document_title: List of people executed in Virginia

question_text: when was the last time virginia executed someone

text: List of people executed in Virginia

text: This is the current revision of this page, as edited by 90.22.100.187 (talk) at 21:41, 16 July 2017 (full name of Teresa Lewis). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this version.

text: This is a list of individuals executed in Virginia since the reinstitution of the death penalty after Gregg v. Georgia.

text: Since 1982, a total of 113 individuals have been executed by the Commonwealth of Virginia; all were convicted of capital murder.

text:
No.
Name
Date of Execution
Method of Execution
Victim(s)
Governor

1
Frank Coppola
August 10, 1982
Electric chair
Muriel Hatchell
Chuck Robb

2
Linwood Earl Briley
October 12, 1984
John Gallaher

3
James Dyral Briley
April 18, 1985
Judy Barton and Harvey Barton

4
Morris Mason
June 25, 1985
Margaret Hand

5
Michael Marnell Smith
July 31, 1986
Audrey Jean Weiler
Gerald Baliles

6
Richard Lee Whitley
July 6, 1987
Phoebe Parsons

7
Earl Clanton, Jr.
April 14, 1988
Wilhemina Smith

8
Alton Waye
August 30, 1989
Laverne Marshall

9
Richard T. Boggs
July 19, 1990
Treeby Shaw
Douglas Wilder

10
Wilbert Lee Evans
October 17, 1990
sheriff deputy William Truesdale

11
Buddy Earl Justus
December 13, 1990[1]
Ida Mae Moses

12
Albert Jay Clozza
July 24, 1991[2]
Patricia Ann Bolton

13
Derick Lynn Peterson
August 22, 1991
Howard Kauffman

14
Roger Keith Coleman
May 20, 1992
Wanda Fay McCoy

15
Edward B. Fitzgerald, Sr.
July 23, 1992
Patricia Cubbage

16
Willie Leroy Jones
September 11, 1992
Graham and Myra Adkins

17
Timothy Dale Bunch
December 10, 1992
Su Cha Thomas

18
Charles Sylvester Stamper ([1])
January 19, 1993
Franklin Cooley, Agnes Hicks, and Stephen Staples

19
Syvasky L. Poyner
March 18, 1993
Joyce Baldwin, Louise Paulett, Chestine Brooks, Vicki Ripple, and Carolyn Hedrick

20
Andrew J. Chabrol
June 17, 1993
Lisa Harrington

21
Joe Louis Wise, Sr.
September 14, 1993
William Ricketson

22
David Mark Pruett
December 16, 1993
Wilma Harvey and Debra McInnis

23
Johnny Watkins, Jr.
March 3, 1994
Betty Barker and Carl Buchanan
George Allen

24
Timothy Wilson Spencer ([2])
April 27, 1994
Susan Tucker, Debbie Davis, Susan Hellams, and Diane Cho

25
Dana Ray Edmonds
January 24, 1995
Lethal injection
John Elliot

26
Willie Lloyd Turner
May 26, 1995
W. Jack Smith, Jr.

27
Dennis Wayne Stockton
September 27, 1995
Kenneth Arnder

28
Mickey Wayne Davidson
October 19, 1995
Doris Davidson, Mamie Clatterbuck, and Tammy Clatterbuck

29
Herman Charles Barnes
November 13, 1995
Clyde Jenkins and Mohammed Afifi

30
Walter Milton Correll, Jr.
January 4, 1996
Charles W. Bousman, Jr.

31
Richard Townes, Jr.
January 23, 1996
Virginia Goebel

32
Joseph John Savino III
July 17, 1996
Thomas McWaters

33
Ronald B. Bennett
November 21, 1996
Anne Keller Vaden

34
Gregory Warren Beaver
December 4, 1996
state trooper Leo Whitt

35
Larry Allen Stout
December 10, 1996
Jacqueline Kooshian

36
Lem Davis Tuggle, Jr.
December 12, 1996
Jessie Geneva Havens

37
Ronald Lee Hoke
December 16, 1996
Virginia Stell

38
Michael Carl George
February 6, 1997
Alexander Sztanko

39
Coleman Wayne Gray
February 26, 1997
Richard McClelland

40
Roy Bruce Smith
July 17, 1997
Manassas police officer John Conner

41
Joseph Roger O'Dell, III
July 23, 1997
Helen Schartner

42
Carlton Jerome Pope
August 19, 1997
Cynthia Gray

43
Mario Benjamin Murphy
September 17, 1997
James Radcliff

44
Dawud Majid Mu'Min
November 13, 1997
Gladys Nopwasky

45
Michael Charles Satcher
December 9, 1997
Ann Borghesani

46
Thomas H. Beavers, Jr.
December 11, 1997
Marguerite Lowery

47
Tony Albert Mackall
February 10, 1998
Mary Elizabeth Dahn
Jim Gilmore

48
Douglas McArthur Buchanan, Jr.
March 18, 1998
Donald, J.J. and Geraldine Buchanan, and Douglas Buchanan, Sr.

49
Ronald L. Watkins
March 25, 1998
William McCauley

50
Angel Francisco Breard
April 14, 1998
Ruth Dickie

51
Dennis Wayne Eaton
June 18, 1998
Virginia state trooper Jerry Hines; Walter Custer, Jr., Ripley Marston, Sr., and Judith MacDonald

52
Danny Lee King
July 23, 1998
Carolyn Horton Rogers

53
Lance Antonio Chandler, Jr.
August 20, 1998
Billy Dix

54
Johnile L. DuBois
August 31, 1998
Philip Council

55
Kenneth Manual Stewart, Jr.
September 23, 1998
Electric chair
Cynthia and Jonathan Stewart

56
Dwayne Allen Wright
October 14, 1998
Lethal injection
Saba Tekle

57
Ronald Lee Fitzgerald
October 21, 1998
Coy H. White and Hugh Morrison

58
Kenneth Wilson
November 17, 1998
Jacqueline Stephens

59
Kevin Wayne Cardwell
December 3, 1998
Anthony Brown

60
Mark Arlo Sheppard
January 20, 1999
Richard and Rebecca Rosenbluth

61
Tony Leslie Fry
February 4, 1999
Leland A. Jacobs

62
George Adrian Quesinberry, Jr.
March 9, 1999
Thomas L. Haynes

63
David Lee Fisher
March 25, 1999
David William Wilkey

64
Carl Hamilton Chichester
April 13, 1999
Timothy Rigney

65
Arthur Ray Jenkins, III
April 20, 1999
Floyd Jenkins and Lee H. Brinklow

66
Eric Christopher Payne
April 28, 1999
Ruth Parham and Sally Fazio

67
Ronald Dale Yeatts
April 29, 1999
Ruby Meeks Dodson

68
Tommy David Strickler
July 21, 1999
Leann Whitlock

69
Marlon DeWayne Williams
August 17, 1999
Helen Bedsole

70
Everett Lee Mueller
September 16, 1999
Charity Powers

71
Jason Matthew Joseph
October 19, 1999
Jeffrey Anderson

72
Thomas Lee Royal, Jr.
November 9, 1999
Hampton police officer Kenny Wallace

73
Andre L. Graham
December 9, 1999
Richard and Rebecca Rosenbluth, and Sheryl Stack

74
Douglas Christopher Thomas
January 10, 2000
James B. and Kathy J. Wiseman

75
Steve Edward Roach
January 13, 2000
Mary Ann Hughes

76
Lonnie Weeks, Jr.
March 16, 2000
Virginia state trooper Jose M. Cavazos

77
Michael David Clagett
July 6, 2000
Electric chair
Lam Van Son, Wendell G. Parish, Jr., Karen Sue Rounds, and Abdelaziz Gren

78
Russell William Burket
August 30, 2000
Lethal injection
Katherine and Ashley Tafelski

79
Derek Rocco Barnabei
September 14, 2000
Sarah Wisnosky

80
Bobby Lee Ramdass
October 10, 2000
Mohammed Kayani

81
Christopher Cornelius Goins
December 6, 2000
Robert, Nicole, David, Daphne Jones; and James Randolph

82
Thomas Wayne Akers
March 1, 2001
Wesley Brant Smith

83
Christopher James Beck
October 18, 2001
Florence Marie Marks, David Kaplan, and William Miller

84
James Earl Patterson
March 13, 2002
Joyce Snead Aldridge
Mark Warner

85
Daniel Lee Zirkle
April 2, 2002
Christina Zirkle and Jessica Shiflett

86
Walter Mickens, Jr.
June 12, 2002
Timothy Jason Hall

87
Mir Aimal Kasi
November 14, 2002
Frank Darling and Lansing Bennett

88
Earl Conrad Bramblett
April 9, 2003
Electric chair
Blaine, Teresa, Winter, and Anah Hodges

89
Bobby Wayne Swisher
July 22, 2003
Lethal injection
Dawn McNees Snyder

90
Brian Lee Cherrix
March 18, 2004
Tessa Van Hart

91
Dennis Mitchell Orbe
March 31, 2004
Richard Burnett

92
Mark Wesley Bailey
July 22, 2004
Katherine and Nathan Bailey

93
James Bryant Hudson
August 18, 2004
Stanley, Walter, and Patsy Cole

94
James Edward Reid
September 9, 2004
Annie Mae Lester

95
Dexter Lee Vinson
April 27, 2006
Angela Felton
Tim Kaine

96
Brandon Wayne Hedrick
July 20, 2006
Electric chair
Lisa Yvonne Crider

97
Michael William Lenz
July 27, 2006
Lethal injection
inmate Brent H. Parker

98
John Yancey Schmitt
November 9, 2006
Earl Shelton Dunning

99
Kevin Green
May 27, 2008
Patricia L. Vaughan

100
Robert Stacy Yarbrough
June 25, 2008
Cyril Hugh Hamby

101
Kent Jermaine Jackson
July 10, 2008
Beulah Mae Kaiser

102
Christopher Scott Emmett
July 24, 2008
John Fenton Langley

103
Edward Nathaniel Bell
February 19, 2009
Winchester police officer Ricky Timbrook

104
John Allen Muhammad
November 10, 2009[3]
Dean Harold Meyers (Beltway sniper attacks)

105
Larry Bill Elliott
November 17, 2009
Electric chair
Dana Thrall and Robert Finch

106
Paul Warner Powell
March 18, 2010
Stacie Reed
Bob McDonnell

107
Darick Demorris Walker
May 20, 2010
Lethal injection
Stanley Beale and Clarence Elwood Threat

108
Teresa Wilson Bean Lewis
September 23, 2010
Julian C. and Charles J. Lewis

109
Jerry Terrell Jackson
August 18, 2011
Ruth Phillips

110
Robert Charles Gleason, Jr.
January 16, 2013
Electric chair
Harvey Gray Watson, Jr., and Aaron Alexander Cooper

111
Alfredo Rolando Prieto
October 1, 2015
Lethal injection
Rachael A. Raver and Warren H. Fulton III
Terry McAuliffe

112
Ricky Jovan Gray
January 18, 2017
Stella Harvey, age 9, and her 4-year-old sister Ruby Harvey (Richmond spree murders)

113
William Charles Morva
July 6, 2017
Sheriff Deputy Derrick McFarland and hospital security guard Eric Sutphin


document_title: Angels in the Outfield (1951 film)

question_text: who played the angel in angels in the outfield

root

text: Angels in the Outfield (1951 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: With baseball's Pittsburgh Pirates in last place, their combative, foul-mouthed manager Guffy McGovern has plenty to complain about. All this changes when, while wandering through Forbes Field in search of his good luck charm one night, Guffy is accosted by the voice of an angel (voice of James Whitmore), who hints at having been a ballplayer during his earthly life.

tag: p

text: As the spokes-angel for the Heavenly Choir Nine, a celestial team of deceased ballplayers, he begins bestowing "miracles" upon the Pirates—but only on the condition that McGovern put a moratorium on swearing and fighting.

text: With the help of the invisible ghosts of past baseball greats, the Pirates make it into the pennant race. During a game, 8-year-old orphan Bridget White insists that she can see the angels helping out the "live" ballplayers—understandably so, since it was Bridget's prayers to the Archangel Gabriel that prompted the angel to visit McGovern in the first place.

text: Local newspaper reporter and former "household hints" writer Jennifer Paige inadvertently transforms Bridget's angelic visions into a nationwide news story, causing McGovern no end of trouble. After Guffy is beaned during a game and himself confirms Bridget's claims, he falls into the hands of vengeful sportscaster Fred Bayles, who has been scheming to have McGovern thrown out of baseball and persuades the Commissioner of Baseball to investigate McGovern's fitness as a manager.

text: Complication piles upon complication until the pennant-deciding game, wherein Guffy is forced to rely exclusively upon the talents of his ballplayers—notably "over the hill" pitcher Saul Hellman (who, the angel has told Guffy, will be "signed up" by the Heavenly Choir team shortly). Guffy also wins over Jennifer, and they plan to adopt young Bridget.

text: The angels themselves are never actually seen by the viewing audience, just the effects of their presence—a feather dropping, or someone being jostled from time to time. The angel who talks to Guffy never reveals who he was in life. It being a time when profanity was never used in films, the "swearing" uttered by Guffy is audio gibberish, scrambled recordings of his own voice.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Paul Douglas as Aloysius X. 'Guffy' McGovern
Janet Leigh as Jennifer Paige
Keenan Wynn as Fred Bayles
Donna Corcoran as Bridget White
Lewis Stone as Commissioner of Baseball Arnold P. Hapgood
Spring Byington as Sister Edwitha
Bruce Bennett as Saul Hellman
Marvin Kaplan as Timothy Durney
Ellen Corby as Sister Veronica
Jeff Richards as Dave Rothberg
John Gallaudet as Reynolds
King Donovan as McGee
Don Haggerty as Rube Ronson
Paul Salata as Tony Minelli
Fred Graham as Chunk
John McKee as Bill Baxter
Patrick J. Molyneaux as Patrick J. Finley

tag: ul

text: Corcoran and Salata are the last surviving cast members.

text: Cameo appearances[edit]

text:
Bing Crosby has a short cameo in the film, playing golf, sinking a long putt. At that time, Crosby was a part owner (approximately 15%) of the Pirates.
Baseball greats Ty Cobb and Joe DiMaggio, along with Hollywood songwriter Harry Ruby, are "interviewed" regarding the angels.
Barbara Billingsley has an uncredited role as a hat check girl at John's Steakhouse.

text: Locations[edit]

text: The film contains extensive baseball action shots, most of which were filmed at Forbes Field,[2] the former home of the Pittsburgh Pirates and Steelers, demolished in 1971, the year after the Pirates and Steelers moved to Three Rivers Stadium. The opening credits acknowledge "the kind cooperation of the Pittsburgh 'Pirates' for the use of the team and its ballpark," while reminding the viewer that the story is fictional and "could be any baseball team, in any league, in any town in America."

text: Historians may note several distinguishing features of Forbes Field at the time. One is the "Kiner's Korner" inner fence in left field, with the 365-feet left field foul line marker observable on the outer wall, and the 335-feet sign on the inner fence. The other distance markers (376-457-436-375-300) are visible in some scenes. Other objects on the field of play at Forbes are visible from time to time, including the flagpole and batting cage near the 457 foot marker in deep left center field, and the Barney Dreyfuss monument in straightaway center field. The University of Pittsburgh's Cathedral of Learning is prominent in many shots filmed in Forbes Field.

text: A few scenes were shot on location at Wrigley Field, conveniently sited in South Los Angeles. Well-used by film-makers of the era, the ballpark—home to the minor league Angels from 1925 to 1957—was named for team owner William Wrigley, Jr. when the landmark Chicago stadium was still known as Cubs Park. While Wrigley's ivy-covered outfield wall stands in nicely for that of Forbes Field, "Kiner's Korner" is conspicuous in its absence, and visible distance markers (412 feet in centre field; 345 feet in left) are inconsistent with Forbes Field's grander dimensions.

text: Some stock footage alleged to be the Polo Grounds in New York City was actually Comiskey Park in Chicago, as evidenced by a quick glimpse of an auxiliary scoreboard reading "Visitors" and "White Sox".

text: Production[edit]

text: Star Paul Douglas two years earlier had played a catcher in another baseball comedy film, It Happens Every Spring.

text: Although he had no background in baseball, Bruce Bennett, who portrays a veteran Pittsburgh pitcher, in real life had played football in the 1926 Rose Bowl and won a silver medal in the shot put at the 1928 Summer Olympics.

text: Rothberg, one of the Pirate players, is played by Jeff Richards, who had been a minor-league baseball player before becoming an actor. Fred Graham, who appears as "Chunk," had been a semi-pro ballplayer, while another member of the cast, Paul Salata, who has the role of Tony Minelli, played professional football from 1949-53.

text: Reception[edit]

text: According to MGM records the film made $1,466,000 in the US and Canada and $200,000 elsewhere. Once studio overhead was added, the film recorded a net loss of $171,000.[1]


document_title: Picnic at Hanging Rock (novel)

question_text: where is the hanging rock in picnic at hanging rock

text: Picnic at Hanging Rock (novel)

text: Plot[edit]

text: The novel begins with a brief foreword, which reads:

text: Whether Picnic at Hanging Rock is fact or fiction, my readers must decide for themselves. As the fateful picnic took place in the year nineteen hundred, and all the characters who appear in this book are long since dead, it hardly seems important.

text: At Appleyard College, an upper-class women's private boarding school, a picnic is being planned for the students under the supervision of Mrs. Appleyard, the school's headmistress.  The picnic entails a day trip to Hanging Rock in the Mount Macedon area, Victoria, on St. Valentine's Day in 1900. One of the students, Sara, who is in trouble with Mrs. Appleyard, is not allowed to go. Sara's close friend Miranda goes without her. When they arrive, the students lounge about and eat a lunch. Afterward, Miranda goes to climb the monolith with classmates Edith, Irma, and Marion. The girls'  mathematics teacher, Greta McCraw, follows behind them. As they ascend the rock, in a dreamlike episode, Miranda, Marion, and Irma vanish into the rock while Edith watches; she returns to the picnic in hysterics, disoriented and with no memory of what occurred. Miss McCraw is also nowhere to be accounted for. The school scours the rock in search of the girls and their teacher, but they are not found.

text: The disappearances provoke much local concern and international sensation with rape, abduction, and murder being assumed as probable explanations. Several organized searches of the picnic grounds and the area surrounding the rock itself turn up nothing. Meanwhile, the students, teachers and staff of the college, as well as members of the community, grapple with the riddle-like events. Mike Fitzhubert embarks  on a private search of the rock and discovers Irma, unconscious and on the verge of death. When he fails to return from his search, he is found at the rock with Irma in an unexplained daze, by his friend and uncle's coachman, Albert Crundall.

text: Concerned parents begin withdrawing their daughters from the prestigious college, prompting various staff to leave; the college's handyman and maid quit their jobs, and the French instructor, Mlle. Dianne de Poitiers, announces that she will be getting married and leaving the college as well. A junior governess at the college, Dora Lumley, also leaves with her brother Reg, only for both to be killed in a hotel fire. Amidst the unrest both in and around the college, Sara vanishes, only to be found days later, having apparently committed suicide (her body was found directly beneath the school's tower, with her head "crushed beyond recognition"). Mrs. Appleyard, distraught over the events that have occurred, kills herself by jumping from a peak on Hanging Rock.

text: In a pseudo-historical afterword purportedly extracted from a 1913 Melbourne newspaper article, it is written that both the college and the Woodend Police Station, where records of the investigation were kept, were destroyed by a bush fire in the summer of 1901. In 1903, rabbit hunters came across a lone piece of frilled calico at the rock, believed to have been part of the dress of the governess, Miss Greta McCraw, but neither she nor the girls were ever found.

text: Excised final chapter[edit]

text: According to her editor Sandra Forbes, Lindsay's original draft of the novel included a final chapter in which the mystery was resolved. At her editor's suggestion, Lindsay removed it prior to publication.[1] Chapter Eighteen, as it is known, was published posthumously as a standalone book in 1987 as The Secret of Hanging Rock by Angus & Robertson Publishing.[citation needed]

text: The chapter opens with Edith fleeing back to the picnic area while Miranda, Irma, and Marion push on. Each girl begins to experience dizziness and feel as if she is "being pulled from the inside out." A woman suddenly appears climbing the rock in her underwear, shouting "Through!", and then faints. This woman is not referenced by name and is apparently a stranger to the girls, yet the narration suggests she is Miss McCraw. Miranda loosens the woman's corset to help revive her. Afterwards, the girls remove their own corsets and throw them off the cliff. The recovered woman points out that the corsets appear to hover in mid-air as if stuck in time, and that they cast no shadows. She and the girls continue together. The girls then encounter what is described as "a hole in space," by which they physically enter a crack in the rock following a lizard; the unnamed woman transforms into a crab and disappears into the rock. Marion follows her, then Miranda, but when Irma's turn comes, a balanced boulder (the hanging rock) slowly tilts and blocks the way. The chapter ends with Irma "tearing and beating at the gritty face on the boulder with her bare hands."

text: The missing material amounts to about 12 pages; the remainder of the publication The Secret at Hanging Rock contains discussion by other authors, including John Taylor and Yvonne Rousseau. The suspension of the corsets and description of the hole in space suggest that the girls have encountered some sort of time warp, which is compatible with Lindsay's fascination with and emphasis on clocks and time in the novel.[2] The transformations into animals recalls traditional Indigenous Australian beliefs.

text: Conception[edit]

text: Lindsay claimed to have written the novel based on an idea she had in a dream. In a 2017 article in The Age, it was noted: "The dream had centred on a summer picnic at a place called Hanging Rock, which Joan knew well from her childhood holidays. Joan told Rae [her housekeeper] that the dream had felt so real that when she awoke at 7.30am, she could still feel the hot summer breeze blowing through the gum trees and she could still hear the peals of laughter and conversation of the people she'd imagined, and their gaiety and lightness of spirit as they set out on their joyful picnic expedition."[5]

text: According to her housekeeper at the time, the events of the novel were dreamt by Lindsay successively.[5][6] Several years after the publication of the novel, Lindsay would recount the experience of writing it as such: "Picnic at Hanging Rock really was an experience to write, because I was just impossible when I was writing it. I just sort of thought about it all night and in the morning I would go straight up and sit on the floor, papers all around me, and just write like a demon!"[5]

text: The novel was written over a total of two weeks at Lindsay's home in Mulberry Hill.[5] In thinking of a title, Lindsay recalled the painting At the Hanging Rock by William Ford, which had hung in her husband Daryl's office at the National Gallery of Victoria,[7] and chose to incorporate it into the title as it was "simple and pretty, and belied the horrors hidden within."[5] In an interview after Lindsay's death, academic Terrence O'Neill, who had befriended Lindsay, remarked the supernatural elements of the novel: "It was clear that [Joan] was interested in Spiritualism, and longed for some spiritual dimension in her life, but she didn't feel safe bringing that side of her out in front of her husband. So I think she channelled it into her writing. I know she was very interested in Arthur Conan Doyle and his belief in and theories about Spiritualism, nature and the existence of spirits."[5]

text: The novel was imported for sale in the United States, and would receive its first publication there in 2014 by Penguin Random House.[8] In the United Kingdom, the novel was printed in several editions by Vintage, in 1998[9] and 2013.[10]

text: Basis in reality[edit]

text:
Did I think the story was true? We did talk about this. But the truth for Joan was different to the rest of us. She was never straightforward about it. I think I decided in the end that it was a great work of the imagination. I see it as a book of place; a painterly book that captures the atmosphere of the Australian bush.
Sandra Forbes, editor, on the novel's truth claim[5]

tag: div

text: Picnic at Hanging Rock is written in the form of a true story, and even begins and ends with a pseudohistorical prologue and epilogue, reinforcing the mystery that has generated significant critical and public interest since its publication in 1967.[5][11] However, while the geological feature, Hanging Rock, and the several towns mentioned are actual places near Mount Macedon, the story itself is entirely fictitious.[12][13] Lindsay had done little to dispel the myth that the story is based on truth, in many interviews either refusing to confirm it was entirely fiction,[14] or hinting that parts of the book were fictitious and that others were not. The dates named in the novel do not correspond to actual dates in the 1900 calendar. For instance, Valentine's Day, 14 February 1900, occurred on a Wednesday, not a Saturday; similarly, Easter Sunday fell on April 15 in 1900, not on March 29.[15]

text: Appleyard College was to some extent based on Clyde Girls' Grammar School at East St Kilda, Melbourne, which Joan Lindsay attended as a day-girl while in her teens. Incidentally, in 1919 this school was transferred to the town of Woodend, Victoria, about 8 km southwest of Hanging Rock.[16]

text: When asked in a 1974 interview about whether or not the novel was based in truth, Lindsay responded: "Well, it was written as a mystery and it remains a mystery. If you can draw your own conclusions, that's fine, but I don't think that it matters. I wrote that book as a sort of atmosphere of a place, and it was like dropping a stone into the water. I felt that story, if you call it a story—that the thing that happened on St. Valentine's Day went on spreading, out and out and out, in circles."[17] The unresolved mystery of the disappearances in the novel aroused enough lasting public interest that in 1980 a book of hypothetical solutions (by Yvonne Rousseau) was published, called The Murders at Hanging Rock.[18]

text: Impact on local tourism[edit]

text: In 2017, in conjunction with the 50th anniversary of the novel's publication, an Australian doctoral student named Amy Spiers began the "Miranda Must Go" campaign, criticising the novel's propagation of itself as a true story in relationship to local tourism at Hanging Rock.[19] Spiers argued that the focus on the fictional narrative obscures its longer history and connection with the Aborigines:

text: At Hanging Rock we've become obsessed with the myth almost to the point where we sort of tell it as though it is a true story, but we completely ignore the true losses that have happened there. Most of the Aboriginal people living in that area died of smallpox or were murdered by colonists or removed to Coranderrk [Aboriginal Reserve in Healesville] in 1836 ... It's just fascinating to me that we keep choosing to be haunted by a [fictitious] story rather than the real losses that have occurred in that place.[19]

text: Spiers cited the common practice among tourists to scream "Miranda!" from atop the rock as an example of the site's strong cultural associations with the novel and its film adaptation; she also noted that the visitors' centre caters significantly to the myth of the "missing schoolgirls", with dioramas, videos, panels and soundtracks from both the novel and the film, while the real history of the monolith and its significance to the indigenous culture was less acknowledged.[20] Supporters of the campaign held a protest there on St. Valentine's Day 2017 [20] and in August 2018, Spiers' argument received support from historian, Barry Kennerk whose Irish Times article once again highlighted the real 'troubling history associated with the rock'.[21].

text: In response to the campaign, Luke Spielvogel, the president of Friends of Hanging Rock, noted that the novel and particularly, the character of Miranda, captured the "ethereal, mysterious nature of the rock"; he also suggested the novel and character should remain part of the "broader tapestry" of the site:

text: For 40,000 years Hanging Rock has brought people together, and Miranda and the film and the book are all part of that story. But a significant part of that story was to understand the Indigenous history and further investigate the Indigenous name ... We focus on one aspect of popular culture around Hanging Rock, and I think what Amy is trying to do is tell a broader story, and we certainly support that. [19]

text: Publication history[edit]

text: The novel was first printed in Australia by F. W. Cheshire, released on 1 November 1967.[5] It was reprinted in paperback by Penguin Books' Australian division in 1975, printed in conjunction with the release of the film adaptation.[22][23] A hardback illustrated edition was also printed in Australia in 1987, also by Penguin.[24] It would receive another reprinting by Penguin Books Australia in 2013 as part of the "Penguin Australian Classics" series.[25]

text: Critical analysis[edit]

text: Picnic at Hanging Rock is considered by many critics to be one of the best Australian novels.[26][27] Much of the critical and scholarly interest in the novel has centered on its mysterious conclusion, as well as its depiction of Australia's natural environment in contrast with the Victorian population of the newly established British colony.[b] In 1987, literary scholar Donald Bartlett drew comparisons between Lindsay's treatment of the rock with that of Malabar Hill in E. M. Forster's A Passage to India, which has been interpreted as a metaphor for Pan, the Greek god of the wild: "There is more, of course, to A Passage to India than Pan motifs, for example symbols such as the snake, the wasp and the undying worm, not to mention the vast panorama of India's religions. But I believe it probable that Joan Lindsay consciously borrowed the elements [from A Passage to India]."[29]

text: Literary scholar Kathleen Steele argues in her essay "Fear and Loathing in the Australian Bush: Gothic Landscapes in Bush Studies and Picnic at Hanging Rock" that the novel's treatment of landscape and its missing characters is reflective of Australia's national history and the relationship between the rock and the Aboriginal population: "The silence surrounding Aborigines, and the manner in which Europeans foregrounded "geographical, historical and cultural difference and discontinuity," yet denied Aborigines either presence or history, created a gothic consciousness of "something deeply unknowable and terrifying in the Australian landscape. .. Lindsay provokes a reflection on the understanding of Australia as an un-peopled land where nothing of consequence occurred until the British gave it a history."[28]

text: Steele further notes that Lindsay's "gothic landscapes raise doubts that the majority [of Australians] ever subscribed" to the notion that the country and its natural environment was unmarked by a history prior to the arrival of the British colony.[30]

text: Adaptations[edit]

text: Film[edit]

text: The first film adaptation of the book was a short by Tony Ingram, a fourteen-year-old filmmaker, who got permission from Joan Lindsay to adapt her book as The Day of Saint Valentine. However, only about ten minutes of footage was filmed before the rights were optioned to Peter Weir for his more famous feature-length version, and the production was permanently shelved. The completed footage is included on some DVD releases of Weir's film.[31]

text: The feature film version of Picnic at Hanging Rock premiered at the Hindley Cinema Complex in Adelaide on 8 August 1975. It became an early film of the Australian New Wave and is arguably Australia's first international hit film.[5]

text: Theatre[edit]

text: Picnic at Hanging Rock was adapted by playwright Laura Annawyn Shamas in 1987 and published by Dramatic Publishing Company. Subsequently, it has had many productions in the US, Canada, and Australia. There have also been musical adaptations of the novel.

text: A stage-musical adaptation, with book, music, and lyrics by Daniel Zaitchik, was scheduled to open in New York City in the fall of 2012.[32] The musical received a 2007 staged reading at New York's Lincoln Center,[33] and further workshop development at the 2009 O'Neill Theater Center National Music Theater Conference.[34] The musical had its world premiere on 28 February 2014 at Weber State University in Ogden, Utah under the direction of Jim Christian.[35]

text: In 2016, the Malthouse Theatre in Melbourne showed a stage adaptation dramatized by Tom Wright and directed by Matthew Lutton.[36] The production was later staged at The Royal Lyceum Theatre in Edinburgh, Scotland in January 2017. The overseas production worked alongside the original Australian theatre makers Malthouse Theatre, Melbourne as well as Black Swan State Theatre Company.[37] The Malthouse Theatre presented an encore season of Picnic at Hanging Rock in early 2018. [38]

text: Radio[edit]

text: In 2010, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a radio adaptation.[39] The cast included Simon Burke, Penny Downie, Anna Skellern and Andi Snelling.[40]

text: Miniseries[edit]

text: On September 6, 2016, it was announced that Fremantle Media and pay-TV broadcaster Foxtel were producing a six-part miniseries, to be broadcast in 2017.[41] The miniseries became available on Amazon Prime streaming on May 25, 2018.


document_title: Battle of Sullivan's Island

question_text: who rescued the flag at the battle of sullivan's island

question_tokens: who rescued the flag at the battle of sullivan 's island

text: Battle of Sullivan's Island

text: Background[edit]

text: When the American Revolutionary War broke out in 1775, the city of Charleston in the colony of South Carolina was a center of commerce in southern North America. The city's citizens joined other colonists in opposing the British parliament's attempts to tax them, and militia recruitment increased when word arrived of the April 1775 Battles of Lexington and Concord.[3] Throughout 1775 and into 1776, militia recruits arrived in the city from the colony's backcountry, the city's manufacturers and tradesmen began producing war materiel, and defensive fortifications began to take shape around the city.[4]

text: British operations[edit]

text: British army forces in North America were primarily tied up with the Siege of Boston in 1775. Seeking bases of operations where they had more control, the British planned an expedition to the southern colonies. Major General Henry Clinton, then in Boston, was to travel to Cape Fear, North Carolina, where he would join with largely Scottish Loyalists raised in the North Carolina backcountry, and a force of 2,000 men from Ireland under the command of Major General Charles Cornwallis.[5]

text: The plan was beset by difficulties from the start. The Irish expedition, originally supposed to depart at the beginning of December 1775, was delayed by logistical difficulties, and its 2,500 troops did not depart until February 13, 1776, escorted by 11 warships under the command of Admiral Sir Peter Parker.[6][7] Clinton left Boston on January 20 with two companies of light infantry, and first stopped at New York City to confer with William Tryon, New York's royal governor.[8] Major General Charles Lee, sent by Major General George Washington to see to the defense of New York, coincidentally arrived there the same day as Clinton.[9] New York was at that time extremely tense; Patriot forces were beginning to disarm and evict Loyalists, and the British fleet anchored there was having difficulty acquiring provisions.[10] Despite this, Clinton made no secret that his final target was in the south. Lee observed that this was "certainly a droll way of proceeding; to communicate his full plan to the enemy is too novel to be credited."[11] This was not even the first notice of the expedition to the colonists; a letter intercepted in December had already provided intelligence that the British were planning to go to the South.[10]

text: Clinton arrived at Cape Fear on March 12, expecting to find the European convoy already there. He met with the royal governors of North and South Carolina, Josiah Martin and William Campbell, and learned that the recruited Scottish Loyalists had been defeated at Moore's Creek Bridge two weeks earlier.[12] Clinton also received pleas for assistance from the royal governor of Georgia, James Wright, who had been arrested, and then escaped to a navy ship.[13]

text: Parker's fleet had an extremely difficult crossing. Battered by storms and high seas, the first ships of the fleet did not arrive at Cape Fear until April 18, and Cornwallis did not arrive until May 3. After several weeks there, in which the British troops raided Patriot properties, Clinton, Cornwallis and Parker concluded that Cape Fear was not a suitable base for further operations.[14] Parker had sent out some ships on scouting expeditions up and down the coast, and reports on the partially finished condition of the Charleston defenses were sufficiently promising that the decision was made to go there.[15]

text: American defenses[edit]

text: John Rutledge, recently elected president of the General Assembly that remained as the backbone of South Carolina's revolutionary government, organized a defense force under the command of 46-year-old Colonel William Moultrie, a former militiaman and Indian fighter.[16][17] These forces comprised three infantry regiments, two rifle regiments, and a small artillery regiment; they were augmented by three independent artillery companies, and the total force numbered about 2,000.[18] These forces were further augmented by the arrival of Continental regiments from North Carolina and Virginia (1,900 troops), as well as militia numbering 2,700 from Charleston and the surrounding backcountry.[18]

text: Moultrie saw Sullivan's Island, a sandy spit of land at the entrance to Charleston Harbor extending north about 4 miles (6.4 km) long and a few hundred yards wide,[19] as a place well suited to build a fort that could protect the entrance from intruding enemy warships. A large vessel sailing into Charleston first had to cross Charleston Bar, a series of submerged shoals lying about 8 miles (13 km) southeast of the city, and then pass by the southern end of Sullivan's Island as it entered the channel to the inner harbor. Later it would also have to pass the northern end of James Island, where Fort Johnson commanded the southeastern approach to the city.[20] Moultrie and his 2nd South Carolina Regiment arrived on Sullivan's Island in March 1776, and began construction of a fortress built out of palmetto logs to defend the island and the channel into Charleston Harbor.[21] The construction moved slowly; Captain Peter Horry of the Patriot naval detachment described the site as "an immense pen 500 feet long, and 16 feet wide, filled with sand to stop the shot".[22] The gun platforms were made of planks two inches thick and fastened with wooden spikes.[22]

text: Congress had appointed General Lee to command the Continental Army troops in the southern colonies, and his movements by land shadowed those of Clinton's fleet as it sailed south. Lee wrote from Wilmington on June 1 that the fleet had sailed, but that he did not know whether it was sailing for Virginia or South Carolina. He headed for Charleston, saying "[I] confess I know not whether I shall go to or from the enemy."[14] He arrived in Charleston shortly after the fleet anchored outside the harbor, and took command of the city's defenses.[14] He immediately ran into a problem: the South Carolina troops (militia or the colonial regiments) were not on the Continental line, and thus not formally under his authority. Some South Carolina troops resisted his instructions, and Rutledge had to intervene by proclaiming Lee in command of all South Carolina forces.[23]

text: Square-shaped Fort Sullivan consisted only of the completed seaward wall, with walls made from palmetto logs 20 feet (6.1 m) high and 16 feet (4.9 m) wide. The walls were filled with sand, and rose 10 feet (3.0 m) above the wooden platforms on which the artillery were mounted. A hastily erected palisade of thick planks helped guard the powder magazine and unfinished northern walls. An assortment of 31 cannon, ranging from 9- and 12-pounders to a few British 18-pounders and French 26-pounders, dotted the front and rear walls.[24] General Lee, when he had seen its unfinished state, had recommended abandoning the fort, calling it a "slaughter pen".[16] President Rutledge refused, and specifically ordered Colonel Moultrie to "obey [Lee] in everything, except in leaving Fort Sullivan".[25] Moultrie's delaying tactics so angered Lee that he decided on June 27 that he would replace Moultrie; the battle began the next day before he could do so.[26] Lee did make plans for an orderly retreat to Haddrell's Point.[27]

text: British arrival[edit]

text: The British fleet weighed anchor at Cape Fear on May 31, and arrived outside Charleston Harbor the next day.[28] Moultrie noticed a British scout boat apparently looking for possible landing points on nearby Long Island (now known as the Isle of Palms), just a few hundred yards from Sullivan's Island; troops were consequently sent to occupy the northern end of Sullivan's.[29] By June 8, most of the British fleet had crossed the bar and anchored in Five Fathom Hole, an anchorage between the bar and the harbor entrance.[30] With the fort on Sullivan's Island only half complete, Admiral Parker expressed confidence that his warships would easily breach its walls. Optimistically believing he would not even need Clinton's land forces, he wrote to Clinton that after the fort's guns were knocked out, he would "land seamen and marines (which I have practiced for the purpose) under the guns" and that they could "keep possession till you send as many troops as you think proper".[31]

text: The British fleet was composed of nine man-of-war ships: the flagship 50-gun Bristol, as well as the 50-gun Experiment and frigates Actaeon, Active, Solebay, Siren, Sphinx, Friendship and the bomb vessel Thunder, in total mounting nearly 300 cannon. The army forces in the expedition consisted of the 15th, 28th, 33rd, 37th, 54th, and 57th Regiments of Foot, and part of the 46th.[32][33] On June 7, Clinton issued a proclamation calling on the rebel colonists to lay down their arms. However, the inexperienced defenders fired on the boat sent to deliver it (which was flying a truce flag), and it was not delivered until the next day.[16] That same day, Clinton began landing 2,200 troops on Long Island. The intent was that these troops would wade across the channel (now known as Breach Inlet) between Long and Sullivan's, which the British believed to be sufficiently shallow to do so, while the fleet bombarded Fort Sullivan.[34]

text: General Lee responded to the British landing with several actions. He began reinforcing positions on the mainland in case the British were intending to launch an attack directly on Charleston.[35] He also attempted to build a bridge of boats to provide an avenue of retreat for the fort's garrison, but this failed because there were not enough boats to bridge the roughly one mile (1.6 km) channel separating the island from Charleston; the unwillingness of Moultrie and Rutledge to support the effort may also have played a role.[36] The Americans also constructed an entrenchment at the northern end of Sullivan's Island, which was manned by more than 750 men and three small cannons,[37][38] and began to fortify a guard post at Haddrell's Point on the mainland opposite Fort Sullivan.[39]

text: General Clinton encountered the first major problem of the attack plan on June 17. An attempt to wade the channel between the two islands established that part of the channel was at least shoulder-deep, too deep for troops to cross even without the prospect of enemy opposition.[40] He considered using boats to ferry the troops across, but the Americans, with timely advice from General Lee, adopted a strong defensive position that was virtually impossible to bombard from ships or the Long Island position.[41] As a result, the British and American forces faced each other across the channel, engaging in occasional and largely inconsequential cannon fire at long range. Clinton reported that this meant that Admiral Parker would have "the glory of being defeated alone."[23] The attack was originally planned for June 24, but bad weather and contrary wind conditions prompted Parker to call it off for several days.[31]

text: Battle[edit]

text: On the morning of June 28, Fort Sullivan was defended by Colonel Moultrie, commanding the 2nd South Carolina Regiment and a company of the 4th South Carolina Artillery, numbering 435 men.[18] At around 9:00 am that morning, a British ship fired a signal gun indicating all was ready for the attack.[42] Less than an hour later, nine warships had sailed into positions facing the fort. Thunder and Friendship anchored about 1.5 miles (2.4 km) from the fort while Parker took Active, Bristol, Experiment and Solebay to a closer position about 400 yards (370 m) from Sullivan's Island, where they anchored facing broadside to the fort. Each of these ships began to fire upon the fort when it reached its position, and the defenders returned the fire.[43] Although many of Thunder's shots landed in or near the fort, they had little effect; according to Moultrie, "We had a morass in the middle, that swallowed them up instantly, and those that fell in the sand in and about the fort, were immediately buried".[44] Thunder's role in the action was also relatively short-lived; she had anchored too far away from the fort, and the overloading of her mortars with extra powder to increase their range eventually led to them breaking out of their mounts.[45] Owing to shortage of gunpowder, Moultrie's men were deliberate in the pace of their gunfire, and only a few officers actually aimed the cannons. They also fired in small volleys, four cannon at a time. One British observer wrote, "Their fire was surprisingly well served" and it was "slow, but decisive indeed; they were very cool and took care not to fire except their guns were exceedingly well directed."[43]

text: General Clinton began movements to cross over to the northern end of Sullivan's Island. Assisted by two sloops of war, the flotilla of longboats carrying his troops came under fire from Colonel William Thomson's defenses. Facing a withering barrage of grape shot and rifle fire, Clinton abandoned the attempt.[46]

text: Around noon the frigates Sphinx, Syren, and Actaeon were sent on a roundabout route, avoiding some shoals, to take a position from which they could enfilade the fort's main firing platform and also cover one of the main escape routes from the fort.[43] However, all three ships grounded on an uncharted sandbar, and the riggings of Actaeon and Sphinx became entangled in the process.[45] The British managed to refloat Sphinx and Syren, but Acteon remained grounded, having moved too far onto the submerged sandbar. Consequently, none of these ships reached its intended position, a piece of good fortune not lost on Colonel Moultrie: "Had these three ships effected their purpose, they would have enfiladed us in such a manner, as to have driven us from our guns."[44]

text: At the fort, Moultrie ordered his men to concentrate their fire on the two large man-of-war ships, Bristol and Experiment, which took hit after hit from the fort's guns. Chain shot fired at Bristol eventually destroyed much of her rigging and severely damaged both the main- and mizzenmasts.[47] One round hit her quarterdeck, slightly wounding Parker in the knee and thigh. The shot also tore off part of his britches, leaving his backside exposed.[48] By mid-afternoon, the defenders were running out of gunpowder, and their fire was briefly suspended. However, Lee sent more ammunition and gunpowder over from the mainland, and the defenders resumed firing at the British ships;[49] Lee even briefly visited the fort late in the day, telling Colonel Moultrie, "I see you are doing very well here, you have no occasion for me, I will go up to the town again."[50] Admiral Parker eventually sought to destroy the fort's walls with persistent broadside cannonades. This strategy failed due to the spongy nature of the palmetto wood used in its constructions; the structure would quiver, and it absorbed the cannonballs rather than splintering.[51] The exchange continued until around 9:00 pm, when darkness forced a cessation of hostilities, and the fleet finally withdrew out of range.[52]

text: At one point during the battle, the flag Moultrie had designed and raised over the fort was shot down. Sergeant William Jasper reportedly ran to the battlement and raised the flag again, holding it up and rallying the troops until a flag stand could be provided. He was credited by Moultrie with reviving the troops' spirits,[52] and later given commendations for bravery.[53] A painting of this event (pictured above) depicts Jasper's actions.

text: Counting casualties, Parker reported 40 sailors killed and 71 wounded aboard Bristol, which was hit more than 70 times with much damage to the hull, yards, and rigging. Experiment was also badly damaged with 23 sailors killed and 56 wounded. Active and Solebay reported 15 casualties each.[2] The Americans reported their casualties at only 12 killed and 25 wounded.[1] The following morning, the British, unable to drag the grounded Acteon off the sandbar, set fire to the ship to prevent her from falling into enemy hands.[54] Patriots in small boats sailed out to the burning ship, fired some of its cannons at the British ships, took what stores and loot they could, and retreated shortly before the ship's powder magazine exploded.[52]

text: Aftermath[edit]

text: The British did not attempt to take the fort again. Within days of the battle, Charlestonians learned of the signing of the Declaration of Independence in Philadelphia.[53] The British troops were reembarked on their transports, and on July 21 the British fleet withdrew northward to help the main British army in its campaign against New York City. To add insult to injury, one of the British transports grounded off Long Island and was captured by Patriot forces.[55]

text: The British did not return to Charleston until 1780, when General Clinton successfully besieged the city and captured an entire army.[2] Until the South again became a focus of the war in late 1778, its states provided military supplies to the northern war effort and produced trade goods that brought in valuable hard currency to fund the war effort.[56]

text: Admiral Parker and General Clinton engaged in a war of words after the battle, each seeking to cast the blame on the other for the expedition's failures. Although Clinton was not blamed by the government, popular opinion held him responsible, and Parker was lauded for his personal bravery.[55]

text: Legacy[edit]

text: Fort Sullivan was renamed Fort Moultrie shortly after the battle to honor Colonel William Moultrie for his successful defense of the fort and the city of Charleston.[57] Extensively modified in the years after the battle, it was supplanted by Fort Sumter as the principal defense of Charleston prior to the outbreak of the American Civil War.[58] In 1876, to celebrate the centennial, companies from Savannah, Augusta, Macon, Columbia, New York and Boston were invited to Charleston.[59] The site was turned over to the National Park Service in 1960, and is now part of Fort Sumter National Monument.[60][61]

text: A small monument to the Battle of Sullivan's Island has been placed at the northeastern tip of the island, overlooking the inlet where General Clinton's soldiers had hoped to cross. The monument includes historical markers describing the events surrounding the engagement.

text: One iconic emblem of the battle was the flag designed by Colonel Moultrie. Commissioned by the colonial government, he designed a blue flag with a white crescent in the top left corner, which was flown at the fort during the battle.[26] Despite being shot down during the siege, it was seen as a symbol of this successful defense (and famously raised during victory). It came to be known as the Moultrie flag or Liberty Flag. When Charleston (lost to the British in the 1780 siege) was reclaimed by American forces at the end of the war, the flag was returned to the city by General Nathanael Greene.[citation needed]

text: Beginning on the first anniversary of this victory in 1777 Charlestonians and South Carolinians celebrate "Carolina Day" annually to commemorate this first major victory of American Forces over the British. Each year local events include a parade in downtown Charleston and reenactments at Fort Moultrie on Sullivan's Island.[citation needed]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
^ Jump up to: a b c Russell (2002), p. 220
^ Jump up to: a b c Morrill, p. 25
Jump up ^ Stokely, pp. 8–9
Jump up ^ Stokely, pp. 9–13
Jump up ^ Russell (2000), p. 79
Jump up ^ Wilson, p. 37
Jump up ^ Russell (2000), p. 85
Jump up ^ Russell (2002), pp. 92–98
Jump up ^ Russell (2002), p. 90
^ Jump up to: a b Russell (2002), p. 96
Jump up ^ Russell (2002), p. 98
Jump up ^ Wilson, p. 36
Jump up ^ Montgomery, pp. 54–55
^ Jump up to: a b c Ward, p. 670
Jump up ^ Russell (2002), p. 160
^ Jump up to: a b c Russell (2000), p. 90
Jump up ^ Russell (2002), p. 131
^ Jump up to: a b c Ward, p. 672
Jump up ^ Russell (2002), p. 87
Jump up ^ Wilson, p. 43
Jump up ^ Russell (2002), p. 123
^ Jump up to: a b Stokely, p. 15
^ Jump up to: a b Ward, p. 673
Jump up ^ Russell (2000), p. 88
Jump up ^ Russell (2002), p. 199
^ Jump up to: a b Wilson, p. 48
Jump up ^ Fort Moultrie Centennial, Part 1. Charleston, SC: Walter, Evans & Cogswell. 1876. p. 10. Retrieved 25 September 2014.
Jump up ^ Russell (2002), pp. 162,167
Jump up ^ Stokely, pp. 17–18
Jump up ^ Russell (2002), pp. 123,179–180
^ Jump up to: a b Wilson, p. 47
Jump up ^ Morrill, p. 19
Jump up ^ Russell (2002), p. 209
Jump up ^ Russell (2000), p. 91
Jump up ^ Russell (2002), pp. 184–185
Jump up ^ Wilson, p. 45
Jump up ^ Russell (2000), p. 92
Jump up ^ Russell (2002), p. 212
Jump up ^ Russell (2002), p. 187
Jump up ^ Morrill, p. 22
Jump up ^ Wilson, p. 46
Jump up ^ Russell (2002), p. 204
^ Jump up to: a b c Ward, p. 674
^ Jump up to: a b Wilson, p. 49
^ Jump up to: a b Russell (2002), p. 209
Jump up ^ Russell (2002), pp. 212–213
Jump up ^ Russell (2002), p. 222
Jump up ^ Wilson, p. 50
Jump up ^ Russell (2002), p. 215
Jump up ^ Wilson, p. 51
Jump up ^ Russell (2002), p. 217
^ Jump up to: a b c Wilson, p. 52
^ Jump up to: a b Wilson, p. 55
Jump up ^ Russell (2002), p. 223
^ Jump up to: a b Wilson, p.54
Jump up ^ Wilson, p. 56
Jump up ^ Stokely, p. 7
Jump up ^ Stokely, pp. 18–43
Jump up ^ Fort Moultrie Centennial, Part II. Charleston: Walker, Evans & Cogswell. 1876. Retrieved 22 September 2014.
Jump up ^ Stokely, p. 72
Jump up ^ "National Park Service: Fort Sumter National Monument". National Park Service. Archived from the original on 10 October 2010. Retrieved 2010-11-01.

tag: ol


document_title: History of mobile phones

question_text: when was the first cell phone came out

question_tokens: when was the first cell phone came out

text: History of mobile phones

text: Predecessors[edit]

text: Before the devices existed that are now referred to as mobile phones or cell phones, there were some precursors. In 1908, a Professor Albert Jahnke and the Oakland Transcontinental Aerial Telephone and Power Company claimed to have developed a wireless telephone. They were accused of fraud and the charge was then dropped, but they do not seem to have proceeded with production.[2] Beginning in 1918, the German railroad system tested wireless telephony on military trains between Berlin and Zossen.[3] In 1924, public trials started with telephone connection on trains between Berlin and Hamburg. In 1925, the company Zugtelephonie A. G. was founded to supply train telephony equipment and, in 1926, telephone service in trains of the Deutsche Reichsbahn and the German mail service on the route between Hamburg and Berlin was approved and offered to first-class travelers.[4]

text: In 1907, the English caricaturist Lewis Baumer published a cartoon in Punch magazine entitled "Forecasts for 1907" in which he showed a man and a woman in London's Hyde Park each separately engaged in gambling and dating on wireless telephony equipment.[5] Then, in 1926, the artist Karl Arnold created a visionary cartoon about the use of mobile phones in the street, in the picture "wireless telephony", published in the German satirical magazine Simplicissimus.[6]

text: The portrayal of a Utopia of mobile phone in literature dates back to the year 1931. It is found in Erich Kästner's children's book The 35th of May, or Conrad's Ride to the South Seas:

text:
“
A gentleman who rode along the sidewalk in front of them, suddenly stepped off the conveyor belt, pulled a phone from his coat pocket, spoke a number into it and shouted: "Gertrude, listen, I'll be an hour late for lunch because I want to go to the laboratory. Goodbye, sweetheart!" Then he put his pocket phone away again, stepped back on the conveyor belt, started reading a book...
”

— Erich Kästner

tag: table

text: The Second World War made military use of radio telephony links. Hand-held radio transceivers have been available since the 1940s. Mobile telephones for automobiles became available from some telephone companies in the 1940s. Early devices were bulky, consumed high power, and the network supported only a few simultaneous conversations. Modern cellular networks allow automatic and pervasive use of mobile phones for voice and data communications.

text: In the United States, engineers from Bell Labs began work on a system to allow mobile users to place and receive telephone calls from automobiles, leading to the inauguration of mobile service on 17 June 1946 in St. Louis, Missouri. Shortly after, AT&T offered Mobile Telephone Service. A wide range of mostly incompatible mobile telephone services offered limited coverage area and only a few available channels in urban areas. The introduction of cellular technology, which allowed re-use of frequencies many times in small adjacent areas covered by relatively low powered transmitters, made widespread adoption of mobile telephones economically feasible.

text: One of the earliest fictional descriptions of a mobile phone was the 1948 science fiction novel Space Cadet by Robert Heinlein. The protagonist, who has just traveled to Colorado from his home in Des Moines, receives a call from his father on a pocket telephone. Before going to space he decides to ship the telephone home "since it was limited by its short range to the neighborhood of an earth-side [i.e. terrestrial] relay office." Ten years later, an essay by Arthur C. Clarke envisioned a "personal transceiver, so small and compact that every man carries one." He wrote: "the time will come when we will be able to call a person anywhere on Earth merely by dialing a number." Such a device would also, in Clarke's vision, include means for global positioning so that "no one need ever again be lost." Later, in Profiles of the Future, he predicted the advent of such a device taking place in the mid-1980s.[7] U.S. TV series Get Smart (1965-1970) depicted spy gadgets with mobile telephones concealed in random objects, including shoes.

text: In the USSR, Leonid Kupriyanovich, an engineer from Moscow, in 1957-1961 developed and presented a number of experimental models of handheld mobile phones. The weight of one model, presented in 1961, was only 70 g and could fit on a palm.[8][9] However, in the USSR the decision at first to develop the system of the automobile "Altai" phone was made.[10]

text: In 1965, Bulgarian company "Radioelektronika" presented on the Inforga-65 international exhibition in Moscow the mobile automatic phone combined with a base station. Solutions of this phone were based on a system developed by Leonid Kupriyanovich. One base station, connected to one telephone wire line, could serve up to 15 customers.[11]

text: The advances in mobile telephony can be traced in successive generations from the early "0G" services like MTS and its successor Improved Mobile Telephone Service, to first-generation (1G) analog cellular network, second-generation (2G) digital cellular networks, third-generation (3G) broadband data services to the state-of-the-art, fourth-generation (4G) native-IP networks.

text: Early services[edit]

text: MTS[edit]

text: In 1949, AT&T commercialized Mobile Telephone Service. From its start in St. Louis, Missouri, in 1946, AT&T introduced Mobile Telephone Service to one hundred towns and highway corridors by 1948. Mobile Telephone Service was a rarity with only 5,000 customers placing about 30,000 calls each week. Calls were set up manually by an operator and the user had to depress a button on the handset to talk and release the button to listen. The call subscriber equipment weighed about 80 lb.[12]

text: Subscriber growth and revenue generation were hampered by the constraints of the technology. Because only three radio channels were available, only three customers in any given city could make mobile telephone calls at one time.[13] Mobile Telephone Service was expensive, costing 15 USD per month, plus 0.30 to 0.40 USD per local call, equivalent to about 176 USD per month and 3.50 to 4.75 per call in 2012 USD.[12]

text: In the UK, there was also a vehicle-based system called "Post Office Radiophone Service,"[14] which was launched around the city of Manchester in 1959, and although it required callers to speak to an operator, it was possible to be put through to any subscriber in Great Britain. The service was extended to London in 1965 and other major cities in 1972.

text: IMTS[edit]

text: AT&T introduced the first major improvement to mobile telephony in 1965, giving the improved service the obvious name of Improved Mobile Telephone Service. IMTS used additional radio channels, allowing more simultaneous calls in a given geographic area, introduced customer dialing, eliminating manual call setup by an operator, and reduced the size and weight of the subscriber equipment.[12]

text: Despite the capacity improvement offered by IMTS, demand outstripped capacity. In agreement with state regulatory agencies, AT&T limited the service to just 40,000 customers system wide. In New York City, for example, 2,000 customers shared just 12 radio channels and typically had to wait 30 minutes to place a call.[12]

text: Radio Common Carrier[edit]

text: Radio Common Carrier [15] or RCC was a service introduced in the 1960s by independent telephone companies to compete against AT&T's IMTS. RCC systems used paired UHF 454/459 MHz and VHF 152/158 MHz frequencies near those used by IMTS. RCC based services were provided until the 1980s when cellular AMPS systems made RCC equipment obsolete.

text: Some RCC systems were designed to allow customers of adjacent carriers to use their facilities, but equipment used by RCCs did not allow the equivalent of modern "roaming" because technical standards were not uniform. For example, the phone of an Omaha, Nebraska–based RCC service would not be likely to work in Phoenix, Arizona. Roaming was not encouraged, in part, because there was no centralized industry billing database for RCCs. Signaling formats were not standardized. For example, some systems used two-tone sequential paging to alert a mobile of an incoming call. Other systems used DTMF. Some used Secode 2805, which transmitted an interrupted 2805 Hz tone (similar to IMTS signaling) to alert mobiles of an offered call. Some radio equipment used with RCC systems was half-duplex, push-to-talk LOMO equipment such as Motorola hand-helds or RCA 700-series conventional two-way radios. Other vehicular equipment had telephone handsets and rotary dials or pushbutton pads, and operated full duplex like a conventional wired telephone. A few users had full-duplex briefcase telephones (radically advanced for their day)

text: At the end of RCC's existence, industry associations were working on a technical standard that would have allowed roaming, and some mobile users had multiple decoders to enable operation with more than one of the common signaling formats (600/1500, 2805, and Reach). Manual operation was often a fallback for RCC roamers.

text: Other services[edit]

text: In 1969 Penn Central Railroad equipped commuter trains along the 360 km New York-Washington route with special pay phones that allowed passengers to place telephone calls while the train was moving. The system re-used six frequencies in the 450 MHz band in nine sites.[13]

text: In the UK, Channel Islands and elsewhere the "Rabbit" phone system was briefly used, being a hybrid of "cell" base stations and handsets. One major limitation was that you had to be less than 300 feet (closer with buildings) from a base due to power limitations on a portable device. [16] With modern technology a similar variant is being considered for Apple's new 4G "smart watch" so they can be used in large events in a broadly similar way to a femtocell.

text: European mobile radio networks[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: In Europe, several mutually incompatible mobile radio services were developed.

text: In 1966 Norway had a system called OLT which was manually controlled. Finland's ARP, launched in 1971, was also manual as was the Swedish MTD. All were replaced by the automatic NMT, (Nordic Mobile Telephone) system in the early 1980s.

text: In July 1971 Readycall was introduced in London by Burndept after obtaining a special concession to break the Post Office monopoly to allow selective calling to mobiles of calls from the public telephone system. This system was available to the public for a subscription of £16 month. A year later the service was extended to two other UK towns.[17]

text: West Germany had a network called A-Netz launched in 1952 as the country's first public commercial mobile phone network. In 1972 this was displaced by B-Netz which connected calls automatically.

text: The cellular concept[edit]

text: In December 1947, Douglas H. Ring and W. Rae Young, Bell Labs engineers, proposed hexagonal cells for mobile phones in vehicles.[18] At this stage, the technology to implement these ideas did not exist, nor had the frequencies been allocated. Two decades would pass before Richard H. Frenkiel, Joel S. Engel and Philip T. Porter of Bell Labs expanded the early proposals into a much more detailed system plan. It was Porter who first proposed that the cell towers use the now-familiar directional antennas to reduce interference and increase channel reuse (see picture at right) [19] Porter also invented the dial-then-send method used by all cell phones to reduce wasted channel time.

text: In all these early examples, a mobile phone had to stay within the coverage area serviced by one base station throughout the phone call, i.e. there was no continuity of service as the phones moved through several cell areas. The concepts of frequency reuse and handoff, as well as a number of other concepts that formed the basis of modern cell phone technology, were described in the late 1960s, in papers by Frenkiel and Porter. In 1970 Amos E. Joel, Jr., a Bell Labs engineer,[20] invented a "three-sided trunk circuit" to aid in the "call handoff" process from one cell to another. His patent contained an early description of the Bell Labs cellular concept, but as switching systems became faster, such a circuit became unnecessary and was never implemented in a system.

text: A cellular telephone switching plan was described by Fluhr and Nussbaum in 1973,[21] and a cellular telephone data signaling system was described in 1977 by Hachenburg et al.[22]

text: Emergence of automated services[edit]

text: The first fully automated mobile phone system for vehicles was launched in Sweden in 1956. Named MTA (Mobiltelefonisystem A), it allowed calls to be made and received in the car using a rotary dial. The car phone could also be paged. Calls from the car were direct dial, whereas incoming calls required an operator to locate the nearest base station to the car. It was developed by Sture Laurén and other engineers at Televerket network operator. Ericsson provided the switchboard while Svenska Radioaktiebolaget (SRA) and Marconi provided the telephones and base station equipment. MTA phones consisted of vacuum tubes and relays, and weighed 40 kg. In 1962, an upgraded version called Mobile System B (MTB) was introduced. This was a push-button telephone, and used transistors and DTMF signaling to improve its operational reliability. In 1971 the MTD version was launched, opening for several different brands of equipment and gaining commercial success.[23][24] The network remained open until 1983 and still had 600 customers when it closed.

text: In 1958 development began on a similar system for motorists in the USSR.[25] The "Altay" national civil mobile phone service was based on Soviet MRT-1327 standard. The main developers of the Altay system were the Voronezh Science Research Institute of Communications (VNIIS) and the State Specialized Project Institute (GSPI). In 1963 the service started in Moscow, and by 1970 was deployed in 30 cities across the USSR. Versions of the Altay system are still in use today as a trunking system in some parts of Russia.

text: In 1959 a private telephone company in Brewster, Kansas, USA, the S&T Telephone Company, (still in business today) with the use of Motorola Radio Telephone equipment and a private tower facility, offered to the public mobile telephone services in that local area of NW Kansas. This system was a direct dial up service through their local switchboard, and was installed in many private vehicles including grain combines, trucks, and automobiles. For some as yet unknown reason, the system, after being placed online and operated for a very brief time period, was shut down. The management of the company was immediately changed, and the fully operable system and related equipment was immediately dismantled in early 1960, not to be seen again.[citation needed]

text: In 1966, Bulgaria presented the pocket mobile automatic phone RAT-0,5 combined with a base station RATZ-10 (RATC-10) on Interorgtechnika-66 international exhibition. One base station, connected to one telephone wire line, could serve up to six customers ("Radio" magazine, 2, 1967; "Novosti dnya" newsreel, 37, 1966).

text: One of the first successful public commercial mobile phone networks was the ARP network in Finland, launched in 1971. Posthumously, ARP is sometimes viewed as a zero generation (0G) cellular network, being slightly above previous proprietary and limited coverage networks.[citation needed]

text: Handheld mobile phone[edit]

text: Prior to 1973, mobile telephony was limited to phones installed in cars and other vehicles.[20] Motorola was the first company to produce a handheld mobile phone. On April 3, 1973, Martin Cooper, a Motorola researcher and executive, made the first mobile telephone call from handheld subscriber equipment, placing a call to Dr. Joel S. Engel of Bell Labs, his rival.[26][27] The prototype handheld phone used by Dr. Cooper weighed 1.1 kg (2.42 lb) and measured 23 cm long, 13 cm deep and 4.45 cm wide. The prototype offered a talk time of just 30 minutes and took 10 hours to re-charge.[28]

text: John F. Mitchell,[29][30][31] Motorola's chief of portable communication products and Cooper's boss in 1973, played a key role in advancing the development of handheld mobile telephone equipment. Mitchell successfully pushed Motorola to develop wireless communication products that would be small enough to use anywhere and participated in the design of the cellular phone.[32][33]

text: The early generations[edit]

text: Newer technology has been developed and rolled out in a series of waves or generations. The "generation" terminology only became widely used when 3G was launched, but is now used retroactively when referring to the earlier systems.

text: 1G – Analogue cellular[edit]

text: First automatic analogue cellular systems deployed were NTT's system first used in Tokyo in 1979, later spreading to the whole of Japan, and NMT in the Nordic countries in 1981.

text: The first analogue cellular system widely deployed in North America was the Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS).[34] It was commercially introduced in the Americas in 13 October 1983, Israel in 1986, and Australia in 1987. AMPS was a pioneering technology that helped drive mass market usage of cellular technology, but it had several serious issues by modern standards. It was unencrypted and easily vulnerable to eavesdropping via a scanner; it was susceptible to cell phone "cloning" and it used a Frequency-division multiple access (FDMA) scheme and required significant amounts of wireless spectrum to support.

text: On 6 March 1983, the DynaTAC 8000X mobile phone launched on the first US 1G network by Ameritech. It cost $100m to develop, and took over a decade to reach the market.[35] The phone had a talk time of just thirty-five minutes and took ten hours to charge. Consumer demand was strong despite the battery life, weight, and low talk time, and waiting lists were in the thousands.[36][37]

text: Many of the iconic early commercial cell phones such as the Motorola DynaTAC Analog AMPS were eventually superseded by Digital AMPS (D-AMPS) in 1990, and AMPS service was shut down by most North American carriers by 2008.

text: In February 1986 Australia launched its Cellular Telephone System by Telecom Australia. Peter Reedman was the first Telecom Customer to be connected on 6 January 1986 along with five other subscribers as test customers prior to the official launch date of 28 February.

text: 2G – Digital cellular[edit]

text: In the 1990s, the 'second generation' mobile phone systems emerged. Two systems competed for supremacy in the global market: the European developed GSM standard and the U.S. developed CDMA standard. These differed from the previous generation by using digital instead of analog transmission, and also fast out-of-band phone-to-network signaling. The rise in mobile phone usage as a result of 2G was explosive and this era also saw the advent of prepaid mobile phones.

text: In 1991 the first GSM network (Radiolinja) launched in Finland. In general the frequencies used by 2G systems in Europe were higher than those in America, though with some overlap. For example, the 900 MHz frequency range was used for both 1G and 2G systems in Europe, so the 1G systems were rapidly closed down to make space for the 2G systems. In America the IS-54 standard was deployed in the same band as AMPS and displaced some of the existing analog channels.

text: In 1993, IBM Simon was introduced. This was possibly the world's first smartphone. It was a mobile phone, pager, fax machine, and PDA all rolled into one. It included a calendar, address book, clock, calculator, notepad, email, and a touchscreen with a QWERTY keyboard.[38] The IBM Simon had a stylus you used to tap the touch screen with. It featured predictive typing that would guess the next characters as you tapped. It had applications, or at least a way to deliver more features by plugging a PCMCIA 1.8 MB memory card into the phone.[39] Coinciding with the introduction of 2G systems was a trend away from the larger "brick" phones toward tiny 100 – 200 gram hand-held devices. This change was possible not only through technological improvements such as more advanced batteries and more energy-efficient electronics, but also because of the higher density of cell sites to accommodate increasing usage. The latter meant that the average distance transmission from phone to the base station shortened, leading to increased battery life while on the move.

text: The second generation introduced a new variant of communication called SMS or text messaging. It was initially available only on GSM networks but spread eventually on all digital networks. The first machine-generated SMS message was sent in the UK on 3 December 1992 followed in 1993 by the first person-to-person SMS sent in Finland. The advent of prepaid services in the late 1990s soon made SMS the communication method of choice among the young, a trend which spread across all ages.

text: 2G also introduced the ability to access media content on mobile phones. In 1998 the first downloadable content sold to mobile phones was the ring tone, launched by Finland's Radiolinja (now Elisa). Advertising on the mobile phone first appeared in Finland when a free daily SMS news headline service was launched in 2000, sponsored by advertising.

text: Mobile payments were trialed in 1998 in Finland and Sweden where a mobile phone was used to pay for a Coca-Cola vending machine and car parking. Commercial launches followed in 1999 in Norway. The first commercial payment system to mimic banks and credit cards was launched in the Philippines in 1999 simultaneously by mobile operators Globe and Smart.

text: The first full internet service on mobile phones was introduced by NTT DoCoMo in Japan in 1999.

text: 3G – Mobile broadband[edit]

text: As the use of 2G phones became more widespread and people began to use mobile phones in their daily lives, it became clear that demand for data (such as access to browse the internet) was growing. Further, experience from fixed broadband services showed there would also be an ever-increasing demand for greater data speeds. The 2G technology was nowhere near up to the job, so the industry began to work on the next generation of technology known as 3G. The main technological difference that distinguishes 3G technology from 2G technology is the use of packet switching rather than circuit switching for data transmission.[40] In addition, the standardization process focused on requirements more than technology (2 Mbit/s maximum data rate indoors, 384 kbit/s outdoors, for example).

text: Inevitably this led to many competing standards with different contenders pushing their own technologies, and the vision of a single unified worldwide standard looked far from reality. The standard 2G CDMA networks became 3G compliant with the adoption of Revision A to EV-DO, which made several additions to the protocol while retaining backwards compatibility:

text:
Introduction of several new forward link data rates that increase the maximum burst rate from 2.45 Mbit/s to 3.1 Mbit/s
Protocols that would decrease connection establishment time
Ability for more than one mobile to share the same time slot
Introduction of QoS flags

text: All these were put in place to allow for low latency, low bit rate communications such as VoIP.[41]

text: The first pre-commercial trial network with 3G was launched by NTT DoCoMo in Japan in the Tokyo region in May 2001. NTT DoCoMo launched the first commercial 3G network on 1 October 2001, using the WCDMA technology. In 2002 the first 3G networks on the rival CDMA2000 1xEV-DO technology were launched by SK Telecom and KTF in South Korea, and Monet in the US. Monet has since gone bankrupt. By the end of 2002, the second WCDMA network was launched in Japan by Vodafone KK (now Softbank). European launches of 3G were in Italy and the UK by Three/Hutchison group, on WCDMA. 2003 saw a further eight commercial launches of 3G, six more on WCDMA and two more on the EV-DO standard.

text: During the development of 3G systems, 2.5G systems such as CDMA2000 1x and GPRS were developed as extensions to existing 2G networks. These provide some of the features of 3G without fulfilling the promised high data rates or full range of multimedia services. CDMA2000-1X delivers theoretical maximum data speeds of up to 307 kbit/s. Just beyond these is the EDGE system which in theory covers the requirements for 3G system, but is so narrowly above these that any practical system would be sure to fall short.

text: The high connection speeds of 3G technology enabled a transformation in the industry: for the first time, media streaming of radio (and even television) content to 3G handsets became possible,[42] with companies such as RealNetworks[43] and Disney[44] among the early pioneers in this type of offering.

text: In the mid-2000s (decade), an evolution of 3G technology began to be implemented, namely High-Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA). It is an enhanced 3G (third generation) mobile telephony communications protocol in the High-Speed Packet Access (HSPA) family, also coined 3.5G, 3G+ or turbo 3G, which allows networks based on Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) to have higher data transfer speeds and capacity. Current HSDPA deployments support down-link speeds of 1.8, 3.6, 7.2 and 14.0 Mbit/s.

text: By the end of 2007, there were 295 million subscribers on 3G networks worldwide, which reflected 9% of the total worldwide subscriber base. About two thirds of these were on the WCDMA standard and one third on the EV-DO standard. The 3G telecoms services generated over $120 billion of revenues during 2007 and at many markets the majority of new phones activated were 3G phones. In Japan and South Korea the market no longer supplies phones of the second generation.

text: Although mobile phones had long had the ability to access data networks such as the Internet, it was not until the widespread availability of good quality 3G coverage in the mid-2000s (decade) that specialized devices appeared to access the mobile web. The first such devices, known as "dongles", plugged directly into a computer through the USB port. Another new class of device appeared subsequently, the so-called "compact wireless router" such as the Novatel MiFi, which makes 3G Internet connectivity available to multiple computers simultaneously over Wi-Fi, rather than just to a single computer via a USB plug-in.

text: Such devices became especially popular for use with laptop computers due to the added portability they bestow. Consequently, some computer manufacturers started to embed the mobile data function directly into the laptop so a dongle or MiFi wasn't needed. Instead, the SIM card could be inserted directly into the device itself to access the mobile data services. Such 3G-capable laptops became commonly known as "netbooks". Other types of data-aware devices followed in the netbook's footsteps. By the beginning of 2010, E-readers, such as the Amazon Kindle and the Nook from Barnes & Noble, had already become available with embedded wireless Internet, and Apple had announced plans for embedded wireless Internet on its iPad tablet devices later that year.

text: 4G – Native IP networks[edit]

text: By 2009, it had become clear that, at some point, 3G networks would be overwhelmed by the growth of bandwidth-intensive applications like streaming media.[45] Consequently, the industry began looking to data-optimized 4th-generation technologies, with the promise of speed improvements up to 10-fold over existing 3G technologies. The first two commercially available technologies billed as 4G were the WiMAX standard (offered in the U.S. by Sprint) and the LTE standard, first offered in Scandinavia by TeliaSonera.

text: One of the main ways in which 4G differed technologically from 3G was in its elimination of circuit switching, instead employing an all-IP network. Thus, 4G ushered in a treatment of voice calls just like any other type of streaming audio media, utilizing packet switching over Internet, LAN or WAN networks via VoIP.[46]

text: Satellite mobile[edit]

text: As well as the now-common cellular phone, there is also the very different approach of connecting directly from the handset to an Earth-orbiting satellite. Such mobile phones can be used in remote areas out of reach of wired networks or where construction of a cellular network is uneconomic.

text: The Inmarsat system is the oldest, originally developed in 1979 for safety of life at sea, and uses a series of satellites in geostationary orbits to cover the majority of the globe. Several smaller operators use the same approach with just one or two satellites to provide a regional service. An alternative approach is to use a series of low Earth orbit satellites much closer to Earth. This is the basis of the Iridium and Globalstar satellite phone services.