document_title: Fifty Shades of Grey

question_text: where did fifty shades of grey take place

text: Fifty Shades of Grey

text: Plot[edit]

text: Anastasia "Ana" Steele is a 21-year-old college senior attending Washington State University in Vancouver, Washington. Her best friend is Katherine "Kate" Kavanagh, who writes for the college newspaper. Due to an illness, Kate is unable to interview 27-year-old Christian Grey, a successful and wealthy Seattle entrepreneur, and asks Ana to take her place. Ana finds Christian attractive as well as intimidating. As a result, she stumbles through the interview and leaves Christian's office believing it went poorly. Ana does not expect to meet Christian again, but he appears at the hardware store where she works. While he purchases various items including cable ties, masking tape, and rope, Ana informs Christian that Kate would like some photographs to illustrate her article about him. Christian gives Ana his phone number. Later, Kate urges Ana to call Christian and arrange a photo shoot with their photographer friend, José Rodriguez.

text: The next day José, Kate, and Ana arrive for the photo shoot at the Heathman Hotel, where Christian is staying. Christian asks Ana out for coffee and asks if she's dating anyone, specifically José. Ana replies that she is not dating anyone. During the conversation, Ana learns that Christian is also single, but he says he is not romantic. Ana is intrigued but believes she is not attractive enough for Christian. Later, Ana receives a package from Christian containing first edition copies of Tess of the d'Urbervilles, which stuns her. Later that night, Ana goes out drinking with her friends and ends up drunk dialling Christian, who informs her that he will be coming to pick her up because of her inebriated state. Ana goes outside to get some fresh air, and José attempts to kiss her, but he is stopped by Christian's arrival. Ana leaves with Christian, but not before she discovers that Kate has been flirting with Christian's brother, Elliot. Later, Ana wakes to find herself in Christian's hotel room, where he scolds her for not taking proper care of herself. Christian then reveals that he would like to have sex with her. He initially says that Ana will first have to fill out paperwork, but later goes back on this statement after making out with her in the elevator.

text: Ana goes on a date with Christian, on which he takes her in his helicopter, Charlie Tango, to his apartment. Once there, Christian insists that she sign a non-disclosure agreement forbidding her from discussing anything they do together, which Ana agrees to sign. He also mentions other paperwork, but first takes her to his playroom full of BDSM toys and gear. There, Christian informs her that the second contract will be one of dominance and submission, and there will be no romantic relationship, only a sexual one. The contract even forbids Ana from touching Christian or making eye contact with him. At this point, Christian realises that Ana is a virgin and agrees to take her virginity without making her sign the contract. The two then have sex. The following morning, Ana and Christian again have sex. His mother arrives moments after their sexual encounter and is surprised by the meeting, having previously thought Christian was homosexual, because he was never seen with a woman. Christian later takes Ana out to eat, and he reveals that he lost his virginity at age 15 to one of his mother's friends, Elena Lincoln, and that his previous dominant/submissive relationships failed due to incompatibility. Christian also reveals that in his first dominant/submissive relationship he was the submissive. Christian and Ana plan to meet again, and he takes Ana home, where she discovers several job offers and admits to Kate that she and Christian had sex.

text: Over the next few days, Ana receives several packages from Christian. These include a laptop to enable her to research the BDSM lifestyle in consideration of the contract; to communicate with him, since she has never previously owned a computer; and to receive a more detailed version of the dominant/submissive contract. She and Christian email each other, with Ana teasing him and refusing to honour parts of the contract, such as only eating foods from a specific list. Ana later meets with Christian to discuss the contract and becomes overwhelmed by the potential BDSM arrangement and the potential of having a sexual relationship with Christian that is not romantic in nature. Because of these feelings, Ana runs away from Christian and does not see him again until her college graduation, where he is a guest speaker. During this time, Ana agrees to sign the dominant/submissive contract. Ana and Christian once again meet to further discuss the contract, and they go over Ana's hard and soft limits. Christian spanks Ana for the first time, and the experience leaves her both enticed and slightly confused. This confusion is exacerbated by Christian's lavish gifts and the fact that he brings her to meet his family. The two continue with the arrangement without Ana's having yet signed the contract. After successfully landing a job with Seattle Independent Publishing (SIP), Ana further bristles under the restrictions of the non-disclosure agreement and her complex relationship with Christian. The tension between Ana and Christian eventually comes to a head after Ana asks Christian to punish her in order to show her how extreme a BDSM relationship with him could be. Christian fulfils Ana's request, beating her with a belt, and Ana realises they are incompatible. Devastated, she leaves Christian and returns to the apartment she shares with Kate.

text: Background and publication[edit]

text: The Fifty Shades trilogy was developed from a Twilight fan fiction series originally titled Master of the Universe and published episodically on fan-fiction websites under the pen name "Snowqueen's Icedragon". The piece featured characters named after Stephenie Meyer's characters in Twilight, Edward Cullen and Bella Swan. After comments concerning the sexual nature of the material, James removed the story from the fan-fiction websites and published it on her own website, FiftyShades.com. Later she rewrote Master of the Universe as an original piece, with the principal characters renamed Christian Grey and Anastasia Steele and removed it from her website before publication.[3] Meyer commented on the series, saying "that's really not my genre, not my thing... Good on her—she's doing well. That's great!"[4]

text: This reworked and extended version of Master of the Universe was split into three parts. The first, titled Fifty Shades of Grey, was released as an e-book and a print on demand paperback in May 2011 by The Writers' Coffee Shop, a virtual publisher based in Australia.[5][6] The second volume, Fifty Shades Darker, was released in September 2011; and the third, Fifty Shades Freed, followed in January 2012. The Writers' Coffee Shop had a restricted marketing budget and relied largely on book blogs for early publicity, but sales of the novel were boosted by word-of-mouth recommendation. The book's erotic nature and perceived demographic of its fan base as being composed largely of married women over thirty led to the book being dubbed "Mommy Porn" by some news agencies.[7][8] The book has also reportedly been popular among teenage girls and college women.[8][9][10] By the release of the final volume in January 2012, news networks in the United States had begun to report on the Fifty Shades trilogy as an example of viral marketing and of the rise in popularity of female erotica, attributing its success to the discreet nature of e-reading devices.[11][12] Due to the heightened interest in the series, the license to the Fifty Shades trilogy was picked up by Vintage Books for re-release in a new and revised edition in April 2012.[13][14] The attention that the series has garnered has also helped to spark a renewed interest in erotic literature. Many other erotic works quickly became best-sellers following Fifty Shade's success, while other popular works, such as Anne Rice's The Sleeping Beauty trilogy, have been reissued (this time without pseudonyms) to meet the higher demand.[15]

text: On 1 August 2012, Amazon UK announced that it had sold more copies of Fifty Shades of Grey than it had the entire Harry Potter series combined, making E. L. James its best-selling author, replacing J. K. Rowling, though worldwide the Harry Potter series sold more than 450 million copies compared with Fifty Shades of Grey's sales of 60 million copies.[16]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Fifty Shades of Grey has topped best-seller lists around the world, including those of the United Kingdom and the United States.[17][18] The series had sold over 125 million copies worldwide by June 2015 and has been translated into 52 languages,[19][20] and set a record in the United Kingdom as the fastest-selling paperback of all time.[21]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: It has received mixed to negative reviews, with most critics noting poor literary qualities of the work. Salman Rushdie said about the book: "I've never read anything so badly written that got published. It made Twilight look like War and Peace."[22] Maureen Dowd described the book in The New York Times as being written "like a Bronte devoid of talent," and said it was "dull and poorly written."[23] Jesse Kornbluth of The Huffington Post said: "As a reading experience, Fifty Shades ... is a sad joke, puny of plot".[24]

text: Princeton professor April Alliston wrote, "Though no literary masterpiece, Fifty Shades is more than parasitic fan fiction based on the recent Twilight vampire series."[25] Entertainment Weekly writer Lisa Schwarzbaum gave the book a "B+" rating and praised it for being "in a class by itself."[26] British author Jenny Colgan in The Guardian wrote "It is jolly, eminently readable and as sweet and safe as BDSM (bondage, discipline, sadism and masochism) erotica can be without contravening the trade descriptions act" and also praised the book for being "more enjoyable" than other "literary erotic books".[27] The Daily Telegraph noted that the book was "the definition of a page-turner", noting that the book was both "troubling and intriguing".[28] A reviewer for the Ledger-Enquirer described the book as guilty fun and escapism, and that it "also touches on one aspect of female existence [female submission]. And acknowledging that fact – maybe even appreciating it – shouldn't be a cause for guilt."[29] The New Zealand Herald stated that the book "will win no prizes for its prose" and that "there are some exceedingly awful descriptions," although it was also an easy read; "(If you only) can suspend your disbelief and your desire to – if you'll pardon the expression – slap the heroine for having so little self respect, you might enjoy it."[30] The Columbus Dispatch stated that, "Despite the clunky prose, James does cause one to turn the page."[31] Metro News Canada wrote that "suffering through 500 pages of this heroine's inner dialogue was torturous, and not in the intended, sexy kind of way".[32] Jessica Reaves, of the Chicago Tribune, wrote that the "book's source material isn't great literature", noting that the novel is "sprinkled liberally and repeatedly with asinine phrases", and described it as "depressing".[33]

text: The book garnered some accolades. In December 2012, it won both "Popular Fiction" and "Book of the Year" categories in the UK National Book Awards.[34][35] In that same month, Publishers Weekly named E. L. James the 'Publishing Person of the Year', a decision whose criticism in the LA Times and the New York Daily News was referred to by and summarised in The Christian Science Monitor.[36] Earlier, in April 2012, when E. L. James was listed as one of Time magazine's "100 Most Influential People in the World",[37] Richard Lawson of The Atlantic Wire criticised her inclusion due to the trilogy's fan fiction beginnings.[38]

text: Controversy[edit]

text: Fifty Shades of Grey has attracted criticism due to its depictions of BDSM, with some BDSM participants stating that the book confuses BDSM with abuse and presents it as a pathology to be overcome, as well as showing incorrect and possibly dangerous BDSM techniques.[39][40]

text: Coinciding with the release of the book and its surprising popularity, injuries related to BDSM and sex toy use spiked dramatically. In 2012, the year after the book was published, injuries requiring Emergency Room visits increased by over 50% from 2010 (the year before the book was published). This is speculated to be due to people unfamiliar with both the proper use of these toys and the safe practice of bondage and other "kinky" sexual fetishes attempting what they had read in the book.[41]

text: There has also been criticism against the fact that BDSM is part of the book. Archbishop Dennis Schnurr of Cincinnati said in an early February 2015 letter, "The story line is presented as a romance; however, the underlying theme is that bondage, dominance, and sadomasochism are normal and pleasurable."[42] The feminist anti-pornography organisation Stop Porn Culture called for a boycott of the movie based on the book because of its sex scenes involving bondage and violence.[43] By contrast, Timothy Laurie and Jessica Kean argue that "film fleshes out an otherwise legalistic concept like 'consent' into a living, breathing, and at times, uncomfortable interpersonal experience," and "dramatises the dangers of unequal negotiation and the practical complexity of identifying one's limits and having them respected."[44]

text: Several critics and scientists have expressed concern that the nature of the main couple's relationship is not BDSM at all, but rather is characteristic of an abusive relationship. In 2013, social scientist Professor Amy E. Bonomi published a study wherein the books were read by multiple professionals and assessed for characteristics of intimate partner violence, or IPV, using the CDC's standards for emotional abuse and sexual violence. The study found that nearly every interaction between Ana and Christian was emotionally abusive in nature, including stalking, intimidation, and isolation. The study group also observed pervasive sexual violence within the CDC's definition, including Christian's use of alcohol to circumvent Ana's ability to consent, and that Ana exhibits classic signs of an abused woman, including constant perceived threat, stressful managing, and altered identity.[45][46]

text: A second study in 2014 was conducted to examine the health of women who had read the series, compared with a control group that had never read any part of the novels. The results showed a correlation between having read at least the first book and exhibiting signs of an eating disorder, having romantic partners that were emotionally abusive and/or engaged in stalking behaviour, engaging in binge drinking in the last month, and having 5 or more sexual partners before age 24. The authors could not conclude whether women already experiencing these "problems" were drawn to the series, or if the series influenced these behaviours to occur after reading by creating underlying context.[47] The study's lead researcher contends that the books romanticise dangerous behaviour and "perpetuate dangerous abuse standards."[48] The study was limited in that only women up to age 24 were studied, and no distinction was made among the reader sample between women who enjoyed the series and those that had a strong negative opinion of it, having only read it out of curiosity due to the media hype or other obligation.[49]

text: At the beginning of the media hype, Dr. Drew and sexologist Logan Levkoff discussed on The Today Show[50] whether the book perpetuated violence against women; Levkoff said that while that is an important subject, this trilogy had nothing to do with it – this was a book about a consensual relationship. Dr. Drew commented that the book was "horribly written" in addition to being "disturbing" but stated that "if the book enhances women's real-life sex lives and intimacy, so be it."[51]

text: Censorship[edit]

text: In March 2012, branches of the public library in Brevard County, Florida, removed copies of Fifty Shades of Grey from their shelves, with an official stating that it did not meet the selection criteria for the library and that reviews for the book had been poor. A representative for the library stated that it was due to the book's sexual content and that other libraries had declined to purchase copies for their branches.[52] Deborah Caldwell-Stone of the American Library Association commented that "If the only reason you don't select a book is that you disapprove of its content, but there is demand for it, there's a question of whether you're being fair. In a public library there is usually very little that would prevent a book from being on the shelf if there is a demand for the information."[52] Brevard County public libraries later made their copies available to their patrons due to public demand.[53]

text: In Macaé, Brazil, Judge Raphael Queiroz Campos ruled in January 2013 that bookstores throughout the city must either remove the series entirely from their shelves or ensure that the books are wrapped and placed out of the reach of minors.[54] The judge stated that he was prompted to make such an order after seeing children reading them,[55] basing his decision on a law stating that "magazines and publications whose content is improper or inadequate for children and adolescents can only be sold if sealed and with warnings regarding their content".[56]

text: Media[edit]

text: Film adaptation[edit]

text: A film adaptation of the book was produced by Focus Features,[57] Michael De Luca Productions, and Trigger Street Productions,[58] with Universal Pictures and Focus Features securing the rights to the trilogy in March 2012.[59] Universal is also the film's distributor. Charlie Hunnam was originally cast in the role of Christian Grey alongside Dakota Johnson in the role of Anastasia Steele,[60][61] but Hunnam gave up the part in October 2013,[62] with Jamie Dornan announced for the role on 23 October.[63]

text: The film was released on 13 February 2015,[2] and although popular at the box office, critical reactions were mixed to negative.[64]

text: Film soundtrack[edit]

text: E. L. James announced the film's soundtrack would be released on 10 February 2015.[65][66] Prior to the soundtrack's release, the first single, "Earned It", by The Weeknd, was released on 24 December 2014.[67] On 7 January 2015, the second single, "Love Me like You Do" by Ellie Goulding was released.[68] Australian singer Sia released the soundtrack's third single, "Salted Wound", on 27 January 2015.[69]

text: Classical album[edit]

text: An album of songs selected by E. L. James was released on 11 September 2012 by EMI Classics under the title Fifty Shades of Grey: The Classical Album, and reached number four on the US Billboard classical music albums chart in October 2012.[70][71] A Seattle P-I reviewer favourably wrote that the album would appeal both to fans of the series and to "those who have no intention of reading any of the Grey Shades".[72]

text: Parodies[edit]

text: The Fifty Shades of Grey trilogy has inspired many parodies in print,[73][74] in film, online, and on stage. In November 2012, Universal Studios attempted to prevent the release of Fifty Shades of Grey: A XXX Adaptation, a pornographic film based on the novel, citing copyright and trademark infringement. Smash Pictures, the porn producer, later responded to the lawsuit with a counterclaim that "much or all" of the Fifty Shades material was placed in the public domain in its original Twilight-based form,[75] but later capitulated and stopped production of their film.[76]

text: In print[edit]

text: Amazon.com lists over 50 book parodies, e.g.:

text:
Fifty Shades of Oy Vey (2013)[77] by E. L. Jamesbergstein
Fifty Shames of Earl Grey (2012)[78] by Fanny Merkin (a.k.a. Andrew Shaffer)

text: In film[edit]

text: Fifty Shades of Black (2016)

text: Online[edit]

text: Parodying the fan fiction origins of Fifty Shades of Grey, Ivy league MBA students have created Erotic FinFiction, a blog containing steamy entries written in business jargon.[79]

text: On stage[edit]

text: Stage productions include:

text:
50 Shades! The Musical Parody[80]
Cuff Me: The Fifty Shades of Grey Musical Parody[81]
Spank! The Fifty Shades Parody


document_title: Party leaders of the United States Senate

question_text: who is the republican whip in the senate

root

text: Current floor leaders[edit]

text: The Senate is currently composed of 51 Republicans, 47 Democrats, and 2 independents, both of whom caucus with the Democrats.

tag: p

text: The current leaders are long-time Senators Mitch McConnell (R) from Kentucky and Chuck Schumer (D) from New York. The current Assistant Leaders/Whips are long-time Senators John Cornyn (R) from Texas and Dick Durbin (D) from Illinois.

text: History[edit]

text: The Democrats began the practice of electing floor leaders in 1920 while they were in the minority. John W. Kern was a Democratic Senator from Indiana. While the title was not official, he is considered[by whom?] to be the first Senate party leader from 1913 through 1917 (and in turn, the first Senate Democratic Leader), while serving concurrently as Chairman of the Senate Democratic Caucus. In 1925 the majority (at the time) Republicans also adopted this language when Charles Curtis became the first (official) Majority Leader[citation needed], although his immediate predecessor Henry Cabot Lodge is considered the first (unofficial) Senate Majority Leader.

text: The Constitution designates the Vice President of the United States as President of the United States Senate. The Constitution also calls for a President pro tempore to serve as the leader of the body when the President of the Senate (the Vice President) is absent. In practice, neither the Vice President nor the President pro tempore—customarily the most senior (longest-serving) Senator in the majority party—actually presides over the Senate on a daily basis; that task is given to junior Senators of the majority party. Since the Vice President may be of a different party than the majority and is not a member subject to discipline, the rules of procedure of the Senate give the presiding officer very little power and none beyond the presiding role. For these reasons, it is the Majority Leader who, in practice, manages the Senate. This is in contrast to the House of Representatives where the elected Speaker of the House has a great deal of discretionary power and generally presides over votes on bills.[citation needed]

text: List of party leaders[edit]

text: The Democratic Party first selected a leader in 1920. The Republican Party first formally designated a leader in 1925.

text:
Cong-
ress
Dates
Democratic Whip
Democratic Leader
Majority
Republican Leader
Republican Whip

63rd
May 28, 1913 –
March 4, 1915
J. Hamilton Lewis
None
Democratic
← Majority
None
None

64th
March 4, 1915 –
December 6, 1915

December 6, 1915 –
December 13, 1915
James Wadsworth

December 13, 1915 –
March 4, 1917
Charles Curtis

65th
March 4, 1917 –
March 4, 1919

66th
March 4, 1919 –
April 27, 1920
Peter Gerry
Republican
Majority →
Henry Cabot Lodge
Unofficial

April 27, 1920 –
March 4, 1921
Oscar Underwood

67th
March 4, 1921 –
March 4, 1923

68th
March 4, 1923 –
December 3, 1923

December 3, 1923 –
November 9, 1924
Joseph Taylor Robinson

November 9, 1924 –
March 4, 1925
Charles Curtis
Acting
Wesley Jones
Acting

69th
March 4, 1925 –
March 4, 1927
Charles Curtis
Wesley Jones

70th
March 4, 1927 –
March 4, 1929

71st
March 4, 1929 –
March 4, 1931
Morris Sheppard
James E. Watson
Simeon Fess

72nd
March 4, 1931 –
March 4, 1933

73rd
March 4, 1933 –
January 3, 1935
J. Hamilton Lewis
Democratic
← Majority
Charles L. McNary
Felix Hebert

74th
January 3, 1935 –
January 3, 1937
None[Note 1]

75th
January 3, 1937 –
July 14, 1937

July 22, 1937 –
January 3, 1939
Alben W. Barkley

76th
January 3, 1939 –
April 9, 1939

April 9, 1939 –
January 3, 1940
Sherman Minton

January 3, 1940 –
January 3, 1941
Warren Austin
Acting

77th
January 3, 1941 –
January 3, 1943
J. Lister Hill
Charles L. McNary

78th
January 3, 1943 –
February 25, 1944
Kenneth Wherry

February 25, 1944 –
January 3, 1945
Wallace H. White Jr.
Acting

79th
January 3, 1945 –
January 3, 1947
Wallace H. White Jr.

80th
January 3, 1947 –
January 3, 1949
Scott W. Lucas
Republican
Majority →

81st
January 3, 1949 –
January 3, 1951
Francis Myers
Scott W. Lucas
Democratic
← Majority
Kenneth S. Wherry
Leverett Saltonstall

82nd
January 3, 1951 –
January 3, 1952
Lyndon B. Johnson
Ernest McFarland

January 3, 1952 –
January 3, 1953
Styles Bridges

83rd
January 3, 1953 –
July 31, 1953
Earle Clements
Lyndon B. Johnson
Republican
Majority →
Robert A. Taft

August 3, 1953 –
January 3, 1955
William F. Knowland

84th
January 3, 1955 –
January 3, 1957
Democratic
← Majority

85th
January 3, 1957 –
January 3, 1959
Mike Mansfield
Everett Dirksen

86th
January 3, 1959 –
January 3, 1961
Everett Dirksen
Thomas Kuchel

87th
January 3, 1961 –
January 3, 1963
Hubert Humphrey
Mike Mansfield

88th
January 3, 1963 –
January 3, 1965

89th
January 3, 1965 –
January 3, 1967
Russell B. Long

90th
January 3, 1967 –
January 3, 1969

91st
January 3, 1969 –
September 7, 1969
Ted Kennedy
Hugh Scott

September 24, 1969 –
January 3, 1971
Hugh Scott
Robert Griffin

92nd
January 3, 1971 –
January 3, 1973
Robert Byrd

93rd
January 3, 1973 –
January 3, 1975

94th
January 3, 1975 –
January 3, 1977

95th
January 3, 1977 –
January 3, 1979
Alan Cranston
Robert Byrd
Howard Baker
Ted Stevens

96th
January 3, 1979 –
November 1, 1979

November 1, 1979 –
March 5, 1980
Ted Stevens
Acting

March 5, 1980 –
January 3, 1981
Howard Baker

97th
January 3, 1981 –
January 3, 1983
Republican
Majority →

98th
January 3, 1983 –
January 3, 1985

99th
January 3, 1985 –
January 3, 1987
Bob Dole
Alan Simpson

100th
January 3, 1987 –
January 3, 1989
Democratic
← Majority

101st
January 3, 1989 –
January 3, 1991
George Mitchell

102nd
January 3, 1991 –
January 3, 1993
Wendell H. Ford

103rd
January 3, 1993 –
January 3, 1995

104th
January 3, 1995 –
June 12, 1996
Tom Daschle
Republican
Majority →
Trent Lott

June 12, 1996 –
January 3, 1997
Trent Lott
Don Nickles

105th
January 3, 1997 –
January 3, 1999

106th
January 3, 1999 –
January 3, 2001
Harry Reid

107th
January 3, 2001 –
January 20, 2001
Democratic
← Majority

January 20, 2001 –
June 6, 2001
Republican
Majority →

June 6, 2001 –
January 3, 2003[Note 2]
Democratic
← Majority

108th
January 3, 2003 –
January 3, 2005
Republican
Majority →
Bill Frist
Mitch McConnell

109th
January 3, 2005 –
January 3, 2007
Dick Durbin
Harry Reid

110th
January 3, 2007 –
December 18, 2007
Democratic
← Majority
Mitch McConnell
Trent Lott

December 19, 2007 –
January 3, 2009
Jon Kyl

111th
January 3, 2009 –
January 3, 2011

112th
January 3, 2011 –
January 3, 2013

113th
January 3, 2013 –
January 3, 2015
John Cornyn

114th
January 3, 2015 –
January 3, 2017
Republican
Majority →

115th
January 3, 2017 –
January 3, 2019
Chuck Schumer

Cong-
ress
Dates
Democratic Whip
Democratic Leader
Majority
Republican Leader
Republican Whip

tag: table


document_title: Battle of Fort Sumter

question_text: who fired the first shot in the us civil war

text: Battle of Fort Sumter

text: Background

text: Secession

text: On December 20, 1860, shortly after Abraham Lincoln's victory in the presidential election of 1860, South Carolina adopted an ordinance declaring its secession from the United States of America and, by February 1861, six more Southern states had adopted similar ordinances of secession. On February 7, the seven states adopted a provisional constitution for the Confederate States of America and established their temporary capital at Montgomery, Alabama. A February peace conference met in Washington, D.C., but failed to resolve the crisis. The remaining eight states declined pleas to join the Confederacy.[5][6]

text: The seceding states seized numerous Federal properties within their boundaries, including buildings, arsenals, and fortifications. President James Buchanan protested but took no military action in response. Buchanan was concerned that an overt action could cause the remaining slave states to leave the Union, and while he acknowledged there was no constitutional authority for a state to secede, he could find no constitutional authority for him to act to prevent it.[7][8]

text: The Forts of Charleston

text: Several forts had been constructed in Charleston's harbor, including Fort Sumter and Fort Moultrie, which were not among the sites seized initially. Fort Moultrie on Sullivan Island was the oldest—it was the site of fortifications since 1776—and was the headquarters of the U.S. Army garrison. However, it had been designed as a gun platform for defending the harbor, and its defenses against land-based attacks were feeble; during the crisis, the Charleston newspapers commented that sand dunes had piled up against the walls in such a way that the wall could easily be scaled. When the garrison began clearing away the dunes, the papers objected.[9][10][11]

text: Major Robert Anderson of the 1st U.S. Artillery regiment had been appointed to command the Charleston garrison that fall because of rising tensions. A native of Kentucky, he was a protégé of Winfield Scott, the general in chief of the Army, and was thought more capable of handling a crisis than the garrison's previous commander, Col. John L. Gardner, who was nearing retirement. Anderson had served an earlier tour of duty at Fort Moultrie and his father had been a defender of the fort (then called Fort Sullivan) during the American Revolutionary War. Throughout the fall, South Carolina authorities considered both secession and the expropriation of federal property in the harbor to be inevitable. As tensions mounted, the environment around the fort increasingly resembled a siege, to the point that the South Carolina authorities placed picket ships to observe the movements of the troops and threatened to attack when forty rifles were transferred to one of the harbor forts from the U.S. arsenal in the city.[1][12][13][11]

text: In contrast to Moultrie, Fort Sumter dominated the entrance to Charleston Harbor and, though unfinished, was designed to be one of the strongest fortresses in the world. In the fall of 1860 work on the fort was nearly completed, but the fortress was thus far garrisoned by a single soldier, who functioned as a lighthouse keeper, and a small party of civilian construction workers. Under the cover of darkness on December 26, six days after South Carolina declared its secession, Anderson abandoned the indefensible Fort Moultrie, ordering its guns spiked and its gun carriages burned, and surreptitiously relocated his command by small boats to Sumter.[14][15]

text: President Buchanan and the Star of the West

text: South Carolina authorities considered Anderson's move to be a breach of faith. Governor Francis W. Pickens believed that President Buchanan had made implicit promises to him to keep Sumter unoccupied and suffered political embarrassment as a result of his trust in those promises. Buchanan, a former U.S. Secretary of State and diplomat, had used carefully crafted ambiguous language to Pickens, promising that he would not "immediately" occupy it.[16] From Major Anderson's standpoint, he was merely moving his existing garrison troops from one of the locations under his command to another. He had received instructions from the War Department on December 11, written by Major General Don Carlos Buell, Assistant Adjutant General of the Army, approved by Secretary of War John B. Floyd:[16][17]

text: ... you are to hold possession of the forts in this harbor, and if attacked you are to defend yourself to the last extremity. The smallness of your force will not permit you, perhaps, to occupy more than one of the three forts, but an attack on or attempt to take possession of any one of them will be regarded as an act of hostility, and you may then put your command into either of them which you may deem most proper to increase its power of resistance. You are also authorized to take similar steps whenever you have tangible evidence of a design to proceed to a hostile act.[18]

text: Governor Pickens therefore ordered that all remaining Federal positions except Fort Sumter were to be seized. State troops quickly occupied Fort Moultrie (capturing 56 guns), Fort Johnson on James Island, and the battery on Morris Island. On December 27, an assault force of 150 men seized the Union-occupied Castle Pinckney fortification, in the harbor close to downtown Charleston, capturing 24 guns and mortars without bloodshed. On December 30, the Federal arsenal in Charleston was captured, resulting in the acquisition of more than 22,000 weapons by the militia. The Confederates promptly made repairs at Fort Moultrie and dozens of new batteries and defense positions were constructed throughout the Charleston harbor area, including an unusual floating battery, and armed with weapons captured from the arsenal.[N 1]

text: President Buchanan was surprised and dismayed at Anderson's move to Sumter, unaware of the authorization Anderson had received. Nevertheless, he refused Pickens's demand to evacuate Charleston harbor. Since the garrison's supplies were limited, Buchanan authorized a relief expedition of supplies, small arms, and 200 soldiers. The original intent was to send the Navy sloop-of-war USS Brooklyn, but it was discovered that Confederates had sunk some derelict ships to block the shipping channel into Charleston and there was concern that Brooklyn had too deep a draft to negotiate the obstacles. Instead, it seemed prudent to send an unarmed civilian merchant ship, Star of the West, which might be perceived as less provocative to the Confederates. As Star of the West approached the harbor entrance on January 9, 1861, it was fired upon by a battery on Morris Island, which was staffed by cadets from The Citadel, among them William Stewart Simkins, who were the only trained artillerymen in the service of South Carolina at the time. Batteries from Fort Moultrie joined in and Star of the West was forced to withdraw. Major Anderson prepared his guns at Sumter when he heard the Confederate fire, but the secrecy of the operation had kept him unaware that a relief expedition was in progress and he chose not to start a general engagement.[22][23][24][1]

text: In a letter delivered January 31, 1861, Governor Pickens demanded of President Buchanan that he surrender Fort Sumter because, "I regard that possession is not consistent with the dignity or safety of the State of South Carolina."[25]

text: Preparations for war

text: Conditions at the fort were difficult during the winter of 1860–61. Rations were short and fuel for heat was limited. The garrison scrambled to complete the defenses as best they could. Fort Sumter was designed to mount 135 guns, operated by 650 officers and men, but construction had met with numerous delays for decades and budget cuts had left it only about 90 percent finished in early 1861. Anderson's garrison consisted of just 85 men, primarily made up of two small artillery companies: Company E, 1st U.S. Artillery, commanded by Capt. Abner Doubleday, and Company H, commanded by Capt. Truman Seymour. There were six other officers present: Surgeon Samuel W. Crawford, First Lt. Theodore Talbot of Company H, First Lt. Jefferson C. Davis of the 1st U.S. Artillery, and Second Lt. Norman J. Hall of Company H. Capt. John G. Foster and First Lt. George W. Snyder of the Corps of Engineers were responsible for construction of the Charleston forts, but they reported to their headquarters in Washington, not directly to Anderson. The remaining personnel were 68 noncommissioned officers and privates, eight musicians, and 43 noncombatant workmen.[1]

text: By April the Union troops had positioned 60 guns, but they had insufficient men to operate them all. The fort consisted of three levels of enclosed gun positions, or casemates. The second level of casemates was unoccupied. The majority of the guns were on the first level of casemates, on the upper level (the parapet or barbette positions), and on the center parade field. Unfortunately for the defenders, the original mission of the fort—harbor defense—meant that it was designed so that the guns were primarily aimed at the Atlantic, with little capability of protecting from artillery fire from the surrounding land or from infantry conducting an amphibious assault.[26][27][28]

text: In March, Brig. Gen. P.G.T. Beauregard took command of South Carolina forces in Charleston; on March 1, President Jefferson Davis had appointed him the first general officer in the armed forces of the new Confederacy,[29] specifically to take command of the siege. Beauregard made repeated demands that the Union force either surrender or withdraw and took steps to ensure that no supplies from the city were available to the defenders, whose food was running low. He also increased drills amongst the South Carolina militia, training them to operate the guns they manned. Ironically, Major Anderson had been Beauregard's artillery instructor at West Point; the two had been especially close, and Beauregard had become Anderson's assistant after graduation. Both sides spent March drilling and improving their fortifications to the best of their abilities.[30]

text: Beauregard, a trained military engineer, built-up overwhelming strength to challenge Fort Sumter. Fort Moultrie had three 8-inch Columbiads, two 8-inch howitzers, five 32-pound smoothbores, and four 24-pounders. Outside of Moultrie were five 10-inch mortars, two 32-pounders, two 24-pounders, and a 9-inch Dahlgren smoothbore. The floating battery next to Fort Moultrie had two 42-pounders and two 32-pounders on a raft protected by iron shielding. Fort Johnson on James Island had one 24-pounder and four 10-inch mortars. At Cummings Point on Morris Island, the Confederates had emplaced seven 10-inch mortars, two 42-pounders, an English Blakely rifled cannon, and three 8-inch Columbiads, the latter in the so-called Iron Battery, protected by a wooden shield faced with iron bars. About 6,000 men were available to man the artillery and to assault the fort, if necessary, including the local militia, young boys and older men.[31]

text: Decisions for war

text: On March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated as president. He was almost immediately confronted with the surprise information that Major Anderson was reporting that only six weeks of rations remained at Fort Sumter. A crisis similar to the one at Fort Sumter had emerged at Pensacola, Florida, where Confederates threatened another U.S. fortification—Fort Pickens. Lincoln and his new cabinet struggled with the decisions of whether to reinforce the forts, and how. They were also concerned about whether to take actions that might start open hostilities and which side would be perceived as the aggressor as a result. Similar discussions and concerns were occurring in the Confederacy.[32][33]

text: After the formation of the Confederate States of America in early February, there was some debate among the secessionists whether the capture of the fort was rightly a matter for South Carolina or for the newly declared national government in Montgomery, Alabama. South Carolina governor Pickens was among the states' rights advocates who thought that all property in Charleston harbor had reverted to South Carolina upon that state's secession as an independent commonwealth. This debate ran alongside another discussion about how aggressively the installations—including Forts Sumter and Pickens—should be obtained. President Davis, like his counterpart in Washington, preferred that his side not be seen as the aggressor. Both sides believed that the first side to use force would lose precious political support in the border states, whose allegiance was undetermined; before Lincoln's inauguration on March 4, five states had voted against secession, including Virginia, and Lincoln openly offered to evacuate Fort Sumter if it would guarantee Virginia's loyalty.[N 2]

text: The South sent delegations to Washington, D.C., and offered to pay for the Federal properties and enter into a peace treaty with the United States. Lincoln rejected any negotiations with the Confederate agents because he did not consider the Confederacy a legitimate nation and making any treaty with it would be tantamount to recognition of it as a sovereign government. However, Secretary of State William H. Seward, who wished to give up Sumter for political reasons—as a gesture of good will—engaged in unauthorized and indirect negotiations that failed.[35]

text: On April 4, as the supply situation on Sumter became critical, President Lincoln ordered a relief expedition, to be commanded by former naval captain (and future Assistant Secretary of the Navy) Gustavus V. Fox, who had proposed a plan for nighttime landings of smaller vessels than the Star of the West. Fox's orders were to land at Sumter with supplies only, and if he was opposed by the Confederates, to respond with the U.S. Navy vessels following and to then land both supplies and men. This time, Maj. Anderson was informed of the impending expedition, although the arrival date was not revealed to him. On April 6, Lincoln notified Governor Pickens that "an attempt will be made to supply Fort Sumter with provisions only, and that if such attempt be not resisted, no effort to throw in men, arms, or ammunition will be made without further notice, [except] in case of an attack on the fort."[36][37][38][39][1]

text: Lincoln's notification had been made to the governor of South Carolina, not the new Confederate government, which Lincoln did not recognize. Pickens consulted with Beauregard, the local Confederate commander. Soon President Davis ordered Beauregard to repeat the demand for Sumter's surrender, and if it did not, to reduce the fort before the relief expedition arrived. The Confederate cabinet, meeting in Montgomery, endorsed Davis's order on April 9. Only Secretary of State Robert Toombs opposed this decision: he reportedly told Jefferson Davis the attack "will lose us every friend at the North. You will only strike a hornet's nest. ... Legions now quiet will swarm out and sting us to death. It is unnecessary. It puts us in the wrong. It is fatal."[40]

text: Beauregard dispatched aides—Col. James Chesnut, Col. James A. Chisholm, and Capt. Stephen D. Lee—to Fort Sumter on April 11 to issue the ultimatum. Anderson refused, although he reportedly commented, "I shall await the first shot, and if you do not batter us to pieces, we shall be starved out in a few days." The aides returned to Charleston and reported this comment to Beauregard. At 1 a.m. on April 12, the aides brought Anderson a message from Beauregard: "If you will state the time which you will evacuate Fort Sumter, and agree in the meantime that you will not use your guns against us unless ours shall be employed against Fort Sumter, we will abstain from opening fire upon you." After consulting with his senior officers, Maj. Anderson replied that he would evacuate Sumter by noon, April 15, unless he received new orders from his government or additional supplies. Col. Chesnut considered this reply to be too conditional and wrote a reply, which he handed to Anderson at 3:20 a.m.: "Sir: by authority of Brigadier General Beauregard, commanding the Provisional Forces of the Confederate States, we have the honor to notify you that he will open fire of his batteries on Fort Sumter in one hour from this time." Anderson escorted the officers back to their boat, shook hands with each one, and said "If we never meet in this world again, God grant that we may meet in the next."[41][42][43][44]

text: Bombardment

text: At 4:30 a.m. on April 12, 1861, Lt. Henry S. Farley, acting upon the command of Capt. George S. James,[45][46] fired a single 10-inch mortar round from Fort Johnson. (James had offered the first shot to Roger Pryor, a noted Virginia secessionist, who declined, saying, "I could not fire the first gun of the war.") The shell exploded over Fort Sumter as a signal to open the general bombardment from 43 guns and mortars at Fort Moultrie, Fort Johnson, the floating battery, and Cummings Point. Under orders from Beauregard, the guns fired in a counterclockwise sequence around the harbor, with 2 minutes between each shot; Beauregard wanted to conserve ammunition, which he calculated would last for only 48 hours. Edmund Ruffin, another noted Virginia secessionist, had traveled to Charleston to be present for the beginning of the war, and fired one of the first shots at Sumter after the signal round, a 64-pound shell from the Iron Battery at Cummings Point. The shelling of Fort Sumter from the batteries ringing the harbor awakened Charleston's residents (including diarist Mary Chesnut), who rushed out into the predawn darkness to watch the shells arc over the water and burst inside the fort.[47][N 3]

text: Major Anderson held his fire, awaiting daylight. His troops reported for a call at 6 a.m. and then had breakfast. At 7 a.m., Capt. Abner Doubleday fired a shot at the Ironclad Battery at Cummings Point. He missed. Given the available manpower, Anderson could not take advantage of all of his 60 guns. He deliberately avoided using guns that were situated in the fort where casualties were most likely. The fort's best cannons were mounted on the uppermost of its three tiers—the barbette tier—where his troops were most exposed to incoming fire from overhead. The fort had been designed to withstand a naval assault, and naval warships of the time did not mount guns capable of elevating to shoot over the walls of the fort. However, the land-based cannons manned by the Confederates were capable of high-arcing ballistic trajectories and could therefore fire at parts of the fort that would have been out of naval guns' reach. Fort Sumter's garrison could only safely fire the 21 working guns on the lowest level, which themselves, because of the limited elevation allowed by their embrasures, were largely incapable of delivering fire with trajectories high enough to seriously threaten Fort Moultrie. Moreover, although the Federals had moved as many of their supplies to Fort Sumter as they could manage, the fort was quite low on ammunition, and was nearly out at the end of the 34-hour bombardment. A more immediate problem was the scarcity of cloth gunpowder cartridges or bags; only 700 were available at the beginning of the battle and workmen sewed frantically to create more, in some cases using socks from Anderson's personal wardrobe. Because of the shortages, Anderson reduced his firing to only six guns: two aimed at Cummings Point, two at Fort Moultrie, and two at the Sullivan's Island batteries.[49][50]

text: Ships from Fox's relief expedition began to arrive on April 12. Although Fox himself arrived at 3 a.m. on his steamer Baltic, most of the rest of his fleet was delayed until 6 p.m., and one of the two warships, USS Powhatan, never did arrive. Unbeknownst to Fox, it had been ordered to the relief of Fort Pickens in Florida. As landing craft were sent toward the fort with supplies, the artillery fire deterred them and they pulled back. Fox decided to wait until after dark and for the arrival of his warships. The next day, heavy seas made it difficult to load the small boats with men and supplies and Fox was left with the hope that Anderson and his men could hold out until dark on April 13.[51]

text: Although Sumter was a masonry fort, there were wooden buildings inside for barracks and officer quarters. The Confederates targeted these with Heated shot (cannonballs heated red hot in a furnace), starting fires that could prove more dangerous to the men than explosive artillery shells. At 7 p.m. on April 12, a rain shower extinguished the flames and at the same time the Union gunners stopped firing for the night. They slept fitfully, concerned about a potential infantry assault against the fort. During the darkness, the Confederates reduced their fire to four shots each hour. The following morning, the full bombardment resumed and the Confederates continued firing hot shot against the wooden buildings. By noon most of the wooden buildings in the fort and the main gate were on fire. The flames moved toward the main ammunition magazine, where 300 barrels of gunpowder were stored. The Union soldiers frantically tried to move the barrels to safety, but two-thirds were left when Anderson judged it was too dangerous and ordered the magazine doors closed. He ordered the remaining barrels thrown into the sea, but the tide kept floating them back together into groups, some of which were ignited by incoming artillery rounds. He also ordered his crews to redouble their efforts at firing, but the Confederates did the same, firing the hot shots almost exclusively. Many of the Confederate soldiers admired the courage and determination of the Yankees. When the fort had to pause its firing, the Confederates often cheered and applauded after the firing resumed and they shouted epithets at some of the nearby Union ships for failing to come to the fort's aid.[52][53]

text: Surrender

text:
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Major Anderson's telegram announcing the surrender

text: The fort's central flagpole was knocked down at 1 p.m. on April 13, raising doubts among the Confederates about whether the fort was ready to surrender. Col. Louis Wigfall, a former U.S. senator, had been observing the battle and decided that this indicated the fort had had enough punishment. He commandeered a small boat and proceeded from Morris Island, waving a white handkerchief from his sword, dodging incoming rounds from Sullivan's Island. Meeting with Major Anderson, he said, "You have defended your flag nobly, Sir. You have done all that it is possible to do, and General Beauregard wants to stop this fight. On what terms, Major Anderson, will you evacuate this fort?" Anderson was encouraged that Wigfall had said "evacuate," not "surrender." He was low on ammunition, fires were burning out of control, and his men were hungry and exhausted. Satisfied that they had defended their post with honor, enduring over 3,000 Confederate rounds without losing a man, Anderson agreed to a truce at 2:00 p.m.[54][55]

text: Fort Sumter raised Wigfall's white handkerchief on its flagpole as Wigfall departed in his small boat back to Morris Island, where he was hailed as a hero. The handkerchief was spotted in Charleston and a delegation of officers representing Beauregard—Stephen D. Lee, Porcher Miles, a former mayor of Charleston, and Roger Pryor—sailed to Sumter, unaware of Wigfall's visit. Anderson was outraged when these officers disavowed Wigfall's authority, telling him that the former senator had not spoken with Beauregard for two days, and he threatened to resume firing. Meanwhile, General Beauregard himself had finally seen the handkerchief and sent a second set of officers, offering essentially the same terms that Wigfall had presented, so the agreement was reinstated.[54][56][57]

text: The Union garrison formally surrendered the fort to Confederate personnel at 2:30 p.m., April 13. No one from either side was killed during the bombardment. During the 100-gun salute to the U.S. flag—Anderson's one condition for withdrawal—a pile of cartridges blew up from a spark, mortally wounding privates Daniel Hough and Edward Galloway, and seriously wounding the other four members of the gun crew; these were the first military fatalities of the war. The salute was stopped at fifty shots. Hough was buried in the Fort Sumter parade ground within two hours after the explosion. Galloway and Private George Fielding were sent to the hospital in Charleston, where Galloway died a few days later; Fielding was released after six weeks.[58][59] The other wounded men and the remaining Union troops were placed aboard a Confederate steamer, the Isabel, where they spent the night and were transported the next morning to Fox's relief ship Baltic, resting outside the harbor bar.[60]

text: Anderson carried the Fort Sumter Flag with him North, where it became a widely known symbol of the battle, and rallying point for supporters of the Union.[61] This inspired Frederic Edwin Church to paint Our Banner in the Sky, described as a "symbolic landscape embodying the stars and stripes." A chromolithograph was then created and sold to benefit the families of Union soldiers.[62]

text: Aftermath

text: The bombardment of Fort Sumter was the first military action of the American Civil War. Following the surrender, Northerners rallied behind Lincoln's call for all states to send troops to recapture the forts and preserve the Union. With the scale of the rebellion apparently small so far, Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers for 90 days.[63] Some Northern states filled their quotas quickly. There were so many volunteers in Ohio that within 16 days they could have met the full call for 75,000 men by themselves.[64] Other governors from border states were undiplomatic in their responses. For example, Gov. Claiborne Jackson wrote, "Not one man will the state of Missouri furnish to carry on any such unholy crusade", and Gov. Beriah Magoffin wrote, "Kentucky will furnish no troops for the wicked purpose of subduing her sister Southern states."[65] The governors of other states still in the Union were equally unsupportive. The call for 75,000 troops triggered four additional slave states to declare their secession from the Union and join the Confederacy.[66] The ensuing war lasted four years, effectively ending in April 1865 with the surrender of General Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia at Appomatox Courthouse.[67]

text: Charleston Harbor was completely in Confederate hands for almost the entire four-year duration of the war, leaving a hole in the Union naval blockade. Union forces conducted major operations in 1862 and 1863 to capture Charleston, first overland on James Island (the Battle of Secessionville, June 1862), then by naval assault against Fort Sumter (the First Battle of Charleston Harbor, April 1863), then by seizing the Confederate artillery positions on Morris Island (beginning with the Second Battle of Fort Wagner, July 1863, and followed by a siege until September). After pounding Sumter to rubble with artillery fire, a final amphibious operation attempted to occupy it (the Second Battle of Fort Sumter, September 1863), but was repulsed and no further attempts were made. The Confederates evacuated Fort Sumter and Charleston in February 1865 as Union Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman outflanked the city in the Carolinas Campaign. On April 14, 1865, four years to the day after lowering the Fort Sumter Flag in surrender, Robert Anderson (by then a major general, although ill and in retired status) returned to the ruined fort to raise the flag he had lowered in 1861.[68]

text: Two of the cannons used at Fort Sumter were later presented to Louisiana State University by General William Tecumseh Sherman, who was president of the university before the war began.[69]

text: Tributes

text: The U.S. Post Office Department released the Fort Sumter Centennial issue as the first in the series of five stamps marking the Civil War Centennial on April 12, 1961, at the Charleston post office.[70]

text: The stamp was designed by Charles R. Chickering. It illustrates a seacoast gun from Fort Sumter aimed by an officer in a typical uniform of the time. The background features palmetto leaves akin to bursting shells. The state tree of South Carolina, the palmettos suggest the geopolitical area opening Civil War hostilities.[71]

text: This stamp was produced by an engraving and printed by the rotary process in panes of fifty stamps each. The Postal Department authorized an initial printing of 120 million stamps.[71]

text: Footnotes


document_title: Post box

question_text: what are the blue boxes at the post office

text: Post box

text: History of post boxes[edit]

text: Europe[edit]

text: In 1653, the first post boxes are believed to have been installed in and around Paris.[1] By 1829, post boxes were in use throughout France.[2] The first public post boxes in Poland were installed in Warsaw in 1842.[3]

text: A post box originally installed in the wall of the Wakefield Post Office is dated 1809 and believed to be the oldest example in Britain.[4] It is now on display at the new Wakefield Museum.[5]

text: In the British Isles, the first red pillar post boxes were erected in Guernsey in 1852.[6] Roadside wall boxes first appeared in 1857 as a cheaper alternative to pillar boxes, especially in rural districts. In 1853 the first pillar box in the United Kingdom was installed at Botchergate, Carlisle.  In 1856, Richard Redgrave of the Department of Science and Art designed an ornate pillar box for use in London and other large cities. In 1859 the design was improved, and this became the first National Standard pillar box. Green was adopted as the standard colour for the early Victorian post boxes. Between 1866 and 1879 the hexagonal Penfold post box became the standard design for pillar boxes and it was during this period that red was first adopted as the standard colour. The first boxes to be painted red were in London in July 1874, although it would be nearly 10 years before all the boxes had been repainted.[7] In 2012 to celebrate Olympic gold medals for Team GB, selected boxes are painted gold. One has been vandalised briefly with graffiti.[8] One has been painted in the 'wrong' town.[9]

text: The first public letter boxes (post boxes) in Russia appeared in 1848 in St. Petersburg.[citation needed] They were made of wood and iron. Because these boxes were lightweight and easy to steal, they disappeared frequently; later boxes were made of cast iron and could weigh up to 45 kilograms.[citation needed]

text:
First Paris street letter box from c. 1850.

French wall box of the 1977 pattern now on display at the Colne Valley Postal History Museum, Essex.

A Dutch "Post-NL" postbox in orange at different heights.

Modern postbox in Estonia.

Modern postbox in Poland.

tag: ul

text: Asia[edit]

text: The post box arrived in the late 19th century Hong Kong and were made of wood. In the 1890s, metal pillar box appeared in Hong Kong and remained in use until the late 1990s. From the 1890s to 1997 the boxes were painted red and after 1997 were painted green.[10]

text:
A public (though unconventional) post box in Japan shaped as tea caddy.

Singapore AA style sheet metal mail box in Hong Kong.

Japanese post box at the Osaka Central Post Office.

post boxes in Taipei, Taiwan.

text: North America[edit]

text: The United States Post Office Department began installing public mail collection boxes in the 1850s outside post offices and on street corners in large Eastern cities.[11] U.S. collection boxes were initially designed to be hung or supported, and were mounted on support pillars, lamp-posts, telegraph poles, or even the sides of buildings.[11] By the 1880s, these pillar boxes were made of heavy cast iron to deter theft or vandalism.[11] As mail volume grew, the Post Office Department gradually replaced pillar mailboxes with larger free-standing models, though many of the pillar boxes continued in service as late as the 1960s.[11]

text: The four-footed, free-standing U.S. Mail collection box was first suggested in 1894, following the successful use of such designs in Canada, and quickly became a fixture on U.S. city street corners.[11][12]

text: Unlike Canadian mailboxes, which were painted red,[13] U.S. mail collection boxes were originally painted in red or green.  Beginning in 1909, all mail collection boxes were painted a dark green to avoid confusion with emergency and fire equipment.[11]  Dark green gave way to olive drab green after World War I, when the U.S. Army donated a large supply of olive drab green paint to the Post Office.  Olive drab green subsequently became the standard color for all U.S. mail collection boxes until 1955.  On 4 July 1955, Postmaster General Arthur Summerfield announced that the Post Office would begin painting all mail collection boxes in red, white, and blue to make them easily identifiable.  Subsequently, the Post Office began painting mail collection boxes in red and blue, with white lettering.[14]

text: [15] In 1971 the United States Postal Service changed mail collection boxes to the current USPS Dark Blue with contrasting lettering.[12][15][16] The coming of the automobile also influenced U.S. mailbox design, and in the late 1930s, an extension chute or "snorkel" to drive-up curbside collection boxes was adopted.[11]

text:
USPS "Snorkel" collection boxes for drive-through access.

A USPS collection box in Venice, Los Angeles in 2018 using the old olive green USPS coloring scheme formerly used between World War I and 1955.

Post box in Markham, Ontario, Canada

text: Types of post boxes[edit]

text: Varieties of post boxes (for outgoing mail) include:

text:
Lamp box
Pillar box
Wall box
Ludlow wall box

text: Some postal operators have different types of post boxes for different types of mail, such as, regular post, air mail and express mail, for local addresses (defined by a range of postal codes) and out-of-town addresses, or for post bearing postage stamps and post bearing a postage meter indicator.[citation needed]

text: Some countries have different coloured post boxes; in countries such as Australia, Portugal, and Russia, the colour indicates which type of mail a box is to be used for, such as 1st and 2nd class post. However, in Germany and parts of Sweden, because of postal deregulation, the different colours are for the different postal services. Other nations use a particular colour to indicate common political or historical ties.[17]

text: Post boxes or mailboxes located outdoors are designed to keep mail secure and protected from weather. Some boxes have a rounded or slanted top or a down turned entry slot to protect mail from rain or snow.[12][18] Locks are fitted for security, so mail can be retrieved only by official postal employees, and the box will ordinarily be constructed so as to resist damage from vandalism, forcible entry, or other causes.[12][18][19] Bright colours are often used to increase visibility and prevent accidents and injuries.[20][21] Entry openings are designed to allow the free deposit of mail, yet prevent retrieval via the access slot by unauthorised persons.[12][22]

text:
A British pillar box with two apertures, one for stamped, and the other for franked, mail

A wooden wall box in Burlington House, London.

British Royal Mail GR VI Cast Iron Wall Post Box in Clackmannan, Scotland and still in use

text: Clearance[edit]

text: Post boxes are emptied ("cleared") at times usually listed on a plate fixed to the box. In urban areas, this might be once or twice a day. Busy boxes might be cleared more frequently to avoid overflowing, and also to spread the work for the sorters. Extra clearances are made in the period leading up to Christmas, to prevent boxes becoming clogged with mail.[citation needed]

text: Since 2005, most Royal Mail post boxes have had the time of only the last collection of the day shown on the box, with no indication of whether the box is cleared at other times earlier in the day. Royal Mail say they needed to increase the type size of the wording on the plate to help those with poor sight, and so there was not enough room to list all collection times throughout the day. Some post boxes may indicate the next collection time by a metal 'tab'[23] or dial that can be changed while the box is open. The tab displays a day or number, each number corresponding to a different time shown on the plate.

text: Some boxes have been used as a dumping ground for used hypodermic needles.[24] In such cases staff are issued with protective equipment.[25]

text: Terrorism and political vandalism[edit]

text: Scotland[edit]

text: In 1952, a number of post boxes were attacked in Scotland in a dispute over the regnal number adopted by Queen Elizabeth II, which was displayed as the EIIR cypher on the boxes. This included at least one which was damaged in Edinburgh with a home made explosive device.

text: The compromise was to put the Scottish crown on Scottish pillar boxes, without any reference to the particular reigning monarch. One such example can still be seen today in Hong Kong at Statue Square.

text: The Troubles[edit]

text: During 1939 a number of bombs were put in post boxes by the IRA as part of their S-Plan campaign. When the Provisional IRA blew up the Arndale shopping centre in the 1996 Manchester bombing one of the few things to survive unscathed was a Victorian pillar box dating from 1887 (a type A Jubilee pillar).

text: In Northern Ireland several red Royal Mail post boxes were painted green by Irish Republicans in early 2009, in order to resemble An Post's post boxes in the Republic of Ireland.[26][27][28]

text: United States[edit]

text: Nearly 7,000 USPS collection boxes were removed following the aftermath of the September 11 attacks and the 2001 anthrax attacks in which letters containing anthrax spores were placed in public collection boxes.  Since that time, a decrease in first-class mail volume and the onset of online bill payment processing has resulted in lower demand for collection box service in the U.S.[11]

text: Colours[edit]

text: showColours for post boxesRedArgentina •  Australia •  Bahamas •  Barbados •  Belgium •  Canada •  Denmark (Post Danmark) •  Gibraltar •  Greece (express post) •  Greenland •  Hungary •  Iceland •  India •  Isle of Man •  Israel •  Italy (domestic post) •  South Korea •  Japan •  Jersey •  Macau •  Malaysia •  Malta •  Mauritius •  Mexico •  Monaco •  Netherlands – surviving heritage and PTT boxes •  New Zealand •  Norway (national and international mail) •  Pakistan •  Poland •  Portugal •  Romania •  Spain (express mail) •  South Africa •  Sri Lanka •  Taiwan (airmail and prompt delivery) •  Thailand •  United Kingdom[29]YellowAlgeria •  Australia (Express Post) •  Austria •  Bosnia-Herzegovina •  Brazil •  Bulgaria •  Croatia •  Cyprus (red before 1960) •  Finland (2nd class) •  France •  Germany (Deutsche Post) •  Greece (regular & international mail) •  Iran •  Lithuania •  Malaysia (Express Post) •  Montenegro •  Morocco •  Norway (local mail) •  Russia (1st Class) •  Serbia •  Slovakia •  Slovenia •  Spain (regular mail) •  Sweden (national and international mail) •  Switzerland (& Liechtenstein) •  Tunisia •  Turkey •  Ukraine •  Vatican City •  VietnamBlueBelarus •  Finland (1st class) •  Faroe Islands •  Germany (many private postal companies) •  Guernsey •  Alderney •  Dominican Republic •  Sark •  Italy (Air Mail only) •  United Kingdom (Air Mail – 1933–1940) •  Portugal (1st Class (Blue Mail) only) •  Sweden (local mail) •  Russia •  United StatesGreenChina •  Hong Kong (red before 1997) •  Taiwan (regular mail) •  Ireland •  Some heritage boxes in the United Kingdom, notably Stoke on Trent, Rochester & ScunthorpeOrangeCzech Republic •  Estonia •  Indonesia •  Netherlands (TNT N.V./PostNL (red before 2006))WhiteSan Marino •  SingaporeGrayPhilippinesGoldUnited Kingdom (only for 2012 Summer Olympics and Paralympics gold medal winners)[8][9][30]

text: Symbols[edit]

text:
Australia – a styled red letter "P" on a white circle, "P" standing for "Post".
Canada – a combination of a bird wing and an aircraft wing in a red circle and flanked by the words Canada Post / Postes Canada. Previously the words Canada, Canada Post, or Canada Post Corporation) were used on post boxes. Until the early 1970s, post boxes had the words "Royal Mail" and the Royal Coat of Arms of Canada.
Continental Europe – most designs include a Post horn, like those used by postmen to announce their arrival. In Germany the post horn is the only element indicating post services.
France – the arrow-shaped logo of La Poste.
Greece – Hellenic Post use the head of god Hermes wearing a winged petasos (summer hat) as their logo. Hermes was usually portrayed as the messenger of the gods
Netherlands – an orange triangle with "postnl" and a royal crown in it.
Ireland – from 1922 the Irish harp entwined with the letters "SE" for Saorstát Éireann, then "P&T" Gaelic script for Post and Telegraphs and from 1984 An Post with their wavy lines logo, often on the door as a raised casting.
Russia – logo of Russian Post (Почта России) written white on blue and black on yellow 1st class mail boxes.
Japan – a "T" with bar above it (〒).
United Kingdom – all post boxes display the Royal Cypher of the reigning monarch at the time of manufacture. Exceptions are the Anonymous pillar boxes of 1879–1887, where the cypher was omitted, and all boxes for use in Scotland manufactured after 1952 (including replicas of the 1866 Penfold design) which show the Queen's Crown of Scotland instead of the Royal Cypher for Elizabeth II.  Private boxes emptied by Royal Mail do not have to carry a cypher. Royal Mail post boxes manufactured since 1994 carry the wording "Royal Mail", normally above the aperture (lamp boxes) or on the door (pillar boxes). Before this date all post boxes, with the exception of the Anonymous pillar boxes, carried the wording "Post Office".
United States – the United States Postal Service (USPS) eagle logo, except that boxes for Express Mail use the USPS Express Mail logo.

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
Pillar box in Bruges, Belgium

Post box at Dubrovnik Airport, Croatia

A Czech post box

Post boxes in Fåborg, Denmark

A post box in Funningur, Faroe Islands

Post boxes in Heinola, Finland. Orange 2nd class postbox is very common, blue 1st class mailboxes only at selected places.

Post box in Galápagos Islands, 1983

French Post Box at Dinard–Pleurtuit–Saint-Malo Airport

German mail box with an old Post horn with arrows (stylized lightning bolts) from the Deutsche Bundespost, on the top sign the new post horn from Deutsche Post AG

A postbox of one of the many private mail companies in Germany, this one PIN in Berlin[31]

A Guernsey Post type C double aperture pillar box

Post box in Budapest, Hungary

Post box in Reykjavík, Iceland

Post box of Indian Postal Service

VR pillar box in Kilkenny, Ireland, painted green with obvious door repair

Irish lamp box erected by An Post

Italian domestic post box

King Edward VII pillar box in Birgu, Malta

Modern MaltaPost post box in Mellieħa, Malta

Post box in Kraków, Poland

A post box in San Marino

Post box in Bratislava, Slovakia

A GR Lamp Box at Cape Agulhas, the most southern post box in Africa

Swedish post box

Post box in Lützelflüh-Goldbach, Switzerland

A Ukrainian post box in the city of Dnipro, Ukraine

A standardized Brazilian post box, in Belo Horizonte

in Al Satwa in Dubai, United Arab Emirates

Post box incorporated into a Type K4 telephone kiosk, introduced in 1927. 10 survive in the UK of this design by Sir Giles Gilbert Scott which also incorporates two stamp vending machines. This red telephone box is in Warrington, Cheshire, England

A Victorian wall box of the Second National Standard type dating from 1859, in Brough, Derbyshire, England

A Victorian hexagonal red post box of the Penfold type manufactured in 1866 outside King's College, Cambridge (not the original location for this box).

One of the 150 post boxes erected during the uncrowned reign of Edward VIII

Soviet postbox in Bukhara, Uzbekistan

Large square pillar box (type A wall box freestanding) in Gloddaeth Street, Llandudno, Wales

This VR pillar box originally installed in Guernsey in 1852/3 on the recommendation of Anthony Trollope and is one of the oldest still in use.


document_title: Severino Montano

question_text: who is the proponent of the arena theater

text: Severino Montano

text: This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Severino Montano (1915 in Laoag, Ilocos Norte – 12 December 1980) is considered as one of the Titans of Philippine Theater.[by whom?] He was a playwright, director, actor and theater organizer with an output of one novel, 150 poems and 50 plays in his 65-year lifetime. Through the foundation of the Arena Theater, Montano institutionalized “legitimate theater” in the Philippines. He also have lifetime achievement award as part of National Artist of the Philippines.

text: Academically, Montano started his tutelage under a British mentor, Marie Leslie Prising, when he was thirteen. He studied at the University of the Philippines. She took Montano under her wing and endowed him with Western literature, the theater and Shakespeare. He was part of the UP Stage when he studied in the University of the Philippines. Then a scholarship took him to the famous "English 47" or "Workshop 47" playwriting workshops of George Pierce Baker at Yale University and guided by Broadway names and international personalities like Komissarjevsky of the famous Moscow Art Theater. He was conferred a Master of Fine Arts degree in playwriting and production by Yale University.

text: In 1946, he went to London to become a student of economist Harold Laski of the London School of Economics. Not long after, he was offered a teaching job at the American University in Washington, D.C. There, he finished his M.A. in Economic and Ph.D. in management and public administration, at the same time leading a playwriting-drama program as professor, playwright and play director. In 1950, 1952, 1962 and 1963, The Rockefeller Foundation extended him a world travel grant to visit cultural and art centers in 98 cities in Europe, the Middle East, South Asia, India, China and Japan.

text: When he reurned to the Philippines, he already had 16 major plays to his credit. As Dean of Instruction of the Philippine Normal College, Montano organized the Arena Theater “to bring drama to the masses”. He used his own money, about a thousand pesos, to start the Arena Theater, a theater-in-the-round. Due to the PNC being unable to fund the theater, Montano volunteered his services “to plan for a self-financing national drama program that would serve the grass-roots, the barrios of the Philippines”.

text: In 1953, the theater opened with three one-act plays and broke all records of all performances in Philippine theater history.[citation needed] The roving troupe took theater to near and far-flung barrios in 47 provinces across the country. Four of his plays became tour staples: the full-length The Love of Leonor Rivera and three one-act plays, Parting at Calamba, The Ladies and the Senador and Sabina. The Arena Theater also began a graduate program for the training of playwrights, directors, technicians, actors and designers. The program was also extended to include a four-year undergraduate curriculum.

text: He trained and directed a new generation of dramatist including Rolando S. Tinio and Behn Cervantes. The Arena Theater Playwriting Contest also led to the discovery of Wilfrido Nolledo, Jesus T. Peralta and Estrella Alfon.

text: His awards include the Kalinangan Award from the city of Manila (1968), the Presidential Award for Merit in Drama and Theater (1961), the Citizen’s Committee for Mass Media Award (1967 and 1968), the Pamulinawen Award (1981), and the National Artist Award (2001). The last two awards were given posthumously.

text: His published works include The Love of Leonor Rivera (poetic tragedy in two-parts), My Morning Star (poetic historical tragedy in three-parts), But Not My Sons Any Longer (poetic tragedy in two-parts), Gabriela Silang (poetic historical tragedy in three-parts), The Merry Wives of Manila (comedy of manners in three-parts), Sabina (tragedy), The Ladies and the Senador (satirical comedy) and Parting at Calamba (historical drama).

text: He died on December 12, 1980, at the age of 65.

text: Aims of the Arena Theater[edit]

text: "What we want to do at the Arena Theater is not to become professionals overnight, but to develop a professional approach, and grow into professionalism with time, experience and hard work as our legitimate passport towards that goal. In the meanwhile, we want to develop technicians and train playwrights, actors, directors, costume designers, lighting technicians and business-minded artists who will know how to get into production profitably.

text: At the Arena we also realize the importance that drama plays in personal adjustments. We understand the psychological value of role playing, and the tremendous influence dramatic art may have in developing the character of the individual and his relationship to a social group. We aim to reach other areas of the country through our student teachers who comes from all over the Philippines to work with us."