

text: Internet radio, digital music players and streaming-capable smartphones are a challenge to terrestrial radio. Unlike satellite radio, most Internet stations do not require a subscription; several of the more popular ones use algorithms which allow listeners to customize the music they want to hear and select new music which may interest them. The proliferation of internet-based stations (which are more numerous and easier to set up than their television counterparts) creates a threat of audience fracturing beyond that experienced by television due to cable and satellite providers.

text: Although not nearly to the extent that AM radio has declined in neighboring Canada, AM radio has also begun to decline in the United States. To partially combat this, radio ownership groups have increasingly moved their signals to FM, either through low-power broadcast translators (primarily on small, independent and/or rural stations) or through simulcast on full-market FM stations. The AM-to-FM phenomenon began primarily in mid-sized markets, where there is more bandwidth and less competition, but has since progressed even to New York City, where as of 2012 sports-talk AM stations WEPN and WFAN have both acquired FM stations with the intent to either move or simulcast their AM programming. By 2013 most of the AM/FM simulcasts had been discontinued, in part due to redundancy and the fact that most listeners to AM stations stayed with AM while very few new listeners were picked up on the FM side.


document_title: Aaron Judge

question_text: who did aaron judge play for in 2015

question_tokens: who did aaron judge play for in 2015

text: Aaron Judge

text: Early life and amateur career

text: Judge was born and raised in Linden, California and was adopted the day after he was born by Patty and Wayne Judge, who both worked as teachers. When he was 10 years old, his parents told him that he was adopted; he recalls, "I knew I didn't look like them."[1] He telephones his parents every day.[1] He has an older brother, John, who was also adopted.[2]

text: Judge attended Linden High School, where he was a three-sport star. He played as a pitcher and first baseman for the baseball team, a wide receiver for the football team, and as a center for the basketball team. He set a school record for touchdowns (17) in football and led the team in points per game (18.2) in basketball. In baseball, he was part of the Linden High School team that made the California Interscholastic Federation Division III playoffs.[3][4]

text: Various colleges recruited Judge to play tight end in football, including Notre Dame, Stanford, and UCLA, but he preferred baseball. The Oakland Athletics selected him in the 31st round of the 2010 Major League Baseball draft, but he opted to enroll at California State University, Fresno (Fresno State), to play for the Fresno State Bulldogs baseball team in the Western Athletic Conference (WAC). Louisville Slugger named him a Freshman All-American. He won the 2012 TD Ameritrade College Home Run Derby.[5] In his junior year, Judge led the Bulldogs in home runs, doubles, and runs batted in (RBIs).[6] Judge was named to the all-conference team in all three of his seasons for the Bulldogs—in the WAC in his first two seasons, and the Mountain West Conference (MW) as a junior (the Bulldogs joined the MW in July 2012, between his sophomore and junior seasons).[6]

text: Professional career

text: Minor leagues

text: The Yankees drafted Judge in the first round of the 2013 Major League Baseball draft with the 32nd overall selection,[7][8] a pick the team received as compensation after losing Nick Swisher in free agency.[9] Judge signed with the Yankees, receiving a $1.8 million signing bonus.[10] He tore a quadriceps femoris muscle while participating in a base running drill, which kept him out of the 2013 season.[5][11] He made his professional debut with the Charleston RiverDogs of the Class A South Atlantic League in 2014.[5] He had a .333 batting average, .428 on-base percentage (OBP), .530 slugging percentage (SLG), and hit nine home runs with 45 RBIs in 65 games for Charleston. The Yankees promoted him to the Tampa Yankees of the Class A-Advanced Florida State League during the season, where he hit .283 with a .411 OBP, .442 SLG, eight home runs, and 33 RBIs in 66 games for Tampa.[6]

text: The Yankees invited Judge to spring training as a non-roster player in 2015.[12] Judge began the 2015 season with the Trenton Thunder of the Class AA Eastern League.[13] After Judge batted .284 with a .350 OBP and 12 home runs in 63 games for Trenton, the Yankees promoted Judge to the Scranton/Wilkes-Barre RailRiders of the Class AAA International League in June.[14] He was chosen to represent the Yankees at the 2015 All-Star Futures Game.[15] The Yankees decided not to include Judge in their September call-ups.[16] Judge batted .224 with eight home runs in 61 games for Scranton/Wilkes-Barre.[17] The Yankees invited Judge to spring training in 2016, and he began the season with Scranton/Wilkes-Barre. Judge was named to the International League All-Star Team in 2016, but did not play in the 2016 Triple-A All-Star Game after he spent on a month of the disabled list due to a knee sprain.[18][19] In 93 games for the RailRiders, Judge had a .270 batting average, 19 home runs, and 65 RBIs.[20]

text: New York Yankees

text: Judge made his MLB debut on August 13, 2016, starting in right field against the Tampa Bay Rays.[21] In his first at-bat, Judge hit a home run off Matt Andriese; the previous batter, Tyler Austin, also making his MLB debut, had done the same. This marked the first time that two teammates had hit home runs in their first career at bats in the same game.[22] Judge also hit a home run in his second MLB game, becoming the second Yankees player to do so, after Joe Lefebvre in 1980.[23] Judge's debut season, in which he batted .179 and struck out 42 times in 84 at-bats (95 plate appearances), ended prematurely when he was placed on the 15-day disabled list with a grade 2 right oblique strain on September 13, 2016 against the Los Angeles Dodgers.[24]

text: 2017: All-Star season

text: The Yankees named Judge their right fielder for Opening Day against the Tampa Bay Rays.[25] He had his first multi-home run game on April 28 against the Baltimore Orioles to help the Yankees win 14–11, coming back from a 9–1 deficit.[26] One of the home runs had a measured exit velocity of 119.4 miles per hour (192.2 km/h), the fastest exit velocity for a home run measured by Statcast since it was adopted in 2015.[27][28] Judge ended the month of April with 10 home runs, tying the rookie record set by José Abreu and Trevor Story.[29] He was named the American League's (AL) Rookie of the Month for April.[30] In April, he had a .303 batting average, 10 home runs, 20 RBIs, and a .411 OBP in 22 games.[31]

text: On May 3, Judge hit his 13th home run of the season, becoming the youngest player to hit 13 home runs within the first 26 games of a season.[32] The Yankees debuted a cheering section in the right-field seats of Yankee Stadium on May 22, called "The Judge's Chambers", three rows in section 104, containing 18 seats.[33][34] Fans are chosen by the team to sit there, and are outfitted with black robes, wigs, and foam gavels.[34][35] In a game against the Oakland Athletics on May 28, Judge hit his first career grand slam.[36] Judge was named AL Rookie of the Month once again for May. In May, he had a .347 batting average, seven home runs, 17 RBIs, and a .441 OBP in 26 games.[37]

text: On June 10, Judge hit a home run that had an exit velocity of 121.1 miles per hour (194.9 km/h), again setting a new record for the hardest ever measured by Statcast.[38] The following day, Judge went 4-for-4 with two home runs, one of which traveled 495 feet (151 m), which was the longest in MLB in the 2017 season.[39] On June 12, Judge was named the AL Player of the Week. His week ended with him leading the AL in all three Triple Crown categories.[40] Judge was named the AL Player of the Month for the month of June, batting .324 with 10 home runs, 25 RBIs and a .481 OBP. His performance in the month of June also earned him his third consecutive AL Rookie of the Month award, the longest streak since Mike Trout won four in a row in 2012.[41] Judge had a 32-game on-base streak, including reaching base in every game in the month of June.[42] On July 2, Judge was voted as a starting outfielder to the 2017 MLB All-Star Game, receiving 4,488,702 votes, the most out of any player in the AL.[43]

text: Judge broke Joe DiMaggio's record for most home runs hit in a Yankees' rookie season with his 30th on July 7.[44] He became the second rookie to hit 30 home runs before the All-Star break after Mark McGwire in 1987,[45] the first Yankee to do so since Alex Rodriguez in 2007[46] and the first player in baseball since Chris Davis and Miguel Cabrera in 2013.[47] Before the All-Star break, Judge hit .329 with 30 home runs and 66 RBIs.

text: Judge won the 2017 Home Run Derby, besting Minnesota Twins third baseman Miguel Sanó 11–10 in the final round to become the first rookie to ever win the Derby outright.[48] Judge hit four home runs over 500 feet, one of which travelled 513 feet, the farthest in the Derby.[49] After his performance, MLB commissioner Rob Manfred stated that Judge is a player "who can become the face of the game."[50] On July 21, Judge a hit a home run that almost travelled out of Safeco Field. The ball was hit so hard that Statcast could not measure the details on the home run.[51]

text: On July 27, Judge lost a portion of his front left tooth during a celebration circle after Brett Gardner hit a walk-off home run.[52][53] The next game, Judge hit his 33rd home run of the season, for 37 home runs total through his first 125 career games, third-most in MLB history.[54] On August 17, Judge hit a 457-foot home run at Citi Field that reached the third deck but also struck out in the game, which marked 33 consecutive games with a strikeout, breaking Adam Dunn's record for a position player.[55][56] On August 20, Judge tied pitcher Bill Stoneman's streak of striking out in 37 consecutive games.[57][58] Judge would break Curtis Granderson's record of 195 for most single-season strikeouts in Yankees history.[59]

text: On September 4, Judge became the first AL rookie to record 100 walks in a single season since Al Rosen (1950), and the first player in MLB to do it since Jim Gilliam (1953). During a game on September 10, Judge received his 107th walk, the most walks by a rookie in a season since Ted Williams in 1939.[60] During the same game, he also became the second rookie in MLB history to hit 40 home runs in a season since McGwire (1987).[61] He joined Babe Ruth (1920), Lou Gehrig (1927), Joe DiMaggio (1937) and Mickey Mantle (1956) as the only Yankees to hit 40 home runs in a season at age 25 or younger.[62] On September 20, Judge became the first player since José Bautista in 2010, and the first rookie, to record 100 runs, 45 home runs, 100 RBIs, and 100 walks in a single season.[63]

text: On September 25, Judge hit his 49th and 50th home runs, tying and surpassing Mark McGwire's single season rookie home run record.[64] With this historic achievement, Judge also took his first 'curtain call' at Yankee Stadium as the crowd called him out of the dugout to a standing ovation.

text: New York Yankees franchise records

text:
Most home runs in a season by a rookie: 50 (Joe DiMaggio held the record with 29)[65]
Fifth Yankee to have 50 home runs in a single season. He joins Babe Ruth (54 in 1920, 59 in 1921, 60 in 1927, 54 in 1928), Mickey Mantle (52 in 1956, 54 in 1961), Roger Maris (61 in 1961), and Alex Rodriguez (54 in 2007).
First Yankee with at least 110 walks and 110 runs scored since Mickey Mantle in 1961 (126 walks, 131 runs).[66]
Second player in Yankees history to hit a home run in each of his first two games. (Joe Lefebvre was the first Yankee to do so in 1980).[67]
Holds the Yankees single season record for strikeouts with 199. (Passing Curtis Granderson's 195)[59]
27 home runs at Yankee Stadium in a single season.[68]
First right-handed hitter in Yankees history with at least 100 RBIs, 100 runs scored and 100 walks; in a single season
Eighth player in Yankees history with at least 100 runs, 100 RBIs and 100 walks in a season.[69]
Fourth rookie in franchise history with 100 RBIs in a season (joining Joe DiMaggio, Tony Lazzeri and Hideki Matsui).[70]

tag: ul

text: MLB records

text:
Most home runs by a rookie, 50 (Mark McGwire held record with 49)[71]
Became the youngest player to hit 13 home runs within the first 26 games of a season.[72]
Measured exit velocity of 119.4 miles per hour (192.2 km/h), the fastest exit velocity for a home run measured by Statcast. (April 28, 2017)[73]
Measured exit velocity of 121.1 miles per hour (194.9 km/h), again setting a new record for the hardest ever measured by Statcast. (June 10, 2017)[74]
Second rookie to hit 30 home runs before the All-Star break after Mark McGwire (33 in 1987).[75]
Holds the MLB record for striking out in 37 consecutive games. (2017)[76]
Holds the MLB record for most strikeouts by a rookie with 201.
First rookie in MLB history with at least 45 home runs, 100 RBIs and 100 runs scored.[77]
Second rookie in MLB history with 100+ RBIs, 100+ runs scored and 100+ walks in a season. (Ted Williams is the other).[69]

text: Uniform

text: Judge has worn the unusual uniform number of 99 since it was given to him during 2016 spring training[78] (higher numbers are often given to young players who are not expected to make the regular-season team). Judge has stated he would prefer either No. 44 (retired by the Yankees to honor Reggie Jackson) or No. 35 (worn by Michael Pineda since 2014), but is not sure whether he would switch if the latter two were to become available.[78]

text: MLB along with the MLB Players Association, created Players Weekend to let players 'express themselves while connecting with their past in youth baseball'. From August 25-27, 2017, players wore alternate team jerseys inspired by youth league designs. They also had the option to replace their last names with their nicknames on their jersey nameplates, and the vast majority of players did so. Judge chose the nickname "All Rise" (given to him by teammate Todd Frazier) to be worn on the back of his jersey nameplate.[79]

text: Player profile

text: Judge is listed at 6 feet 7 inches (2.01 m) and 282 pounds (128 kg). Due to his large size and strength, he has elicited comparisons to Giancarlo Stanton, Richie Sexson,[80] Dave Winfield, and Willie Stargell.[6][2]

text: Personal life

text: Judge is a Christian and has posted about his faith on his Twitter account.[81] He keeps a note on his phone that reads ".179", his batting average with the Yankees in 2016, and looks at it daily as a source of motivation.[82] Judge appeared on the cover of the edition of May 15, 2017 of Sports Illustrated.[83] On May 15, 2017, he appeared on an episode of The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon where he posed undercover to ask Yankee fans questions about himself.[84] Judge has earned praise for his humble personality and willingness to be a team player.[85]


document_title: List of The Cosby Show characters

question_text: when did sandra appear on the cosby show

question_tokens: when did sandra appear on the cosby show

text: List of The Cosby Show characters

text: Main characters

text: Cliff Huxtable

text:
Portrayed by
Seasons
No. of episodes

Bill Cosby
All
202 (all)

text: Dr. Heathcliff "Cliff" Huxtable[1] is known for his comical antics, playful admonishments, and relentless teasing humor. He lives in Brooklyn Heights, New York. Cliff had a brother, James Theodore Huxtable, who died of rheumatic fever at the age of 7. In his high school and college years, he was an athlete who wrestled, played football, and ran track. He later served in the Navy before going to medical school. He is an OB/GYN who runs a practice from the office annexed to his home. In the show, most characters outside of family and friends refer to him as "Dr. Huxtable", and he is well-respected in the community.[2][3][4][5][6]

text: Cliff is married to Clair Huxtable. Both Cliff and Clair attended the fictional Hillman College. Together, they have five children: Sondra, Denise, Theodore (Theo), Vanessa, and Rudith (Rudy). Cliff enjoys live jazz, has an extensive collection of albums, and tries to eat junk food whenever he can get away with it.[7]

text: Cliff is very eccentric and silly to most people around him, especially his family, however he is very kind-hearted and an extremely dedicated father with a strong sense of humor. Although he and his wife fostered a tight-knit, loving family, a running gag throughout the series is his thwarted attempts to get the grown children to leave the house.[8]

text: Very playful, Cliff enjoys competition, often making bets with Clair over various things, such as the date a certain jazz song was released, or having a "Smooth Contest" to see which of them looked more elegant for a night on the town, as judged by the children. He also plays a monthly game of pinochle against his father and some friends, which sometimes gets very passionate. Unfortunately, Cliff often finds himself on the losing end of most of his bets and games, as, for example, he has never beaten his father-in-law at chess. However, Cliff eventually broke his losing streak at pinochle against his father and his friend Homer Dobson with the help of Dr. Foster (played by Roscoe Lee Browne), an expert pinochle player who also happened to be his and Clair's literary professor at Hillman College.

text: In the pilot episode, Cosby's character's full name is Clifford, as shown on a sign on the exterior of the house. His full name was subsequently changed to Heathcliff, even though in one episode Clair called him "Heathclifford", and he is commonly called "Cliff" throughout the series.

text: Originally, Cliff was to have worked as a chauffeur, with most of the humor coming from his interactions with customers. However, the show was changed before airing to have Cliff be a medical doctor, and the humor to come from his interactions with his family.

text: Cliff also appears in three episodes of A Different World: the pilot (with Rudy), "Rudy and the Snow Queen" (also with Rudy) and "If Chosen, I May Not Run".

text: He is the only character to appear in every episode.

text: Clair Huxtable

text:
Portrayed by
Seasons
No. of episodes

Phylicia Rashād
All
193

text: Clair Olivia Huxtable (née Hanks) is the elegantly tough, eloquent, and engaging wife of Cliff, who is known for her relaxed confidence and striking emphasis as shown.[4][1] Aside from her deep and decorated self-expression, Clair can also be playful and silly. She is an intelligent, classy, and successful businesswoman. A great debater, Clair rarely if ever loses an argument on the show, a testament to her career as lawyer. She is also highly skilled in areas of recall about facts and dates, which she uses during discussions and debates: in one episode she is shown quoting a passage and even the page number of a book during an appearance at a television roundtable. Clair is bilingual but is only shown speaking Spanish on a couple of occasions. Several episodes also showcased her singing talent. Despite her elegant brand of toughness and strictness, Clair is a very loving mother and wife. The character is loosely based upon Cosby's wife, Camille Olivia Hanks-Cosby.

text: Her age is directly stated only once during the series, and two separate episodes provide contradictory information on the age difference between herself and Cliff. He celebrates his 50th birthday during season three ("Cliff's 50th Birthday"), while she celebrates her 46th during season five ("Birthday Blues," two years later), indicating that she is six years younger. However, in the season four episode "The Locker Room," it is stated that Clair is four years younger.

text: Her character was originally supposed to be a housewife, but when the show finally aired, she became a lawyer. During the series, she becomes a partner in her law firm. As an attorney she helps her family with legal issues, and she successfully represents her eldest daughter, Sondra, in a case over dishonest car repairs. When it came to the Huxtable household, she was in charge, even though she let Cliff think he was in charge (although Cliff was known to lay down the law when he had to). She was the chief disciplinarian of the children, as shown in an episode where Vanessa and her friends sneak off to Baltimore to see a rock concert and Clair delivers a memorable and scathing diatribe to her. Another memorable moment came when the normally composed Clair lost her temper when Sondra announced she wasn't going to law school after paying her tuition to attend Princeton.

text: Clair also appears in four episodes of A Different World: "Clair's Last Stand", "Risky Business" (with Theo and Vanessa), "Forever Hold Your Peace" (with Martin and Olivia) and "Success, Lies and Videotapes".

text: Clair Huxtable has been ranked highly in several lists of the top television mothers. She was voted as television's "Favorite TV Mom" in a poll conducted by the Opinion Research Company in 2004.[9] In 2009, she was included in the Top 5 Classic TV Moms by Film.com.[10] In May 2012, Clair was one of the 12 moms chosen by users of iVillage on their list of "Mommy Dearest: The TV Moms You Love".[11] AOL named her the ninth Most Memorable Female TV Character.[12]

text: Sondra Huxtable Tibideaux

text:
Portrayed by
Seasons
No. of episodes
First appearance

Sabrina LeBeauf
2–8;
recurring in 1
53
"Bonjour Sondra"

text: Sondra Tibideaux (née Huxtable), the eldest daughter of Cliff and Clair, did not appear on screen until mid-way through season one. She did not exist in the pilot episode (Clair: "Why do we have four children?" Cliff: "Because we did not want five.") In her first appearance, she is a sophomore in college, and Cliff notes her to be 20 years old (episode 10), making her birth year 1964. She earned a degree from Princeton University and had intentions of pursuing a career as a lawyer, like her mother. She married her boyfriend, Elvin Tibideaux, in season four, and later gave birth to twins—a boy and a girl—named after Nelson and Winnie Mandela. More serious, earnest and responsible than the other children, Sondra fits many of the characteristics of the first born from a large family. Though she had her moments of bizarre thinking (e.g. dropping out of law school to open up a wilderness store with Elvin), she'd usually snap out of them relatively quickly. Because of her intelligence level and overachieving nature, she is looked upon by her parents proudly, but also is held to a higher standard than the rest of the children. Sondra appeared sporadically in early seasons of the series due to the character being off at college at the time.

text: Sondra was created when Bill Cosby wanted the show to express the accomplishment of successfully raising a child (e.g. a college graduate). Whitney Houston was considered for the role of Sondra Huxtable. Sabrina LeBeauf almost missed out on the role because she is only 10 years younger (b. 1958) than Phylicia Rashad (b. 1948).

text: The character is loosely based upon Cosby's eldest daughter, Erika, who was approximately the same age as Sondra.

text: Denise Huxtable Kendall

text:
Portrayed by
Seasons
No. of episodes
Final appearance

Lisa Bonet
1–3, 6–7;
recurring in 4&5
119
"Cliff and Jake"

text: Denise Kendall (née Huxtable) is the second daughter of Cliff and Clair Huxtable.[13] At the beginning of the series, she is sixteen years old, putting her year of birth in 1968. She loves fashion and music, but did not want to attend school to pursue either interest. She is noted as being an individual who usually wishes to march to the beat of her own drum, and often learns lessons up front for herself rather than based off the experiences of others. A two-year stint at Hillman College ends with Denise wishing to see what she can accomplish on her own, which leads her to Africa as a photographer's assistant. While there, she meets and marries Navy Lt. Martin Kendall, and also becomes stepmother to Martin's three-year-old daughter Olivia, his child from a previous marriage. Denise eventually decides to become a special education teacher and makes arrangements to attend Medgar Evers College to this effect, but that idea does not work out as Denise eventually leaves New York again when Martin is posted to Singapore on a long-term assignment. It is revealed in the series finale that she is pregnant.

text: During the first two seasons, Denise was portrayed as a very popular high-schooler, with many friends, who seemingly had a different boyfriend every episode. Along with her constantly fluctuating love life, were her various hairstyles and choices of clothing, which were occasionally made fun of by Cliff. In later seasons, however, she exhibited a more flighty nature, often expressing ideas that left Cliff and Clair greatly puzzled.

text: In season three, Denise left home to attend Hillman College, a fictional, historically African-American college, of which her mother, father and grandfather were all alumni. The Cosby Show's producers created a spin-off series, entitled A Different World, which initially dealt with the life of Denise at college. Denise was written out of the series following its inaugural season (which aired concurrently with season four of The Cosby Show), after actress Lisa Bonet became pregnant. Shortly after the start of season five, Denise traveled to Africa for a year, and there she fell in love with and married Martin. In the season six premiere, she returned home, shocking her parents with the news of her surprise marriage to a divorced single father. However, Cliff and Clair accepted the couple when they met Olivia, who immediately won their hearts and was welcomed into the family. She appears regularly during the first three seasons, and is in only four episodes each of seasons four and five (a picture of her can be seen in the opening credits of season four), she appears regularly in season six, but only appears in a handful of episodes during season seven.

text: The character is loosely based upon Cosby's daughter, Erinn, who was approximately the same age as Denise. Additionally, Denise attended Hillman College, whereas Erinn attended Spelman College, the university that Hillman is believed to be modeled after.

text: Theo Huxtable

text:
Portrayed by
Seasons
No. of episodes

Malcolm-Jamal Warner
All
176

text: Theodore Aloysius "Theo" Huxtable is the middle child and only son of Cliff and Clair Huxtable, and is athletic and obsessed with impressing girls, and obtaining a sports car or motorcycle. He is fourteen years old when the series begins, making his birth year 1970. In the pilot episode, he is lectured by his father for not applying himself at school ("I brought you in this world, and I'll take you out"). Also in the early seasons, he was somewhat of a troublemaker, as illustrated through incidents both alluded to and explicitly portrayed in the series, such as letting his best friend's younger sister pierce his ear, resulting in an infected earlobe, but his behavior had improved by the time he left high school.

text: A running theme of the early seasons revolved around Theo's academic struggles, especially in his sophomore-year geometry class, taught by Mrs. Westlake (Sonia Braga). As the seasons progressed, Theo gradually evolved from being an under-achiever to a successful high school—and college—student (in interviews, Cosby noted a similar change in his real-life son, Ennis). While Theo was a student at NYU, it was revealed that he suffered from dyslexia, a learning disability that inspired him to work harder, and as a result overcame it. By the final season, Theo was a student teacher, helping other children with dyslexia at a local education center. In the show's final episode, he graduated from NYU with a degree in psychology.

text: In the pilot, and once more in season one (the episode "Bad Dreams"), he is referred to by Vanessa as "Teddy", instead of "Theo."

text: Theo has a long-running, but on-and-off relationship with a girl named Justine, who is mentioned many times throughout the series, but appears in only nine episodes. During his high school years, Theo's best friend was Walter Bradley (Carl Anthony Payne II), better known as "Cockroach", who was more of a scholastic underachiever than Theo. The two of them would occasionally compose rap songs for various school assignments. When Theo got tickets to "Dance Mania" (a "Soul Train"-like television dance show), and only one of them was allowed into the studio, Theo let Cockroach have the spot, but did not feel good about it when he saw Cockroach on TV, and as the center of their friends' attention the next day at school. This episode marked the final appearance of the character, and Cockroach was rarely mentioned in subsequent episodes. Theo appears in the series the most out of the Huxtable children.

text: The character is loosely based upon Cosby's only son Ennis, who was approximately the same age as Theo (and was also dyslexic).

text: Theo also appears in two episodes of A Different World: "My Dinner With Theo" (with Rudy) and "Risky Business" (with Clair and Vanessa).

text: Vanessa Huxtable

text:
Portrayed by
Seasons
No. of episodes

Tempestt Bledsoe
All
157

text: Vanessa Huxtable is the fourth child and third daughter of Cliff and Clair. In season one, she is eleven years old, making her birth year 1973. As Vanessa grew up, she faced typical teenage problems and heartbreaks, such as wearing make-up before her 15th birthday in violation of her parents' rules and spending a lot of time talking on the phone with her friends. Unlike her older brother, she was an excellent student and seemed to enjoy school; at the beginning of season seven, she went off to college one year early. She became engaged in the final season to Dabnis Brickey, a man in his late twenties. Dabnis was the head of maintenance at Lincoln University in Pennsylvania, where Vanessa was enrolled. However, Vanessa realized that she was not ready to get married, and they broke off the engagement. They maintained they were "just friends" by the end of the season.

text: In the early seasons, Vanessa is usually considered to be nosy, as she usually—sneakily—tries to find out what goes on in the Huxtable house, especially when it involves someone (usually Theo) in trouble with their parents. But, in a later episode, the tables are turned, as Theo catches Vanessa's friends smoking cigarettes in her room, although Vanessa herself did not take part, and even tried to dissuade her friends from doing so.

text: She often fought with her younger sister, Rudy, over typical childish issues. At one point, their fighting caused damage to both their bedrooms and the kitchen ceiling, driving Cliff to declare their rooms off limits because of "World War Five" and exile them to the basement until repairs were finished. But, on one occasion, Vanessa got into a physical tussle with Denise over a sweater that Vanessa stole from Denise's closet after Denise did not allow her to borrow it.

text: One of Vanessa's best friends in high school was a girl named Kara (played by Elizabeth Narvaez), who could ramble on about nothing in particular at high speed. Whenever Cliff—who once referred to Kara as "Turbo Tongue"—was on the receiving end of her babbling, he would always reply with a bewildered "Thank you." Vanessa appeared sporadically in the final two seasons of the series due to the character being away at college.

text: The character is loosely based upon Cosby's daughter, Ensa, who was approximately the same age as Vanessa.

text: Vanessa also appears in the A Different World episode "Risky Business" (with Clair and Theo).

text: Rudy Huxtable

text:
Portrayed by
Seasons
No. of episodes

Keshia Knight Pulliam
All
177[14]

text: Rudith Lillian "Rudy" Huxtable is the youngest of the Huxtable children.[15] She is only five years old at the beginning of the series, making her birth year 1979. She comes of age during the course of the show.[16]

text: A number of Rudy's friends appear in episodes as the series progresses. Among the best known are the taciturn Peter Chiara who repeatedly ran out the Huxtables' front door when frightened; and the chauvinist, blues-loving Kenny, whom she nicknames "Bud", and who always gets advice from his (unseen) older brother about basically everything. This unfortunately gives him the wrong conception about certain things and gets him in trouble, although he seemed to grow out of it as the series reached its end.

text: Keshia Knight Pulliam was nominated for an Emmy for her performance in season two, becoming the youngest nominee ever.[17] One of her fellow nominees that year was Phylicia Rashad. Neither won.

text: The Huxtable family was originally going to be two boys and two girls. The youngest child, Rudy, was initially supposed to be a boy, but the character was re-written for a girl (Keshia Knight Pulliam) when no boys auditioned. Jaleel White, later known for his role as Steve Urkel on Family Matters, revealed in a 2011 interview with Vanity Fair that he had auditioned for the role of Rudy.[18]

text: The character is loosely based upon Cosby's youngest daughter, Evin, who was approximately the same age as Rudy.[19]

text: Rudy also appears in three episodes of A Different World: the pilot (with Cliff), "Rudy and the Snow Queen" (also with Cliff) and "My Dinner with Theo" (with Theo).

text: Elvin Tibideaux

text:
Portrayed by
Seasons
No. of episodes
First appearance

Geoffrey Owens
4–8;
recurring in 2&3
44
"Cliff in Love"

text: Elvin Tibideaux is Sondra's boyfriend, and later, husband. They met at Princeton, where they both earned degrees. The two constantly bickered during early episodes, until his interactions with the Huxtables, particularly Clair, challenged him to confront his "male-chauvinist" attitudes.

text: When they return from their honeymoon, they shock Cliff and Clair by announcing their intentions to forego medical school and law school, and start a wilderness supply store in Brooklyn. When his children are born, Elvin then announces that he will re-apply to medical school. This decision later convinces Sondra to resume her studies at law school.

text: Elvin was a wrestler in high school and for one year at Princeton, but had to quit after injuring his hip. During season three, he helped Theo with some strategy and moves.

text: Martin Kendall

text:
Portrayed by
Seasons
No. of episodes
First appearance

Joseph C. Phillips
6 and 7,
recurring in 8
21
"Denise: The Saga Continues"

text: Lt. Martin Kendall is a Navy officer, husband of Denise Huxtable, and father of Olivia. Phillips' role as Martin Kendall came about when Denise unexpectedly married him in Africa, unbeknownst to her parents and family. When the newlyweds arrive back home, Martin learns that Denise's family not only does not know about their marriage, they do not know about him at all, so he wants to introduce himself to the Huxtables now that he has married into their family and to show his intentions of marrying his daughter were honorable. This does not go over smoothly at first, as Clair and Cliff are uneasy with the whirlwind marriage of Martin, however in due time they become accustomed to this blended family. Kendall also had an ex-wife, named Paula (played by Victoria Rowell of The Young and the Restless). In the finale, it is revealed that he and Denise are expecting a baby together.

text: Joseph C. Phillips played Sondra's date in a season two episode, before coming back as a new character, and playing the husband of Denise. Martin appears frequently in the sixth season but is only seen in a handful episodes of the seventh season, Joseph C. Phillips's final season as a regular. Martin makes his final appearance in an episode of season eight, "Olivia Comes Out of the Closet."

text: Martin also appears in the Different World episode "Forever Hold Your Peace" (with Clair and Olivia).

text: Olivia Kendall

text:
Portrayed by
Seasons
No. of episodes
First appearance

Raven-Symoné
6–8
63
"Denise: The Saga Continues"

text: Olivia Kendall is Denise Huxtable's precocious stepdaughter, who is three years old when she first appears in the series. Olivia is the only child of Martin and Paula Kendall. After a few years of marriage, her parents divorced, and her mother, Paula, gave Martin full custody, as she felt overwhelmed by marriage and motherhood. Olivia was then raised by her grandparents and father.

text: When Olivia was almost four years old, her father Martin married Denise Huxtable, whom he met in Africa. The new family moved in with Denise's parents, Clair and Cliff Huxtable, who are now Olivia's step-grandparents. Martin, as a Naval officer, is required to travel a lot, so for a while, Olivia was unable to spend time with him. During his absences, her stepmother, Denise, raised her. Olivia continued to live with her step-grandparents while her parents were in Singapore during the final season.

text: The character was named after Bill Cosby's wife, Camille Olivia Hanks-Cosby.

text: Olivia also appears in the Different World episode "Forever Hold Your Peace" (with Clair and Martin).

text: Pam Tucker

text:
Portrayed by
Seasons
No. of episodes
First appearance

Erika Alexander[20]
7–8
21
"Period of Adjustment"

text: Pam Tucker is Clair Huxtable's distant cousin.[21] The daughter of a single mother, Pam comes to live with the Huxtables after her mother moved to California to take care of Pam's grandmother.[22] Upon moving in, Pam is a high school junior—younger than Vanessa, but older than Rudy. At first, she is not used to the Huxtables' upper-middle-class lifestyle or close-knit family relationships.[23] Eventually, she fits in, and becomes just another one of the Huxtable clan. Pam makes her first appearance in the fourth episode, "A Period of Adjustment," Tin season seven.

text: Frequently, Pam is shown interacting with her best friend, Charmaine Brown (Karen Malina White), and Charmaine's boyfriend, Lance Rodman (Allen Payne).

text: The character had a mixed reception.[24][25][26]

text: Recurring characters

text:
Russell Huxtable (Earle Hyman) Cliff's father (40 episodes)
Kenny, aka "Bud" (Deon Richmond) Rudy's longtime friend (32 episodes)
Anna Huxtable (Clarice Taylor) Cliff's mother (19 episodes)
Charmaine Brown (Karen Malina White) Pam's best friend (13 episodes) (later became a regular on the final season of A Different World)
Winnie Tibideaux (Domonique & Monique Reynolds, Jalese & Jenelle Grays, Jessica Ann Vaughn) daughter of Sondra and Elvin (18 episodes)
Peter Chiara (Peter Costa) Rudy's friend (13 episodes)
Walter Bradley, aka "Cockroach" (Carl Anthony Payne II) Theo's best friend in high school (12 episodes)
Nelson Tibideaux (Christopher & Clayton Griggs, Darrian & Donovan Bryant, Gary LeRoi Gray) son of Sondra and Elvin (7 episodes)
Denny (Troy Winbush) Theo's high school, college friend (11 episodes)
Lance Rodman (Allen Payne) Charmaine's boyfriend (11 episodes)
Janet Meiser (Pam Potillo) Vanessa's friend (10 episodes)
Howard (Reno Wilson Theo's college friend (10 episodes)
Justine Phillips (Michelle Thomas) Theo's longtime girlfriend (8 episodes)
Kara (Elizabeth Narvaez) Vanessa's friend (8 episodes)
Stanley (Merlin Santana) Rudy's boyfriend (7 episodes)
Kim Ogawa (Naoka Nakagawa) Rudy's friend (7 episodes)
Carrie Hanks (Ethel Ayler) Clair's mother (6 episodes)
Robert Foreman (Dondre T. Whitfield) Vanessa's boyfriend (6 episodes)
Lou Hernandez (Alex Ruiz) Theo's college friend (6 episodes)
Dabnis Brickey (William Thomas Jr.) Vanessa's fiance (6 episodes)
Jeffry Engels (Wallace Shawn) the Huxtables' neighbor (5 episodes)
Smitty (Adam Sandler) Theo's high school friend (4 episodes)
Arthur Bartell a.k.a. "Slide" (Mushond Lee) Pam's ex-boyfriend (4 episodes)
Al Hanks (Joe Williams) Clair's father (4 episodes)
Aaron Dexter (Seth Gilliam) Pam's boyfriend (3 episodes)
Mrs. McGee (Elaine Stritch) Rudy's teacher (3 episodes)
Jade (Vanessa A. Williams) Theo's friend (2 episodes, season 5)
Cheryl (Vanessa A. Williams) Theo's friend (2 episodes, season 7)

text: Notable guest stars

text:
Debbie Allen as Emma ("If the Dress Fits, Wear It", season 5)
John Amos as Dr. Herbert ("The Physical", season 5)
Tichina Arnold as Delores ("Theo's Women", season 5)
Angela Bassett as Mrs. Mitchell ("Mr. Quiet", season 1), and Paula ("Bookworm", season 4)
Norman Beaton as Carleton ("There's Still No Joy in Mudville" season 7)
U.S. Senator Bill Bradley as Cliff's teammate #1 ("The Boys of Winter", season 5)
Sônia Braga as Anna Maria Westlake ("Mrs. Westlake" and "An Early Spring", season 2)
Valerie Brisco-Hooks as herself ("Off to the Races", season 2)
Roscoe Lee Browne as Dr. Foster ("Shakespeare", season 4)
Red Buttons as Jake, owner of Jake's Appliances ("Cliff and Jake", season 7)
Naomi Campbell as Julia ("The Birth" and "Cyranoise de Bergington", season 5)
Betty Carter as Amanda Woods ("How Do You Get to Carnegie Hall", season 5)
Robert Culp as Scott Kelly ("Bald and Beautiful", season 3)
Sammy Davis, Jr. as Ray Palomino ("No Way, Baby", season 5)
Dave DeBusschere as Cliff's teammate #2 ("The Boys of Winter", season 5)
Plácido Domingo as Alberto Santiago ("Birthday Blues", season 5)
Teresa Edwards as Opponent #2 ("The Boys of Winter", season 5)
Yvonne Irvin as Clair's Sister ("Clair's Sister", season 2)
Al Freeman, Jr. as Ernie Scott ("Back to the Track, Jack", season 1)
Minnie Gentry as Gramtee ("The Storyteller", season 6)
Dizzy Gillespie as Mr. Hampton ("Play It Again Vanessa", season 1)
Erica Gimpel as Jennifer ("Waterworks", season 4)
Robin Givens as Susanne ("Theo and the Older Woman", season 2)
Pam Grier as Samantha ("Planning Parenthood", season 3)
Moses Gunn as Joe Kendall ("Grampy and NuNu Visit the Huxtables", season 6)
Walt Hazzard as Cliff's teammate #3 ("The Boys of Winter", season 5)
Lena Horne as herself ("Cliff's Birthday", season 1)
Iman as Mrs. Montgomery ("Theo and the Joint", season 1)
Danny Kaye as Dr. Burns ("The Dentist", season 2), in one of his last TV appearances
Alicia Keys as Maria ("Slumber Party", season 1)
B.B. King as Riley Jackson ("Not Everybody Loves the Blues", season 6)
LaChanze as Sylvia ("The Prom", season 4)
Audrey Landers as Cookie Bennett ("Cliff and Jake", season 7)
Sheldon Leonard as Dr. Wexler ("Physician of the Year," season 1)
Nancy Lieberman as Opponent #1 ("The Boys of Winter", season 5)
Miriam Makeba as herself ("Olivia Comes Out of the Closet", season 8)
S. Epatha Merkerson as Book Club Member 5 ("Bookworm", season 4)
Melba Moore as Patricia Abbott ("Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star", season 4)
Rita Moreno as Mrs. Granger ("You Only Hurt the One You Love", season 3)
Lou Myers as Mr. Davis ("You Only Hurt the One You Love", & "Andalusian Flu", season 3)
Tony Orlando as Tony Castillo ("Mr. Quiet", season 1)
Tito Puente as timbal player ("Play It Again, Russell", season 2)
Christopher Plummer as Professor Jonathan Lawrence ("Shakespeare", season 4)
Patricia Richardson as Mrs. Schrader ("Calling Doctor Huxtable", season 3)
John Ritter as Ray Evans ("Total Control", season 7)
Frank Robinson as Frank Potter ("There's Still No Joy in Mudville", season 7)
Victoria Rowell as Paula Kendall ("Cliff's Wet Adventure", season 6)
Howard "Sandman" Sims as himself ("Mr. Sandman", season 6)
Special Ed as J.T. Freeze ("Warning: A Double-Lit Candle Can Cause a Meltdown", season 8)
Bern Nadette Stanis as Carolyn Thompson ("Adventures in Babysitting", season 7)
Leslie Uggams as Kris Temple ("The Return of the Clairettes", season 7)
Blair Underwood as Denise's boyfriend (uncredited) ("Jitterbug Break", season 1), and Mark ("Theo and the Older Woman", season 2)
Mario Van Peebles as Garvin ("Clair's Sister", season 2)
Jim Valvano as John Velarde ("The Getaway", season 8)
Dick Vitale as Dan Vicente ("The Getaway", season 8)
Malinda Williams as Althea Logan ("Calling Doctor Huxtable", season 3) and Shana ("Denise Kendall: Singles Counselor", season 6)
Nancy Wilson as Lorraine Kendall ("Grampy and NuNu Visit the Huxtables", season 6)
Stevie Wonder as himself ("A Touch of Wonder", season 2)
Amy Yasbeck as Alicia Evans ("Total Control", season 7)


document_title: United States twenty-dollar bill

question_text: who appeared on the u.s. $20 dollar bill in 1875

question_tokens: who appeared on the u.s. $ 20 dollar bill in 1875

text: United States twenty-dollar bill

text: Pre–Federal Reserve history[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
1861: A demand note with Lady Liberty holding a sword and shield on the front, and an abstract design on the back. The back is printed green.
1862: A note that is very similar, the first $20 United States note. The back is different, with several small variations extant.
1863: A gold certificate $20 note with an Eagle vignette on the face. The reverse has a $20 gold coin and various abstract elements. The back is orange.
1865: A national bank note with "The Battle of Lexington" and Pocahontas's marriage to John Rolfe in black, and a green border.
1869: A new United States note design, with Alexander Hamilton on the left side of the front and Victory holding a shield and sword. The back design is green.
1875: As above, except with a different reverse.
1878: A silver certificate $20 note with a portrait of Stephen Decatur on the right side of the face. The back design is black.
1882: A new gold certificate, with a portrait of James Garfield on the right of the face. The back is orange and features an eagle.
1882: A new national bank note. The front is similar, but the back is different and printed in brown.
1886: A new silver certificate $20 note, with Daniel Manning on the center of the face.
1890: A treasury (coin) note with John Marshall on the left of the face. Two different backs exist both with abstract designs.
1902: A new national bank note. The front features Hugh McCulloch, and the back has a vignette of an allegorical America.
1905: A new gold certificate $20 note, with George Washington on the center of the face. The back design is orange.

text: Federal Reserve history[edit]

text: Andrew Jackson first appeared on the $20 bill in 1928. Although 1928 coincides with the 100th anniversary of Jackson's election as president, it is not clear why the portrait on the bill was switched from Grover Cleveland to Jackson. (Cleveland's portrait was moved to the new $1000 bill the same year). According to the U.S. Treasury, "Treasury Department records do not reveal the reason that portraits of these particular statesmen were chosen in preference to those of other persons of equal importance and prominence."[4]

text: The placement of Jackson on the $20 bill may be a historical irony; as president, he vehemently opposed both the National Bank and paper money and made the goal of his administration the destruction of the National Bank.[5][6] In his farewell address to the nation, he cautioned the public about paper money.[7]

text:
1914: Began as a large-sized note, a portrait of Grover Cleveland on the face, and, on the back, a steam locomotive and an automobile approaching from the left, and a steamship approaching from the right.
1918: A federal reserve banknote with Grover Cleveland on the front, and a back design similar to the 1914 Federal Reserve Note.
1928: Switched to a small-sized note with a portrait of Andrew Jackson on the face and the south view of the White House on the reverse. The banknote is redeemable in gold or silver (at the bearer's discretion) at any Federal Reserve Bank.
1933: With the U.S. having abandoned the gold standard, the bill is no longer redeemable in gold, but rather in "lawful money", meaning silver.
1942: A special emergency series, with brown serial numbers and "HAWAII" overprinted on both the front and the back, is issued. These notes are designed to circulate on the islands and be deemed invalid in the event of a Japanese invasion.
1948: The White House picture was updated to reflect renovations to the building itself, including the addition of the Truman Balcony, as well as the passage of time. Most notably, the trees are larger.
1950: Design elements like the serial numbers are reduced in size and moved around subtly, presumably for aesthetic reasons.
1963: "Will Pay To The Bearer On Demand" is removed from the front of the bill below the portrait, and the legal tender designation is shortened to "This note is legal tender for all debts, public and private" (eliminating "and is redeemable in lawful money at the United States Treasury, or at any Federal Reserve Bank.") Also, "In God We Trust" is added above the White House on the reverse. These two acts (one taking U.S. currency off the silver backing, and the other authorizing the national motto) are coincidental, even if their combined result is implemented in one redesign. Also, several design elements are rearranged, less perceptibly than the change in 1950, mostly to make room for the slightly rearranged obligations.
1969: The new treasury seal appears on all denominations, including the $20.
1977: A new type of serial-number press results in a slightly different font. The old presses are gradually retired, and old-style serial numbers appear as late as 1981 for this denomination.
1992: Anti-counterfeiting features are added: microprinting around the portrait, and a plastic strip embedded in the paper. Even though the bills read Series 1990, the first bills were printed in April 1992.[8]
September 24, 1998: Received a completely new appearance to further deter counterfeiting; the picture of the White House was changed to the north side view. A larger, off-center portrait of Jackson was used on the front, and several anti-counterfeiting features were added, including color-shifting ink, microprinting, and a watermark. The plastic strip now reads "USA 20" and glows green under a black light.[9] The bills were first printed in June 1998.[10]
October 9, 2003:[11] The current series of 20 dollar bills is released with light background shading in green and yellow, and no oval around Andrew Jackson's portrait (background images of eagles, etc. were also added to the front); the back is the same view of the White House, but without the oval around it. Ninety faint "20"s are scattered on the back in yellow as a "EURion constellation" to prevent photocopying. The first issue's series date is 2004 with Marin-Snow signatures. The bills were first printed in April 2003.[12]

text: Proposal for a woman's portrait[edit]

text: In a campaign called "Women on 20s", selected voters were asked to choose three of 15 female candidates to have a portrait on the $20 bill. The goal was to have a woman on the $20 bill by 2020, the centennial of the 19th Amendment which gave women the right to vote.[13] Among the candidates on the petition were Harriet Tubman, Eleanor Roosevelt, Rosa Parks, and Wilma Mankiller, the first female chief of the Cherokee Nation.[14][15][16]

text: On May 12, 2015, Tubman was announced as the winning candidate of that "grassroots" poll with more than 600,000 people surveyed and more than 118,000 choosing Tubman, followed by Roosevelt, Parks and Mankiller.[17]

text: On June 17, 2015, then-Treasury Secretary Jack Lew announced that a woman's portrait would be featured on a redesigned $10 bill by 2020, replacing Alexander Hamilton.[18] However, that decision was reversed, at least in part due to Hamilton's surging popularity following the hit Broadway musical Hamilton.[19]

text: On April 20, 2016, Lew officially announced that Alexander Hamilton would remain on the $10 bill, while Andrew Jackson would be replaced by Tubman on the front of the $20 bill, with Jackson appearing on the reverse.[20][21][22] Lew simultaneously announced that the five- and ten-dollar bills would also be redesigned in the coming years and put into production in the next decade.[20][22]

text: On August 31, 2017, Treasury Secretary Steven Mnuchin said that he would not commit to putting Tubman on the twenty-dollar bill, explaining "People have been on the bills for a long period of time. This is something we’ll consider; right now we have a lot more important issues to focus on."[23]


document_title: Edo society

question_text: what made up the three tiers of the japanese political system around 1600

text: Edo society

text: Four Classes[edit]

text: The Tokugawa government intentionally created a social order called the Four divisions of society (shinōkōshō), that would stabilize the country. This system was based on the ideas of Confucianism that spread to Japan from China. By this system, society was composed of samurai (侍 shi), farming peasants (農 nō), artisans (工 kō) and merchants (商 shō). Samurai were placed at the top of society because they started an order and set a high moral example for others to follow. The system was meant to reinforce their position of power in society by justifying their ruling status. Peasants came second because they produced the most important commodity, food. According to Confucian philosophy, society could not survive without agriculture.[1]:45 Third were artisans because they produced nonessential goods.

text: Merchants were at the bottom of the social order because they generated wealth without producing any goods. As this indicates, the classes were not arranged by wealth or capital but by what philosophers described as their moral purity.

text: In actuality, shinōkōshō does not accurately describe Tokugawa society.[1]:7 Buddhist and Shinto priests; or court nobles (kuge); and outcast classes including eta and hinin (those sold or sentenced into indentured servitude) were not included in this description of hierarchy. In some cases, a poor samurai could be little better off than a peasant and the lines between the classes could blur, especially between artisans and merchants in urban areas. Still, the theory provided grounds for restricting privileges and responsibilities to different classes and it gave a sense of order to society. In practice, solidified social relationships in general helped create the political stability that defined the Edo period.[2]:135–136

text: Samurai[edit]

text: Samurai functioned as the warrior class in Japan; they constituted about 7–8% of the population. The other classes were prohibited from possessing long swords such as the tachi or katana. Carrying both a long and a short sword became the symbol of the samurai class.

text: During the feudal period, samurai were warriors that fought for a lord in a feudal relationship. The Edo period, however, was largely free from both external threats and internal conflicts. Instead, the samurai maintained their fighting skills more as an art than to fight. Samurai were paid a stipend from their lord, limiting their ties to the economic base. In addition, samurai could not own land, which would have given them income independent from their duty. Samurai generally lived around their daimyō's castle, creating a thriving town or city environment around the middle of a domain.

text: There were social stratifications within the samurai class. Upper-level samurai had direct access to their daimyō and could hold his most trusted positions. Some achieved a level of wealth that allowed them to retain their own samurai vassals. Mid-level samurai held military and bureaucratic positions and had some interactions with their daimyō if needed. Low-level samurai could be paid as little as a subsistence wage and worked as guards, messengers and clerks. Positions within the class were largely hereditary and talented samurai could not rise above a few social steps beyond their birth.[1]:30

text: Outside the traditional samurai–lord relationship were rōnin, or masterless samurai were generally afforded very low levels of respect, had no income, and often became gamblers, bandits, or other similar occupations.

text: Peasants[edit]

text: Life for rural peasants focused on their villages. Peasants rarely moved beyond their villages, and journeys and pilgrimages required a permit, but young people occasionally sought seasonal employment outside of their village. As a result,  people were highly suspicious of outsiders. Social bonding, critical to the survival of the whole village, also reinforced through seasonal festivals. Villages were highly collective; there were strong pressures to conform and no room to deviate from custom.[1]:12 Though there were conflicts, they were seen as disruptive to the village and order and were to be limited as much as possible.[1]:13

text: The peasant class owned land, but rights to tax this land were given to the daimyō.  Peasants worked to produce enough food for themselves and still meet the tax burden. Most agriculture during this time was cultivated by families on their own land in contrast to the plantation or hacienda model, implemented elsewhere.[1]:45

text:
Peasants could amass relatively large amounts of wealth but remained in the same class because of their association with the land. Wealthier families and those that held their own land and paid taxes were held in much higher regard and had more political influence in village matters. However, the survival of the village depended on every household cooperating to meet the tax burden and overcome natural disasters such as famines.
During the reign of the third Tokugawa shōgun, Iemitsu, farmers were not allowed to eat any of the rice they grew. They had to hand it all over to their daimyo and then wait for him to give some back as charity.

text: Merchants and artisans[edit]

text: By 1800, as much as 10% of the population of Japan may have lived in large towns and cities, one of the highest levels in the world at the time.[1]:43 The daimyōs and their samurai did not produce any goods themselves, but they used the tax surplus from the land to fuel their consumption. Their needs were met by artisans, who moved to be around the castles, and merchants, who traded local and regional goods. Each class in the city was restricted to living in its own quarter.

text: Merchants grew increasingly powerful during this period. Wealthy merchant houses arose to organize distributors and hold legal monopolies. As their wealth grew, merchants wanted to consume and display their wealth in the same manner as the samurai, but laws prevented them from doing so overtly. Still, their consumption combined with that of the samurai served to reinforce the growth of the merchant and artisan classes.

text: Role of women[edit]

text: A woman's life varied immensely according to her family's social status. Women in samurai families were expected to submit to their male heads of household, but as they aged, they could become the ranking household member if their husband died. Children were enjoined to respect both of their parents, even as adults. Women from the lower classes were much less restricted by social expectations and could play an integral part in the family's business.[1]:15 Peasant women were expected to do household chores in the early morning before working in the fields with their male relatives and, regardless of age, were important, working members of their families.

text: Marriage was not based on romantic attraction. Families tried to use marriage as a way to increase their social standing or, among wealthier groups, to increase one's influence and holdings. Most often, however, marriage occurred between two families of equal status.[1]:14 Female virginity at marriage was important in the samurai classes; it was much less important to the lower classes.[1]:14 After marriage, women were restricted from taking additional sexual partners. Males of the upper classes, however, were able to take concubines and have relations with unmarried women. Divorce was common, and a woman from a poor household could very easily leave her husband and return to her original family.

text: Challenges[edit]

text: The foundation of this period was its stable social order. However, as wealth became increasingly concentrated outside of the samurai class, social conflict grew. The fixed stipends on which samurai lived did not increase despite the rising cost of commodities and the increasingly burdensome cost of proper social etiquette so many samurai became in debt to wealthy merchant families. The wealthy merchants, in turn, were restricted from showing their wealth for fear of violating the laws that restricted privileges to the samurai class. That created deepening resentment but also increasing interdependence between the two classes.[2]:159 Some scholars began to question the Confucian beliefs that provided the foundation of society.[1]:57

text: Changes in rural areas were also creating conflict. New technology increased productivity and allowed some families to produce a surplus of food that could be used to support ventures beyond farming. Some peasants also became indebted to their wealthier neighbors, and more families lost ownership of their land. This sparked resentment that sometimes erupted in violence towards landlords and village elite.

text: The challenges laid the foundation for the changes that would follow during the Meiji period.