document_title: Facial hair in the military

question_text: when did the navy do away with beards

question_tokens: when did the navy do away with beards

text: Facial hair in the military

text: Asia[edit]

text: India[edit]

text:
Out of respect to their religion, Sikhs are allowed to grow beards in the Indian army

An Indian Army Para (SF) operator with a full beard.

General Bikram Singh of the Indian Army

Admiral D.K. Joshi of the Indian Navy with a five o'clock shadow

text: In the armed forces and police of India, male Sikh servicemen are allowed to wear full beards as their religion expressly requires followers to do so. However, they are specifically required to "dress up their hair and beard properly".[1] In fact, in Sikh-only units such as the Indian Army's Sikh Regiment and Sikh Light Infantry there have been instances of personnel being transferred out of the unit by their commanding officer for their refusal to wear a beard and grow their hair out as required by the Sikh religion, although no official regulation exists on this.[citation needed]

text: Non-Sikh personnel are allowed to grow whiskers and moustaches, with the only regulation being that "will be of moderate length".[1] In December 2003, the Supreme Court of India ruled that Muslims in uniform can grow beards.[2][3] Thus, non-Muslims and non-Sikhs serving in the Indian Army or the Indian Air Force are not permitted to wear beards. However, Army personnel on active duty are sometimes exempt from facial hair regulations for the duration of their tour of duty if their deployment makes access to such facilities difficult. Indian Navy personnel are allowed to grow beards subject to the permission of their commanding officer.[4]

text: Exceptions for other religions are made in the case of special forces operatives like the army's Para (Special Forces) soldiers and the navy's MARCOS commandos who are allowed to grow beards.[5]

text: Iran[edit]

text: Beards are permitted in the Armed Forces of the Islamic Republic of Iran. As a sign of their ideological motivation, Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (Sepah) personnel used to tend to wear full beards but now they usually shave them. while the Islamic Republic of Iran Army (Artesh) personnel are usually trimmed or wear mustaches.[6]

text: Iraq[edit]

text:
Beards to a certain length were traditionally permitted in the Iraqi security forces, however a ban was brought into effect in April 2012 due to public associations between beards and certain sectarian militias in Iraq. As a result of the change Iraqi soldiers and police must now be clean shaven.[7]
Under the rule of Saddam Hussein, beards were not allowed in the army and in military service, only a mustache. Hussein did not allow any one to grow a beard under his rule.[citation needed]

text: Israel[edit]

text: The IDF prohibits the growing of facial hair unless a special request form has been filed and approved. The requests can be for religious reasons (full beard only), health reasons such as acne (no restrictions on facial hair styles), and on the grounds of "free will", which means the facial hair (mustache, a goatee or a full beard all of which must be well groomed) has to be part of the soldiers identity and part of his self-esteem. If the request is due to health reasons, it must be approved by the military doctor and lasts up to half a year. if the request is due to religious reasons or "free will", it must be approved by an officer at the rank of Major, that is acquainted with the soldier, for religious requests the form must be approved additional by a military Rabbi, who usually conducts an interview, and finally by an Adjutant officer. The exemption from shaving expires only if the soldier shaves his facial hair willingly.

text: Lebanon[edit]

text: Beards are not allowed in the Lebanese Armed Forces. Only trimmed moustaches that don't pass the upper lip are permitted.

text: Pakistan[edit]

text: Beards are permitted in Pakistan Army. They are allowed only on special request is approved. The requests are generally for religious reasons and for health reasons, such as acne or skin allergy. Once the form has been approved applicant is not allowed to shave back. There is a special allowance for bigger moustaches but they must be neat and trimmed.

text: Nepal[edit]

text: Currently, moustaches and beards are not within regulations in the Nepal Army. In the past, moustaches was popular in the Gorkhali Army commanders and soldiers. Military commanders of Kshatriya order (called Kshetri in Nepal) especially of five Kaji noble family Thapa, Pande, Kunwar, Basnet and Bista used to linked moustaches to dignity. However, with changing times, it became apparent that facial hair can break seals on gas masks, and thus a liability. Thus regulations do not allow for facial hair. Despite this, many soldiers can still be spotted with facial hair, especially when stationed in remote areas, away from the eyes of the press, and if their unit commanders are willing to look the other way.

text:
Mulkaji (Chief Kazi) General Damodar Pande

Portrait of Prime Minister and Commander-In-Chief, Mathabar Singh Thapa in National Museum of Nepal, Chhauni

Sardar General Ram Krishna Kunwar

Mulkaji General Abhiman Singh Basnet, leader of the Basnyat family

Moustasched Hindu Gorkhali soldier with Khukuri-in-mouth pose photographed 1915 AD at France

text: South Korea[edit]

text: Beards are not allowed in the South Korean Armed Forces.

text: Sri Lanka[edit]

text: The Navy does not allow moustaches alone, but does allow full-set beards. Moustaches but not beards are permitted in the Army and Air Force. However, members of the Commando and Special Forces regiments are allowed to wear beards if based outside their home camps.

text: Syria[edit]

text: Beards are not allowed in the Syrian Army. Trimmed moustaches, however, are allowed.

text: Europe[edit]

text: Belgium[edit]

text: The Belgian Armed Forces permits moustaches and beards, but they have to be properly trimmed.

text: Austria[edit]

text: The Austrian Armed Forces permits moustaches, beards and sideburns, as long as they are neatly trimmed.

text: Croatia[edit]

text: The Republic of Croatia Armed Forces permits moustaches for soldiers and non-commissioned officers. Officers are allowed to wear neatly trimmed beards. Furthermore, beards are not only allowed, but fully recommended for members of special operations teams when deployed.

text: Denmark[edit]

text: Danish Army personnel are generally allowed to wear any well-kept beard. Stubble, however, is not allowed. Full beards are popular among units deployed in Afghanistan, as it is easier to maintain when in the field. This also helps break down cultural barriers between the Danish and the Afghans, as most Afghan men wear full beards, and because many Danes grow red-coloured beards, an Afghan symbol of bravery.

text:
Soldiers who belong to Den Kongelige Livgarde (The Royal Life Guards) are not allowed to have beards when on guard duty.
Additionally, Danish soldiers are not required to have short haircuts, though most have.

text: Finland[edit]

text: The regulations of the Finnish Defence Forces (Rule 91) prohibit the growing of a moustache, a beard or long hair.[8] Reservists can grow moustache, beard or long hair.

text: France[edit]

text: Since the Napoleonic era and throughout the 19th century, sappers (combat engineers) of the French Army could wear full beards. Elite troops, such as grenadiers, had to wear large moustaches. Infantry chasseurs were asked to wear moustaches and goatees; and hussars, in addition to their moustache, usually wore two braids in front of each ear, to protect their neck from sword slashes.[9] These traditions were gradually abandoned since the beginning of the 20th century, except for the French Foreign Legion sappers (see below).

text: The "decree № 75-675 regarding regulations for general discipline in the Armies of 28 July 1975, modified"[10] regulates facial hair in the French armed forces. Military personnel are allowed to grow a beard or moustache only during periods when they are out of uniform. The beard must be "correctly trimmed", and provisions are stated for a possible ban of beards by the military authorities to ensure compatibility with certain equipment.

text: However, within the Foreign Legion, sappers are traditionally encouraged to grow a large beard. Sappers chosen to participate in the Bastille Day parade are in fact specifically asked to stop shaving so they will have a full beard when they march down the Champs-Élysées.

text: The moustache was an obligation for gendarmes until 1933. By tradition, some gendarmes may still grow a moustache.

text: Submariners may be bearded, clean-shaven, or "patrol-bearded", growing a beard for the time of a patrol in reminiscence of the time of the diesel submarines whose cramped space allowed for rustic and minimal personal care.

text: French soldiers of the First World War were known by the nickname poilu, meaning "hairy one" in reference to their facial hair.

text: Germany[edit]

text: In the Third Reich-era Wehrmacht, facial hair beyond a small neatly trimmed moustache was against regulations,[11] though such regulations were often relaxed under field conditions. The latter was particularly true in the case of the Kriegsmarine and Gebirgsjäger.[12] Growth of a full beard was the norm for U-boat crews on active duty, though facial hair was expected to be shaved off soon after reaching port.[13]

text: The present-day regulations of the Bundeswehr allow soldiers to grow a beard on condition that it be trimmed, unobtrusive and well-kept. Beards must not impact the proper use of any military equipment, such as a gas mask. Moreover, stubble may not be shown; thus a clean-shaven soldier who wants to start growing a beard must do so during his furlough.

text: Greece[edit]

text: In the Greek armed forces, only the navy permits military personnel to wear a beard. Neatly trimmed moustaches are the only facial hair permitted in the army and air force.

text: Ireland[edit]

text: The growing of beards is not permitted in any branch of the Irish Defence Forces with exception of the Army Ranger Wing. Moustaches are permitted with permission. Sideburns are not allowed beyond ear length. The Irish police force similarly does not allow any uniformed members to grow beards, but does allow moustaches on the upper lip and ear length sideburns.

text: Italy[edit]

text: In the Italian armed forces, beards or moustaches are allowed, but well taken care of it; without beards, the sideburns should reach the middle of the tragus. In the various branches of the police, same specific law is in force. Stubble is permitted outside of ceremonial occasions.

text: Netherlands[edit]

text: In the Royal Netherlands Army, officers and soldiers may only grow beards after permission has been obtained. As in many other armies, automatic permission is given for certain medical conditions. Mustaches may be grown without asking permission. Beards are worn at times by the Royal Netherlands Marines and by Royal Netherlands Navy personnel. All facial hair in the Netherlands armed forces is subject to instant removal when operational circumstances demand it. Recent operations in Afghanistan under the ISAF have seen a trend of growing "tour beards", both for bonding and as a way of advancing contacts with the Afghan population, who regard a full beard as a sign of manhood. A beard without a mustache is uncommon in the Netherlands.

text: Norway[edit]

text: The Royal Guard is required to be clean-shaven. Most operative personnel are not allowed to wear beards (so as not to interfere with gas masks) unless:

text:
The soldier obtains express permission to grow his beard from a high-ranking officer.
The soldier already has a beard upon his enlistment and requests to continue growing it or maintain it at its present length.

text: Although, in the enduring operations in Afghanistan, many soldiers have grown full beards

text: Portugal[edit]

text: (Details unknown.)

text: Russia[edit]

text: Traditionally, Russian soldiers of Russian Tsardom wore beards, but during the reign of Peter the Great they were completely banned in the army and even for civilians, except members of the clergy. Peter did however make moustaches a requirement for every soldier excluding officers, and all of the Russian infantry of the imperial reign could be seen sporting them, often growing beyond the upper-lip. Although the typical image of the imperial Russian soldier shown him with a beard,[14][not in citation given] they were not universally permitted until 1895. Cavalrymen also met these requirements. Officers and staff on the other hand grew whatever hair they wished, and generally kept with the fashion of the time.

text: Spain[edit]

text: The Spanish Armed Forces allow facial hair, under article 40 of the Royal Ordinances. Dress and grooming standards for Spanish ISAF forces have been relaxed to help the troops blend in better with the local Muslim population.

text: Serbia[edit]

text: In the Serbian Armed Forces neatly trimmed mustaches are the only facial hair permitted, remaining of the face must be cleanly shaved in every occasion except when legitimate reasons prevent it (e.g. winter field operations, war operations), but soldiers do have to shave the first chance that situation permits. Priests of any denomination are allowed to have beards if their religion requires it, but it still have to be trimmed and well groomed.

text: Sweden[edit]

text: The regulations require personnel to be "well shaved" (välrakad). Within the Royal Guard (Högvakten), the royal companies (Livkomp) and other personnel performing ceremonial duties, temporary or on a regular basis, the regulations are strictly enforced.

text: Within other units, beards tend to be allowed under the discretion of the company commander (or other higher ranking commander). The general provisions of well-managed appearance is enforced also when it comes to beards.

text: Soldiers are however by practice allowed to grow beards during service abroad, for example in Afghanistan.

text: The motivation for the regulation prohibiting beard is that it interferes with the gas-mask and makes it difficult to achieve a perfect air-tight fit. Shorter beard and gun grease or ointment is one remedy but will increase the time for the application of the gas-mask which in turn will put bearded personnel at increased risk of exposure.

text: Turkey[edit]

text: All Turkish Armed Forces personnel are required to be clean-shaven at all times.

text: Ukraine[edit]

text: Ukrainian Cossacks traditionally have a distinctive facial hair style - long "cossack" moustache was very popular across Ukraine during Middle Ages until modern times. The tradition allegedly dates back at least to the times of prince of Kyevan Rus' Sviatoslav I of Kiev famous for his military campaigns in the east and south. Sviatoslav had distinctive moustache and hair style (oseledets or chupryna) that almost every Ukrainian cossack had centuries after his times (although Svyatoslav had lived in 10th century, while Cossacks appear on the historical scene only since the 15th century).

text: The length of the cossack moustache was important - the longer the better. Sometimes one had to tuck them away behind one's ears.

text: Some cossacks were wearing beards as well, but this type of facial hair was not very popular in Ukraine in general and in Ukraine's military in particular.

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: Until the mid-19th century, facial hair was unusual in the British Army, except for the infantry pioneers, who traditionally grew beards. A small minority of officers wore moustaches. During the 1800s, the attitude to facial hair changed as a result of the Indian and Asian Wars. Many Middle Eastern and Indian cultures associated facial hair with wisdom and power. As a result, facial hair, moustaches and side whiskers in particular, became increasingly common on British soldiers stationed in Asia. In the mid-19th century, during the Crimean War, all ranks were encouraged to grow large moustaches, and full beards during winter.

text: After the Crimean war, regulations were introduced that prevented serving soldiers of all ranks from shaving above their top lip, in essence making moustaches compulsory for those who could grow them, although beards were later forbidden. This remained in place until 1916, when the regulation was abolished by an Army Order dated 6 October 1916. It was issued by Nevil Macready, Adjutant-General to the Forces, who loathed his own moustache and immediately shaved it off.[15][16][17] However, there is considerable evidence in photographs and film footage that the earlier regulations were widely ignored and that many British soldiers of all ranks were clean-shaven even before 1916. This was often because the penalty for not growing a moustache was rarely enforced, as it wouldn't hold in military court for court-martialling.[18]

text: Since that time, the British Army, Royal Air Force, and Royal Marines have allowed moustaches and connected side whiskers only. Exceptions are beards grown for medical reasons, such as temporary skin irritations, or for religious reasons (usually by Sikhs or Muslims), although in the event of conflict in which the use of chemical or biological weapons is likely, they may be required to shave a strip around the seal of a respirator. Infantry pioneer warrant officers, colour sergeants and sergeants also traditionally wear and are permitted to wear beards; although not compulsory, most do wear them. In some Scottish infantry regiments, it is either permitted or expected, by regimental tradition, for the drum major, pipe major, and/or commanding officer's piper to wear a beard. Beards are also permitted to special forces when on covert intelligence operations or behind enemy lines.

text: More recently, the British Army has been seen sporting a full range of stubble, moustaches and beards in Afghanistan in an effort to blend in with the generally bearded Afghan men, for whom a beard is seen as a sign of virility and authority.[citation needed]

text: The Royal Navy has always allowed beards, but never moustaches alone, and since at least the early 20th century has permitted its members to wear only a "full set" (i.e. a full beard and moustache). A beard or moustache may not be worn without the other and the beard must be full (i.e. cover the whole jawline) and joined to the moustache. If, after a period without shaving, it becomes clear that the individual cannot grow a proper full set, his commanding officer may order him to shave it off.

text: Any style of facial hair is allowed to British police officers, as long as it is neatly trimmed.

text: Americas[edit]

text: Mexico[edit]

text: Beards and sideburns are not permitted by the regular Mexican military, without exception. Soldiers at any rank must be clean-shaven and short haired.[19]

text: Argentina[edit]

text: Beards and sideburns are banned in all military and police forces since the early 20th century. A clean-shaved face is considered part of a spirit of order, hygiene and discipline. Stubble is also considered unacceptable and controlled with severity. Well-trimmed moustaches are allowed in most of these branches, although in some cases this is a privilege of officers and sub-officers, and it's not allowed to be grown while on duty.

text: Before the end of 20th century, the Navy became a singularity within the Argentine Armed Forces as Adm. Joaquín Stella, then Navy Chief of Staff allowed beards in 2000 for officers with ranks above Teniente de Corbeta (Ensign), according to Section 1.10.1.1 of the Navy Uniform regulations (R.A-1-001). Adm. Stella gave the example himself by becoming the first bearded Argentine admiral since Adm. Sáenz Valiente in the 1920s. Non commissioned officers can wear beards from Suboficial Segundo (Petty Officer) rank, and upwards.

text: Protocol still requires officers to appear clean-shaved on duty, thus forcing those who choose to sport beards to grow them while on leave. Both full beards and goatees are allowed, as long as they proffer a professional, non-eccentric image. Nowadays, bearded Argentine naval and marine officers and senior NCO's are a relatively common sight.

text: Brazil[edit]

text: The Brazilian Army, Brazilian Navy and Brazilian Air Force permit moustaches, as long as they are trimmed to just above the upper lip. Recruits, however, may not wear moustaches. Beards are generally not allowed except for special exceptions, such as covering a deformity. In such cases, a beard is permitted under authorization.[20]

text: Canada[edit]

text:
The Canadian Forces permits moustaches, provided they be neatly trimmed, a maximum of 2 centimetres in bulk, and that the unshaven part does not pass beyond the corners of the mouth. Otherwise, the moustache must be styled horizontally and cannot go beyond the face.
Generally speaking, beards are not permitted to CF personnel with the following exceptions:

text:
Members of the navy are allowed full beards
Members of an infantry pioneer platoon (tradition)
Members who must maintain a beard due to religious requirements (Muslims, Sikhs or orthodox Jews, for example)
Members with a medical condition which precludes shaving

text: These exceptions notwithstanding, in no case is a beard permitted without a moustache, and only full beards may be worn (not goatees, van dykes, etc.). Personnel with beards may still be required to modify or shave off the beard, as environmental or tactical circumstances dictate (e.g., to facilitate the wearing of a gas mask). Beards are also allowed to be worn by personnel conducting OPFOR duties.

text: Colombia[edit]

text: Only after the rank of captain, officers are allowed to wear a well trimmed moustache that doesn't grow over the upper lip. Beards and sideburns are not allowed.

text: United States[edit]

text: Excluding limited exemptions for religious accommodation, the United States Army, Air Force, and Marine Corps have policies that prohibit beards on the basis of hygiene and the necessity of a good seal for chemical weapon protective masks. The official position is that uniform personal appearance and grooming contribute to discipline and a sense of camaraderie.

text: All branches of the U.S. Military currently prohibit beards for a vast majority of recruits, although some mustaches are still allowed,[21] based on policies that were initiated during the period of World War I.

text: On 10 November 1970, Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) Elmo Zumwalt explicitly authorized beards for active duty Naval personnel, in his Z-gram number 57, "Elimination of Demeaning or Abrasive Regulation," although his position was that they were already implicitly allowed based on policy changes made by his predecessor, Thomas H. Moorer:[citation needed]

text:
1. Those demeaning or abrasive regulations generally referred to in the fleet as "Mickey Mouse" or "Chicken" regs have, in my judgment, done almost as much to cause dissatisfaction among our personnel as have extended family separation and low pay scales. I desire to eliminate many of the most abrasive policies, standardize others which are inconsistently enforced, and provide some general guidance which reflects my conviction that if we are to place the importance and responsibility of "the person" in proper perspective in the more efficient Navy we are seeking, the worth and personal dignity of the individual must be forcefully reaffirmed. The policy changes below are effective immediately and will be amplified by more detailed implementing directives to be issued separately.
2. It appears that my predecessor's guidance in May on the subject of haircuts, beards and sideburns is insufficiently understood and, for this reason, I want to restate what I believed to be explicit: in the case of haircuts, sideburns, and contemporary clothing styles, my view is that we must learn to adapt to changing fashions. I will not countenance the rights or privileges of any officers or enlisted men being abrogated in any way because they choose to grow sideburns or neatly trimmed beards or moustaches or because preferences in neat clothing styles are at variance with the taste of their seniors, nor will I countenance any personnel being in any way penalized during the time they are growing beards, moustaches, or sideburns.[citation needed]

text: The Navy ban on beards on Naval installations and operational vessels, including its submarine fleet, was reinstated in 1984 by CNO James D. Watkins.[citation needed] However, this rule is generally ignored on board deployed submarines at the Captain's discretion.[citation needed]

text: The U.S. Coast Guard allowed beards until 1986, when they were banned by Commandant Admiral Paul Yost. The majority of police forces in the United States still ban their officers from wearing beards.

text: Mustaches are generally allowed in both the military and police forces (except for those undergoing basic training), so long as they are well-groomed. U.S. Army regulations, for example, require that a mustaches be "neatly trimmed, tapered, and tidy", and that "no portion of the mustache will cover the upper lip line, extend sideways beyond a vertical line drawn upward from the corners of the mouth...or extend above a parallel line at the lowest portion of the nose."[22]

text: Those with skin conditions such as pseudofolliculitis barbae or severe acne are allowed to maintain short facial hair with the permission of a doctor or medic, but no shaping is allowed, only trimming with an electric razor, or approved regular razor. 1/8 - 1/4 of an inch (3.2 mm) is usually the standard for this condition.

text: Additionally, for almost a decade, ending with a "deauthorization" order that took effect on 7 September 2010, many Special Forces members in Afghanistan were allowed to wear beards.[citation needed]

text: Exceptions for religious accommodation[edit]

text:
In 2010, the U.S. Army granted waivers for a number of Sikh soldiers and one Muslim soldier, permitting them to have beards (and in the case of the Sikh soldiers, to have "unshorn" hair covered by turbans).[23][24] In 2010, a rabbi filed suit against the Army for permission to be commissioned as a Jewish chaplain without shaving his beard,[25] noting (among other issues) that another Jewish Chaplain, Colonel Jacob Goldstein, has been serving (first in the New York State National Guard and later in the United States Army Reserve) since 1977 with a beard.[26] Effective 22 January 2014, the US military expanded its policies on religious accommodation and allowed all officer and enlisted personnel to request permission to wear beards and articles of clothing for religious reasons.[27]
[28]

text: Oceania[edit]

text: Australia[edit]

text: Beards are normally not allowed in the Australian Army and Royal Australian Air Force, however, neatly trimmed moustaches and sideburns are allowed. Regulations apply, however. The moustache can not be grown past the top lip. The sideburns are not to be past the point where the bottom of the ear connects to the facial skin. In some circumstances though, such as medical or religious reasons beards may be permitted. Exceptions to this rule however are assault pioneers and special forces in Afghanistan.

text: In the Royal Australian Navy, members may grow a beard but only with approval from their commanding officer. The beard must be complete, joined from sideburns, covering the chin and joining the moustache. A moustache on its own is not permitted.


document_title: Olive

question_text: when did the first olive trees come to the new world

question_tokens: when did the first olive trees come to the new world

root

text: Olive

text: Description[edit]

text: The olive tree, Olea europaea, is an evergreen tree or shrub native to the Mediterranean, Asia, and Africa. It is short and squat, and rarely exceeds 8–15 m (26–49 ft) in height. 'Pisciottana', a unique variety comprising 40,000 trees found only in the area around Pisciotta in the Campania region of southern Italy often exceeds this, with correspondingly large trunk diameters. The silvery green leaves are oblong, measuring 4–10 cm (1.6–3.9 in) long and 1–3 cm (0.39–1.18 in) wide. The trunk is typically gnarled and twisted.[9]

tag: p

text: The small, white, feathery flowers, with ten-cleft calyx and corolla, two stamens, and bifid stigma, are borne generally on the previous year's wood, in racemes springing from the axils of the leaves.

text: The fruit is a small drupe 1–2.5 cm (0.39–0.98 in) long, thinner-fleshed and smaller in wild plants than in orchard cultivars. Olives are harvested in the green to purple stage.[10] Canned black olives have often been artificially blackened[11] (see below on processing) and may contain the chemical ferrous gluconate to improve the appearance.[12] Olea europaea contains a seed commonly referred to in American English as a pit or a rock, and in British English as a stone.[13]

text: Taxonomy[edit]

text: The six natural subspecies of Olea europaea are distributed over a wide range:[14][15]

text:
Olea europaea subsp. europaea (Mediterranean Basin)
O. e. subsp. cuspidata (from South Africa throughout East Africa, Arabia to South West China)
O. e. subsp. guanchica (Canaries)
O. e. subsp. cerasiformis (Madeira)
O. e. subsp. maroccana (Morocco)
O. e. subsp. laperrinei (Algeria, Sudan, Niger)

tag: ul

text: The subspecies O. e. maroccana and O. e. cerasiformis are respectively hexaploid and tetraploid.[16]

text: Wild growing forms of the olive are sometimes treated as the species Olea oleaster.

text: Cultivars[edit]

text: Hundreds of cultivars of the olive tree are known.[17][18] An olive's cultivar has a significant impact on its colour, size, shape, and growth characteristics, as well as the qualities of olive oil.[17] Olive cultivars may be used primarily for oil, eating, or both. Olives cultivated for consumption are generally referred to as table olives.[19]

text: Since many olive cultivars are self-sterile or nearly so, they are generally planted in pairs with a single primary cultivar and a secondary cultivar selected for its ability to fertilize the primary one. In recent times, efforts have been directed at producing hybrid cultivars with qualities such as resistance to disease, quick growth, and larger or more consistent crops.

text: History[edit]

text: Prehistory[edit]

text: Fossil evidence indicates the olive tree had its origins some 20–40 million years ago in the Oligocene region corresponding to Italy and the eastern Mediterranean Basin.[20][21]The olive plant later was first cultivated some 7,000 years ago in Mediterranean regions.[20][22]

text: The edible olive seems to have coexisted with humans for about 5,000 to 6,000 years, going back to the early Bronze Age (3150 to 1200 BC). Its origin can be traced to the Levant based on written tablets, olive pits, and wood fragments found in ancient tombs.[23] At least one cookbook writer notes that the most ancient evidence of olive cultivation is found in Lebanon, Syria, Israel, and Crete.[24]

text: The immediate ancestry of the cultivated olive is unknown. O. europaea may have arisen from O. chrysophylla in northern tropical Africa and was introduced into the countries of the Mediterranean Basin via Egypt and then Crete or the Levant, Tunisia, and Asia Minor.[citation needed] Fossil Olea pollen has been found in Macedonia and other places around the Mediterranean, indicating that this genus is an original element of the Mediterranean flora. Fossilized leaves of Olea were found in the palaeosols of the volcanic Greek island of Santorini (Thera) and were dated about 37,000 BP. Imprints of larvae of olive whitefly Aleurolobus (Aleurodes) olivinus were found on the leaves. The same insect is commonly found today on olive leaves, showing that the plant-animal co-evolutionary relations have not changed since that time.[25] Other leaves found on the same island are dated back to 60,000 BP, making them the oldest known olives from the Mediterranean.[26]

text: As far back as 3000 BC, olives were grown commercially in Crete; they may have been the source of the wealth of the Minoan civilization.[27]

text: Outside the Mediterranean[edit]

text: Olives are not native to the Americas. Spanish colonists brought the olive to the New World, where its cultivation prospered in present-day Peru and Chile. The first seedlings from Spain were planted in Lima by Antonio de Rivera in 1560. Olive tree cultivation quickly spread along the valleys of South America's dry Pacific coast where the climate was similar to the Mediterranean.[28] Spanish missionaries established the tree in the 18th century in California. It was first cultivated at Mission San Diego de Alcalá in 1769 or later around 1795. Orchards were started at other missions, but in 1838, an inspection found only two olive orchards in California. Cultivation for oil gradually became a highly successful commercial venture from the 1860s onward.[29] In Japan, the first successful planting of olive trees happened in 1908 on Shodo Island, which became the cradle of olive cultivation.[30] An estimated 865 million olive trees are in the world today (as of 2005), and the vast majority of these are found in Mediterranean countries, with traditionally marginal areas accounting for no more than 25% of olive-planted area and 10% of oil production.[31]

text: Symbolic connotations[edit]

text: Olive oil has long been considered sacred. The olive branch was often a symbol of abundance, glory, and peace. The leafy branches of the olive tree were ritually offered to deities and powerful figures as emblems of benediction and purification, and they were used to crown the victors of friendly games and bloody wars. Today, olive oil is still used in many religious ceremonies. Over the years, the olive has been the symbol of peace, wisdom, glory, fertility, power, and purity.

text: Ancient Israel and Hebrew Bible[edit]

text: The olive was one of the main elements in ancient Israelite cuisine. Olive oil was used for not only food and cooking, but also lighting, sacrificial offerings, ointment, and anointment for priestly or royal office.[32]

text: The olive tree is one of the first plants mentioned in the Hebrew Bible and in the Christian Old Testament, and one of the most significant. An olive branch was brought back to Noah by a dove to demonstrate that the flood was over (Book of Genesis, 8:11). The olive is listed in Deuteronomy 8:8 as one of the seven species that are noteworthy products of the Land of Israel.[33]

text: Ancient Greece[edit]

text: The ancient Greeks smeared olive oil on their bodies and hair as a matter of grooming and good health.

text: Olive oil was used to anoint kings and athletes in ancient Greece. It was burnt in the sacred lamps of temples and was the "eternal flame" of the original Olympic games. Victors in these games were crowned with its leaves.

text: In Homer's Odyssey, Odysseus crawls beneath two shoots of olive that grow from a single stock,[34] and in the Iliad, (XVII.53ff) is a metaphoric description of a lone olive tree in the mountains, by a spring; the Greeks observed that the olive rarely thrives at a distance from the sea, which in Greece invariably means up mountain slopes. Greek myth attributed to the primordial culture-hero Aristaeus the understanding of olive husbandry, along with cheese-making and bee-keeping.[35] Olive was one of the woods used to fashion the most primitive Greek cult figures, called xoana, referring to their wooden material; they were reverently preserved for centuries.[36] It was purely a matter of local pride that the Athenians claimed that the olive grew first in Athens.[37] In an archaic Athenian foundation myth, Athena won the patronship of Attica from Poseidon with the gift of the olive. According to the fourth-century BC father of botany, Theophrastus, olive trees ordinarily attained an age around 200 years,[38] he mentions that the very olive tree of Athena still grew on the Acropolis; it was still to be seen there in the second century AD;[39] and when Pausanias was shown it, c. 170 AD, he reported "Legend also says that when the Persians fired Athens the olive was burnt down, but on the very day it was burnt it grew again to the height of two cubits."[40] Indeed, olive suckers sprout readily from the stump, and the great age of some existing olive trees shows that it was perfectly possible that the olive tree of the Acropolis dated to the Bronze Age. The olive was sacred to Athena and appeared on the Athenian coinage.

text: Theophrastus, in On the Causes of Plants, does not give as systematic and detailed an account of olive husbandry as he does of the vine, but he makes clear (in 1.16.10) that the cultivated olive must be vegetatively propagated; indeed, the pits give rise to thorny, wild-type olives, spread far and wide by birds. Theophrastus reports how the bearing olive can be grafted on the wild olive, for which the Greeks had a separate name, kotinos.[41] In his Enquiry into Plants (2.1.2–4) he states that the olive can be propagated from a piece of the trunk, the root, a twig, or a stake.[42]

text: Ancient Rome[edit]

text: According to Pliny the Elder, a vine, a fig tree, and an olive tree grew in the middle of the Roman Forum; the latter was planted to provide shade (the garden plot was recreated in the 20th century).[43] The Roman poet Horace mentions it in reference to his own diet, which he describes as very simple: "As for me, olives, endives, and smooth mallows provide sustenance."[44] Lord Monboddo comments on the olive in 1779 as one of the foods preferred by the ancients and as one of the most perfect foods.[45]

text: Vitruvius describes of the use of charred olive wood in tying together walls and foundations in his De Architectura:

text: The thickness of the wall should, in my opinion, be such that armed men meeting on top of it may pass one another without interference. In the thickness there should be set a very close succession of ties made of charred olive wood, binding the two faces of the wall together like pins, to give it lasting endurance. For that is a material which neither decay, nor the weather, nor time can harm, but even though buried in the earth or set in the water it keeps sound and useful forever. And so not only city walls but substructures in general and all walls that require a thickness like that of a city wall, will be long in falling to decay if tied in this manner.[46]

text: New Testament[edit]

text: The Mount of Olives east of Jerusalem is mentioned several times in the New Testament. The Allegory of the Olive Tree in St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans refers to the scattering and gathering of Israel. It compares the Israelites to a tame olive tree and the Gentiles to a wild olive branch. The olive tree itself, as well as olive oil and olives, play an important role in the Bible.[47]

text: Islam[edit]

text: The olive tree and olive oil are mentioned seven times in the Quran,[48] and the olive is praised as a precious fruit. Olive tree and olive-oil health benefits have been propounded in Prophetic medicine. Muhammad is reported to have said: "Take oil of olive and massage with it – it is a blessed tree" (Sunan al-Darimi, 69:103).

text: Olives are substitutes for dates (if not available) during Ramadan fasting, and olive tree leaves are used as incense in some Muslim Mediterranean countries.[49]

text: Oldest known trees[edit]

text: Olive trees in the groves around the Mediterranean Sea are centuries old, with some dated to 2000 years. The olive tree on the island of Brijuni (Brioni), Istria in Croatia, has a radiocarbon dating age of about 1,600 years. It still gives fruit (about 30 kg or 66 lb per year), which is made into olive oil.[50]

text: An olive tree in west Athens, named "Plato's Olive Tree", is thought to be a remnant of the grove where Plato's Academy was situated, making it an estimated 2,400 years old.[51] The tree comprised a cavernous trunk from which a few branches were still sprouting in 1975, when a traffic accident caused a bus to uproot it.[51] Following that, the trunk was preserved and displayed in the nearby Agricultural University of Athens. In 2013, it was reported that the remaining part of the trunk was uprooted and stolen, allegedly to serve as firewood. A supposedly older tree, the "Peisistratos Tree", is located by the banks of the Cephisus River, in the municipality of Agioi Anargyroi, and is said to be a remnant of an olive grove that was planted by Athenian tyrant Peisistratos in the sixth century BC.[citation needed] Numerous ancient olive trees also exist near Pelion in Greece.[52] The age of an olive tree in Crete, the Finix Olive, is claimed to be over 2,000 years old; this estimate is based on archaeological evidence around the tree.[53] The olive tree of Vouves, also in Crete, has an age estimated between 2000 and 4000 years.[54] An olive tree called Farga d'Arió in Ulldecona, Catalonia, Spain, has been dated (with laser-perimetry methods) as being 1,701 years old, estimating that it was planted when Constantine the Great was Roman emperor.[55]

text: Some Italian olive trees are believed to date back to Ancient Rome (8th century BC to 5th century AD), although identifying progenitor trees in ancient sources is difficult. A tree located in Santu Baltolu di Carana, in the municipality of Luras in Sardinia, Italy, is respectfully named in Sardinian as the Ozzastru by the islanders, and is claimed to be between 3,000 and 4,000 years old according to different studies.[citation needed] Several other trees of about 1,000 years old are within the same garden. The 15th-century trees of Olivo della Linza, at Alliste in the Province of Lecce in Apulia on the Italian mainland, were noted by Bishop Ludovico de Pennis during his pastoral visit to the Diocese of Nardò-Gallipoli in 1452.[56]

text: The town of Bshaale, Lebanon claims to have the oldest olive trees in the world (4000 BC for the oldest), but no scientific study supports these claims. Other trees in the towns of Amioun appear to be at least 1,500 years old.[57][58]

text: Throughout Israel and Palestine, dozens of ancient olive trees are found with estimated ages of 1,600–2,000 years; however, these estimates could not be supported by current scientific practices.[59] Ancient trees include two giant olive trees in Arraba and five trees in Deir Hanna, both in the Galilee region, which have been determined to be over 3,000 years old,[59] although no available data support the credibility of the study that produced these age estimates, and as such, the 3000 years age estimate can not be considered valid. All seven trees continue to produce olives.

text: Several trees in the Garden of Gethsemane (from the Hebrew words gat shemanim or olive press) in Jerusalem are claimed to date back to the purported time of Jesus.[60] A study conducted by the National Research Council of Italy in 2012 used carbon dating on older parts of the trunks of three trees from Gethsemane and came up with the dates of 1092, 1166, and 1198 AD, while DNA tests show that the trees were originally planted from the same parent plant.[61] According to molecular analysis, the tested trees showed the same allelic profile at all microsatellite loci analyzed which furthermore may indicate attempt to keep the lineage of an older species intact.[62] However, Bernabei writes, “All the tree trunks are hollow inside so that the central, older wood is missing . . . In the end, only three from a total of eight olive trees could be successfully dated. The dated ancient olive trees do, however, not allow any hypothesis to be made with regard to the age of the remaining five giant olive trees.”[63] Babcox concludes, “The roots of the eight oldest trees are possibly much older. Visiting guides to the garden often state that they are two thousand years old.”[64]

text: The 2,000-year-old[65] Bidni olive trees, which have been confirmed through carbon dating,[66] have been protected since 1933,[67] and are also listed in UNESCO's Database of National Cultural Heritage Laws.[68] In 2011, after recognising their historical and landscape value, and in recognition of the fact that "only 20 trees remain from 40 at the beginning of the 20th century",[69] Maltese authorities declared the ancient Bidni olive grove at Bidnija, limits of Mosta, as a Tree Protected Area, in accordance with the provisions of the Trees and Woodlands Protection Regulations, 2011, as per Government Notice number 473/11.[70]

text:
Kaštela, Croatia

Canneto Sabino, Italy

Karystos, Euboia, Greece

text: Uses[edit]

text: The olive tree, Olea europaea, has been cultivated for olive oil, fine wood, olive leaf, and the olive fruit. About 90% of all harvested olives are turned into oil, while about 10% are used as table olives.[17] The olive is one of the "trinity" or "triad" of basic ingredients in Mediterranean cuisine, the other two being wheat for bread, pasta, and couscous, and the grape for wine.[71][72]

text: Table olives[edit]

text: Table olives are classified by the IOC into three groups according to the degree of ripeness achieved before harvesting:[73]

text:
Green olives are picked when they have obtained full size, but before the ripening cycle has begun; they are usually shades of green to yellow.
Semiripe or turning-colour olives are picked at the beginning of the ripening cycle, when the colour has begun to change from green to multicolour shades of red to brown. Only the skin is coloured, as the flesh of the fruit lacks pigmentation at this stage, unlike that of ripe olives.
Black olives or ripe olives are picked at full maturity when fully ripe. They are found in assorted shades of purple to brown to black.[73]

tag: ol

text: Traditional fermentation and curing[edit]

text: Raw or fresh olives are naturally very bitter; to make them palatable, olives must be cured and fermented, thereby removing oleuropein, a bitter phenolic compound that can reach levels of 14% of dry matter in young olives.[74] In addition to oleuropein, other phenolic compounds render freshly picked olives unpalatable and must also be removed or lowered in quantity through curing and fermentation. Generally speaking, phenolics reach their peak in young fruit and are converted as the fruit matures.[75] Once ripening occurs, the levels of phenolics sharply decline through their conversion to other organic products which render some cultivars edible immediately.[74] One example of an edible olive native to the island of Thasos is the throubes black olive, which when allowed to ripen in sun, shrivel, and fall from the tree, is edible.[76][77]

text: The curing process may take from a few days, with lye, to a few months with brine or salt packing.[78] With the exception of California style and salt-cured olives, all methods of curing involve a major fermentation involving bacteria and yeast that is of equal importance to the final table olive product.[79] Traditional cures, using the natural microflora on the fruit to induce fermentation, lead to two important outcomes: the leaching out and breakdown of oleuropein and other unpalatable phenolic compounds, and the generation of favourable metabolites from bacteria and yeast, such as organic acids, probiotics, glycerol, and esters, which affect the sensory properties of the final table olives.[74] Mixed bacterial/yeast olive fermentations may have probiotic qualities.[80][81] Lactic acid is the most important metabolite, as it lowers the pH, acting as a natural preservative against the growth of unwanted pathogenic species. The result is table olives which can be stored without refrigeration. Fermentations dominated by lactic acid bacteria are, therefore, the most suitable method of curing olives. Yeast-dominated fermentations produce a different suite of metabolites which provide poorer preservation, so they are corrected with an acid such as citric acid in the final processing stage to provide microbial stability.[19]

text: The many types of preparations for table olives depend on local tastes and traditions. The most important commercial examples are:

text: Spanish or Sevillian type (olives with fermentation): Most commonly applied to green olive preparation, around 60% of all the world's table olives are produced with this method.[82] Olives are soaked in lye (dilute NaOH, 2–4%) for 8–10 hours to hydrolyse the oleuropein. They are usually considered "treated" when the lye has penetrated two-thirds of the way into the fruit. They are then washed once or several times in water to remove the caustic solution and transferred to fermenting vessels full of brine at typical concentrations of 8–12% NaCl.[83] The brine is changed on a regular basis to help remove the phenolic compounds. Fermentation is carried out by the natural microbiota present on the olives that survive the lye treatment process. Many organisms are involved, usually reflecting the local conditions or "Terroir" of the olives. During a typical fermentation gram-negative enterobacteria flourish in small numbers at first, but are rapidly outgrown by lactic acid bacteria species such as Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus brevis and Pediococcus damnosus. These bacteria produce lactic acid to help lower the pH of the brine and therefore stabilize the product against unwanted pathogenic species. A diversity of yeasts then accumulate in sufficient numbers to help complete the fermentation alongside the lactic acid bacteria. Yeasts commonly mentioned include the teleomorphs Pichia anomala, Pichia membranifaciens, Debaryomyces hansenii and Kluyveromyces marxianus.[19] Once fermented, the olives are placed in fresh brine and acid corrected, to be ready for market.

text: Sicilian or Greek type (olives with fermentation): Applied to green, semiripe and ripe olives, they are almost identical to the Spanish type fermentation process, but the lye treatment process is skipped and the olives are placed directly in fermentation vessels full of brine (8–12% NaCl). The brine is changed on a regular basis to help remove the phenolic compounds. As the caustic treatment is avoided, lactic acid bacteria are only present in similar numbers to yeast and appear to be outcompeted by the abundant yeasts found on untreated olives. As very little acid is produced by the yeast fermentation, lactic, acetic, or citric acid is often added to the fermentation stage to stabilize the process.[79]

text: Picholine or directly-brined type (olives with fermentation): Applied to green, semiripe, or ripe olives, they are soaked in lye typically for longer periods than Spanish style (e.g. 10–72 hours) until the solution has penetrated three-quarters of the way into the fruit. They are then washed and immediately brined and acid corrected with citric acid to achieve microbial stability. Fermentation still occurs carried out by acidogenic yeast and bacteria, but is more subdued than other methods. The brine is changed on a regular basis to help remove the phenolic compounds and a series of progressively stronger concentrations of salt are added until the product is fully stabilized and ready to be eaten.[19]

text: Water-cured type (olives with fermentation): Applied to green, semiripe, or ripe olives, these are soaked in water or weak brine and this solution is changed on a daily basis for 10–14 days. The oleuropein is naturally dissolved and leached into the water and removed during a continual soak-wash cycle. Fermentation takes place during the water treatment stage and involves a mixed yeast/bacteria ecosystem. Sometimes, the olives are lightly cracked with a hammer or a stone to trigger fermentation and speed up the fermentation process. Once debittered, the olives are brined to concentrations of 8–12% NaCl and acid corrected, and are then ready to eat.[79]

text: Salt-cured type (olives with minor fermentation): Applied only to ripe olives, they are usually produced in Morocco, Turkey, and other eastern Mediterranean countries. Once picked, the olives are vigorously washed and packed in alternating layers with salt. The high concentrations of salt draw the moisture out of olives, dehydrating and shriveling them until they look somewhat analogous to a raisin. Once packed in salt, fermentation is minimal and only initiated by the most halophilic yeast species such as Debaryomyces hansenii. Once cured, they are sold in their natural state without any additives.[19] So-called Oil-cured olives are cured in salt, and then soaked in oil.[84]

text: California or "artificial ripening" type (olives without fermentation): Applied to green and semiripe olives, they are placed in lye and soaked. Upon their removal, they are washed in water injected with compressed air. This process is repeated several times until both oxygen and lye have soaked through to the pit. The repeated, saturated exposure to air oxidises the skin and flesh of the fruit, turning it black in an artificial process that mimics natural ripening. Once fully oxidised or "blackened", they are brined and acid corrected and are then ready for eating.[79]

text: Olive wood[edit]

text: Olive wood is very hard and is prized for its durability, colour, high combustion temperature, and interesting grain patterns. Because of the commercial importance of the fruit, and the slow growth and relatively small size of the tree, olive wood and its products are relatively expensive. Common uses of the wood include: kitchen utensils, carved wooden bowls, cutting boards, fine furniture, and decorative items.

text: The yellow or light greenish-brown wood is often finely veined with a darker tint; being very hard and close-grained, it is valued by woodworkers.[85]

text: Cultivation[edit]

text: The earliest evidence for the domestication of olives comes from the Chalcolithic period archaeological site of Teleilat Ghassul in what is today modern Jordan. Farmers in ancient times believed that olive trees would not grow well if planted more than a certain distance from the sea; Theophrastus gives 300 stadia (55.6 km or 34.5 mi) as the limit. Modern experience does not always confirm this, and, though showing a preference for the coast, they have long been grown further inland in some areas with suitable climates, particularly in the southwestern Mediterranean (Iberia, northwest Africa) where winters are mild.

text: Olives are now cultivated in many regions of the world with Mediterranean climates, such as South Africa, Chile, Peru, Australia, and California and in areas with temperate climates such as New Zealand, under irrigation in the Cuyo region in Argentina which has a desert climate. They are also grown in the Córdoba Province, Argentina, which has a temperate climate with rainy summers and dry winters (Cwa).[87] The climate in Argentina changes the external characteristics of the plant but the fruit keeps its original features.[88] The northernmost olive grove is placed in Anglesey, an island off the north west coast of Wales, in the United Kingdom:[89] but it is too early to say if the growing will be successful, having been planted in 2006.

text: Growth and propagation[edit]

text: Olive trees show a marked preference for calcareous soils, flourishing best on limestone slopes and crags, and coastal climate conditions. They grow in any light soil, even on clay if well drained, but in rich soils, they are predisposed to disease and produce poorer oil than in poorer soil. (This was noted by Pliny the Elder.) Olives like hot weather and sunny positions without any shade, while temperatures below −10 °C (14 °F) may injure even a mature tree. They tolerate drought well, due to their sturdy and extensive root systems. Olive trees can live for several centuries and can remain productive for as long if they are pruned correctly and regularly.

text: Only a handful of olive varieties can be used to cross-pollinate. 'Pendolino' olive trees are partially self-fertile, but pollenizers are needed for a large fruit crop. Other compatible olive tree pollenizers include 'Leccino' and 'Maurino'. 'Pendolino' olive trees are used extensively as pollenizers in large olive tree groves.

text: Olives are propagated by various methods. The preferred ways are cuttings and layers; the tree roots easily in favourable soil and throws up suckers from the stump when cut down. However, yields from trees grown from suckers or seeds are poor; they must be budded or grafted onto other specimens to do well.[91] Branches of various thickness cut into lengths around 1 m (3.3 ft) planted deeply in manured ground soon vegetate. Shorter pieces are sometimes laid horizontally in shallow trenches and, when covered with a few centimetres of soil, rapidly throw up sucker-like shoots. In Greece, grafting the cultivated tree on the wild tree is a common practice. In Italy, embryonic buds, which form small swellings on the stems, are carefully excised and planted under the soil surface, where they soon form a vigorous shoot.

text: The olive is also sometimes grown from seed. To facilitate germination, the oily pericarp is first softened by slight rotting, or soaked in hot water or in an alkaline solution.

text: In situations where extreme cold has damaged or killed the olive tree, the rootstock can survive and produce new shoots which in turn become new trees. In this way, olive trees can regenerate themselves. In Tuscany in 1985, a very severe frost destroyed many productive, and aged, olive trees and ruined many farmers' livelihoods. However, new shoots appeared in the spring, and once the dead wood was removed, became the basis for new fruit-producing trees. In this way, an olive tree can live for centuries or even millennia.

text: Olives grow very slowly, and over many years, the trunk can attain a considerable diameter. A. P. de Candolle recorded one exceeding 10 m (33 ft) in girth. The trees rarely exceed 15 m (49 ft) in height, and are generally confined to much more limited dimensions by frequent pruning.

text: Olea europaea is very hardy: drought-, disease- and fire-resistant, it can live to a great age. Its root system is robust and capable of regenerating the tree even if the above-ground structure is destroyed. The older the olive tree, the broader and more gnarled the trunk becomes. Many olive trees in the groves around the Mediterranean are said to be hundreds of years old, while an age of 2,000 years is claimed for a number of individual trees; in some cases, this has been scientifically verified.[92] See paragraph dealing with the topic.

text: The crop from old trees is sometimes enormous, but they seldom bear well two years in succession, and in many cases, a large harvest occurs every sixth or seventh season.

text: Where the olive is carefully cultivated, as in Languedoc and Provence, the trees are regularly pruned. The pruning preserves the flower-bearing shoots of the preceding year, while keeping the tree low enough to allow the easy gathering of the fruit.

text: The spaces between the trees are regularly fertilized.

text: Pests, diseases, and weather[edit]

text: Various pathologies can affect olives. The most serious pest is the olive fruit fly (Dacus oleae or Bactrocera oleae) which lays its eggs in the olive most commonly just before it becomes ripe in the autumn. The region surrounding the puncture rots, becomes brown, and takes a bitter taste, making the olive unfit for eating or for oil. For controlling the pest, the practice has been to spray with insecticides (organophosphates, e.g. dimethoate). Classic organic methods have now been applied such as trapping, applying the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis, and spraying with kaolin. Such methods are obligatory for organic olives.

text: A fungus, Cycloconium oleaginum, can infect the trees for several successive seasons, causing great damage to plantations. A species of bacterium, Pseudomonas savastanoi pv. oleae,[93] induces tumour growth in the shoots. Certain lepidopterous caterpillars feed on the leaves and flowers.

text: A pest which spreads through olive trees is the black scale bug, a small black scale insect that resembles a small black spot. They attach themselves firmly to olive trees and reduce the quality of the fruit; their main predators are wasps. The curculio beetle eats the edges of leaves, leaving sawtooth damage.[94]

text: Rabbits eat the bark of olive trees and can do considerable damage, especially to young trees. If the bark is removed around the entire circumference of a tree, it is likely to die. Voles and mice also do damage by eating the roots of olives.

text: At the northern edge of their cultivation zone, for instance in Southern France and north-central Italy, olive trees suffer occasionally from frost. Gales and long-continued rains during the gathering season also cause damage.

text: As an invasive species[edit]

text: Since its first domestication, O. europaea has been spreading back to the wild from planted groves. Its original wild populations in southern Europe have been largely swamped by feral plants.[95]

text: In some other parts of the world where it has been introduced, most notably South Australia, the olive has become a major woody weed that displaces native vegetation. In South Australia, its seeds are spread by the introduced red fox and by many bird species, including the European starling and the native emu, into woodlands, where they germinate and eventually form a dense canopy that prevents regeneration of native trees.[96] As the climate of South Australia is very dry and bushfire prone, the oil-rich feral olive tree substantially increases the fire hazard of native sclerophyll woodlands.[97]

text: Harvest and processing[edit]

text: Olives are harvested in the autumn and winter. More specifically in the Northern Hemisphere, green olives are picked from the end of September to about the middle of November. Blond olives are picked from the middle of October to the end of November, and black olives are collected from the middle of November to the end of January or early February. In southern Europe, harvesting is done for several weeks in winter, but the time varies in each country, and with the season and the cultivar.

text: Most olives today are harvested by shaking the boughs or the whole tree. Using olives found lying on the ground can result in poor quality oil, due to damage. Another method involves standing on a ladder and "milking" the olives into a sack tied around the harvester's waist. This method produces high quality oil.[99] A third method uses a device called an oli-net that wraps around the tree trunk and opens to form an umbrella-like catcher from which workers collect the fruit. Another method uses an electric tool, the oliviera, that has large tongs that spin around quickly, removing fruit from the tree. Olives harvested by this method are used for oil.

text: Table olive varieties are more difficult to harvest, as workers must take care not to damage the fruit; baskets that hang around the worker's neck are used. In some places in Italy, Croatia, and Greece, olives are harvested by hand because the terrain is too mountainous for machines. As a result, the fruit is not bruised, which leads to a superior finished product. The method also involves sawing off branches, which is healthy for future production.[75]

text: The amount of oil contained in the fruit differs greatly by cultivar; the pericarp is usually 60–70% oil. Typical yields are 1.5–2.2 kg (3.3–4.9 lb) of oil per tree per year.[53]

text: Global production[edit]

text: Olives are one of the most extensively cultivated fruit crops in the world.[100] In 2011, about 9.6 million hectares were planted with olive trees, which is more than twice the amount of land devoted to apples, bananas, or mangoes. Only coconut trees and oil palms command more space.[101] Cultivation area tripled from 2,600,000 to 7,950,000 hectares (6,400,000 to 19,600,000 acres) between 1960 and 1998 and reached a 10-million-ha peak in 2008. The 10 largest producing countries, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization, are all located in the Mediterranean region and produce 95% of the world's olives.

text:
Main countries of production (Year 2011 per FAOSTAT)[102]

Rank
Country/Region
Production
(in 1000s tonnes)
Cultivated area
(in 1000s hectares)
Yield
(q/Ha)

—
World
19,894
9,635
20.598

01
 Spain
7,869
2,330
29.781

02
 Italy
3,182
1,144
27.806

03
 Greece
2,000
850
23.529

04
 Turkey
1,750
799
21.916

05
 Morocco
1,416
598
22.839

06
 Syria
1,095
684
15.997

07
 Algeria
611
295
14.237

08
 Tunisia
562
1,780
4.848

09
 Egypt
460
53
87.273

10
 Portugal
444
343
12.931

tag: table

text: Nutrition[edit]

text:
Olives, green

Marinated green olives

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)

Energy
609 kJ (146 kcal)

Carbohydrates

3.84 g

Sugars
0.54 g

Dietary fiber
3.3 g

Fat

15.32 g

Saturated
2.029 g

Monounsaturated
11.314 g

Polyunsaturated
1.307 g

Protein

1.03 g

Vitamins

Vitamin A equiv.
beta-Carotene
lutein zeaxanthin

(3%)
20 μg

(2%)
231 μg
510 μg

Thiamine (B1)

(2%)
0.021 mg

Riboflavin (B2)

(1%)
0.007 mg

Niacin (B3)

(2%)
0.237 mg

Vitamin B6

(2%)
0.031 mg

Folate (B9)

(1%)
3 μg

Choline

(3%)
14.2 mg

Vitamin E

(25%)
3.81 mg

Vitamin K

(1%)
1.4 μg

Minerals

Calcium

(5%)
52 mg

Iron

(4%)
0.49 mg

Magnesium

(3%)
11 mg

Phosphorus

(1%)
4 mg

Potassium

(1%)
42 mg

Sodium

(104%)
1556 mg

Other constituents

Water
75.3 g

Full Link to USDA Database entry

Units
μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams
IU = International units

Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database

text: One hundred grams of cured green olives provide 146 calories, are a rich source of vitamin E (25% of the Daily Value, DV), and contain a large amount of sodium (104% DV); other nutrients are insignificant. Green olives are 75% water, 15% fat, 4% carbohydrates and 1% protein (table).

text: The polyphenol composition of olive fruits varies during fruit ripening and during processing by fermentation when olives are immersed whole in brine or crushed to produce oil.[103] In raw fruit, total polyphenol contents, as measured by the Folin method, are 117 mg/100 g in black olives and 161 mg/100 g in green olives, compared to 55 and 21 mg/100 g for extra virgin and virgin olive oil, respectively.[103] Olive fruit contains several types of polyphenols, mainly tyrosols, phenolic acids, flavonols and flavones, and for black olives, anthocyanins. The main bitter flavor of olives before curing results from oleuropein and its aglycone which total in content, respectively, 72 and 82 mg/100 g in black olives, and 56 and 59 mg/100 g in green olives.[103]

text: During the crushing, kneading and extraction of olive fruit to obtain olive oil, oleuropein, demethyloleuropein and ligstroside are hydrolyzed by endogenous beta-glucosidases to form aldehydic aglycones. The aglycones become soluble in the oil phase, whereas the glycosides remain in the water phase.[citation needed]

text: Polyphenol content also varies with olive cultivar (Spanish Manzanillo highest) and the manner of presentation, with plain olives having higher contents than those that are pitted or stuffed.[104]

text: Allergenic potential[edit]

text: Olive tree pollen is extremely allergenic, with an OPALS allergy scale rating of 10 out of 10.[105] Olea europaea is primarily wind-pollinated,[106] and their light, buoyant pollen is a strong trigger for asthma.[105] One popular variety, "Swan Hill", is widely sold as an "allergy-free" olive tree; however, this variety does bloom and produce allergenic pollen.[105]

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
Olive tree trunk

Olive flowers

Olivo della Linza. 15th century

A young olive plant, germinated from a seed

Cailletier cultivar, with an olive harvest net on the ground, Contes, France

Olive trees on Shōdo Island, Japan


document_title: I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here! (Australian TV series)

question_text: who won celebrity get me out of here australia

text: Format[edit]

text: The premise of the show is that there is a group of well known personalities living together in a specially constructed camp site in a jungle. During their time in the jungle they are isolated from the outside world and are not commonly aware of outside events. The contestants compete for $100,000 to be donated to a charity of their choosing, in addition to being personally reimbursed for their participation.[9] While in the jungle, some of the contestants (generally voted by the viewing public) compete in challenges for food and luxuries for the camp. These challenges often involve local wildlife and are meant to take the contestants out of their comfort zone. Each week one or more of the contestants are evicted from the jungle, based on viewer votes. In addition, if the contestants become overwhelmed by their situation they can leave the series by speaking the phrase "I'm a celebrity get me out of here!". However, it is reported that if contestants do quit they will have their income for participating in the series markedly reduced.[10] Throughout the show, additional contestants (called "intruders") enter the competition; and beginning with season two, some contestants are only included temporarily (i.e. having a guest appearance).[11] In the end, a final viewer vote occurs to determine the winner of the series, who is given the title of "King and/or Queen of the Jungle".

text: Tucker trials[edit]

text: The contastants take part in daily trials to earn food. These trials aim to test both physical and mental abilities. The winner is usually determined by the number of stars collected during the trial, with each star representing a meal earned by the winning contestant for their camp mates.

text: Celebrity chest challenges[edit]

text: Two or more celebrities are chosen to take part in the celebrity chest challenge to win luxuries for camp. Each challenge involves completing a task to win a chest to take back to camp. However, to win the luxury item in the chest, the campmates must correctly answer a question. If they fail to answer correctly, the luxury item is forfeited and a joke prize is won. The luxury item is "donated" by a celebrity from the outside.

text: Secret mission[edit]

text: This is a challenge where some celebrities have to take part without alerting the other celebrities - if they are successful in their 'missions', they are rewarded.

text: Mystery box[edit]

text: A mystery box sees a box delivered to the campsite, each time containing a different gift for the contestants.

text: Production[edit]

text: Broadcast[edit]

text: The show is broadcast Sunday to Thursday at 7.30 pm, with a weekly eviction show on Sunday (except for the first week, where the celebrities arrive in the 'jungle'). All shows are presented by Julia Morris & Chris Brown from a nearby studio. The program is live to AEDT States (New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory), in other states the program is delayed to accommodate local time zones.

text: The fallout zone[edit]

text: In addition to the television broadcast, for the first season a live feed from the camp site aired for an hour after the AEDT airing of the show on Ten's website and mobile app, titled The Fallout Zone but more commonly referred to as FOZ. The content of feed was available on the website after the fact so viewers in other states could watch the show after their airing of the main show. The feed was hosted by comedian Sam Mac and producer Ciaran "The Butcher" Flannery, also known as "The C-Word". On 8 and 12 March 2015, producer Dominic "The Domin8or" Sullivan filled in during Flannery's absence. The duo interact with viewers through Twitter, using the hashtag #FOZ. Mac and Flannery have no control over the shots used in the stream which has resulted in one episode featuring a 20-minute shot of a waterfall and, on 16 February 2015, a 15-minute conversation featuring a sound technician looking for Bob being picked up. On 5 March 2015 the show famously featured audio problems during which Mac and Flannery's voices fluctuated between chipmunk and Darth Vader filters for the first thirty minutes. The show's theme song is Highway to the Fallout Zone sung by Sam Mac. The show did not return for the second season.

text: Public voting[edit]

text: Throughout the show the public votes on who competes in the following tucker trial and who to evict from the campsite. Viewers can either vote via SMS (by texting the name of the celebrity to 1995 1010) or vote via Social Media (namely Facebook or Twitter) by using the celebrity's hashtag (#celeb[name]). Voting via social media is limited to 20 votes per account. For tucker trial voting, viewers vote for celebrity they wish to compete. For eviction voting, viewers vote for a celebrity to stay. Voting closes at approximately 7:30pm AEDT for Sunday's eviction vote and at approximately 8pm AEDT for voting on other days.

text: Prior to the premiere of the second season, it was announced that the voting process would change slightly compared to the inaugural season. SMS voting wil be used for both trial and eviction voting while Twitter voting will be used exclusively for trial voting. This change was implemented to even the playing field between celebrities with a larger international fan base (who are more likely to receive Twitter votes from said fan base) and celebrities with a smaller fan base who are only known in Australia.[12] However, this decision was later reversed, allowing Twitter and Facebook votes for the finals.[13]

text: Series overview[edit]

text: Winners crowned King or Queen of their respective year.

text: Key:

text:
Season
Presenters
Start date
End date
Days in camp
Campmates
Honour places

Winner
Second place
Third place

1
Chris Brown and Julia Morris
1 February 2015 (2015-02-01)
15 March 2015 (2015-03-15)
45
14
Freddie Flintoff
Barry Hall
Chrissie Swan

2
31 January 2016 (2016-01-31)
13 March 2016 (2016-03-13)
45
12
Brendan Fevola
Paul Harragon
Laurina Fleure

3
29 January 2017 (2017-01-29)
13 March 2017 (2017-03-13)
46
14
Casey Donovan
Dane Swan
Natalie Bassingthwaighte

4
28 January 2018 (2018-01-28)
12 March 2018 (2018-03-12)
45
15
Fiona O'Loughlin
Shannon Noll
Danny Green

text: Series results[edit]

text: Season 1 (2015)[edit]

text:
Celebrity
Known for
Day Entered
Day Exited
Result

 Freddie Flintoff
England cricketer
17
45
Winner

 Barry Hall
Former AFL forward
1
45
Runner-up

 Chrissie Swan
Television & radio broadcaster
1
45
Third Place

 Maureen McCormick
The Brady Bunch actress
1
42
Evicted 11th

 Joel Creasey
Comedian
1
41
Evicted 10th

 Anna Heinrich
The Bachelor Australia star
10
41
Evicted 9th

 Julie Goodwin
Chef & cookbook author
17
40
Evicted 8th

 Merv Hughes
Former test match cricketer
1
39
Evicted 7th

 Tyson Mayr
Model
1
38
Evicted 6th

 Andrew Daddo
Television & radio presenter
1
31
Evicted 5th

 Lauren Brant
Hi-5 singer
1
24
Evicted 4th

 Laura Dundovic
Miss Universe Australia 2008
1
17
Evicted 3rd

 Tim Robards
The Bachelor Australia star
10
17
Evicted 2nd

 Leisel Jones
Olympic swimmer
1
10
Evicted 1st

text: Season 2 (2016)[edit]

text:
Celebrity
Known for
Day Entered
Day Exited
Result

 Brendan Fevola
AFL full-forward
1
45
Winner

 Paul Harragon
Former NRL prop forward
1
45
Runner-up

 Laurina Fleure
The Bachelor Australia 2 star
1
45
Third Place

 Anthony Callea
Singer-songwriter
1
42
Evicted 9th

 Shane Warne
Retired international cricketer
2
41
Evicted 8th

 Havana Brown
DJ
1
40
Evicted 7th

 Jo Beth Taylor
Television presenter
1
39
Evicted 6th

 Val Lehman
Prisoner actress
1
38
Evicted 5th

 Dean Geyer
Glee actor
1
31
Evicted 4th

 Bonnie Lythgoe
So You Think You Can Dance Australia judge
1
24
Evicted 3rd

 Akmal Saleh
Comedian
1
17
Evicted 2nd

 Courtney Hancock
Ironwoman
1
10
Evicted 1st

text: Season 3 (2017)[edit]

text:
Celebrity
Known for
Day Entered
Day Exited
Result

 Casey Donovan
Singer-songwriter (Australian Idol Winner)
1
46
Winner

 Dane Swan
AFL Legend
1
46
Runner-Up

 Natalie Bassingthwaighte
Singer & Actress
1
46
Third Place

 Nazeem Hussain
Comedian
1
45
Evicted 11th

 Steve Price
Radio Shock Jock
1
42
Evicted 10th

 Lisa Curry
Olympic Swimmer
1
41
Evicted 9th

 Ash Pollard
My Kitchen Rules contestant
1
40
Evicted 8th

 Carson Kressley
TV Personality
25
39
Evicted 7th

 Tegan Martin
Beauty Queen
1
38
Evicted 6th

 Keira Maguire
The Bachelor Australia 4 star
19
35
Evicted 5th

 Kris Smith
TV Personality & Model
2
35
Evicted 4th

 Tziporah Malkah
Former Model
2
31
Evicted 3rd

 Jay Laga'aia
Actor & Singer
1
24
Evicted 2nd

 Tom Arnold
Hollywood Actor
1
17
Evicted 1st

text: Season 4 (2018)[edit]

text:
Celebrity
Known for
Day Entered
Day Exited
Result

 Fiona O'Loughlin
Comedian
1
45
Winner

 Shannon Noll
Singer
1
45
Runner-up

 Danny Green
Boxer
7
45
Third place

 Vicky Pattison
Reality TV Star (I'm a Celeb UK, Winner)
17
44
Evicted 10th

 Simone Holtznagel
Model
1
41
Evicted 9th

 Peter Rowsthorn
Actor & Comedian
1
40
Evicted 8th

 Jackie Gillies
Psychic & Reality TV Star
1
39
Evicted 7th

 Josh Gibson
AFL Player
1
38
Evicted 6th

 Paul Burrell
Former Royal Butler (I'm a Celeb UK, Runner Up)
17
37
Evicted 5th

 Lisa Oldfield
Reality TV Star
24
34
Evicted 4th

 David Oldfield
Former Politician
24
30
Evicted 3rd

 Kerry Armstrong
Actress
1
23
Evicted 2nd

 Tiffany Darwish
Singer
1
16
Evicted 1st

 Anthony Mundine
Boxer
2
12
Withdrew

 Bernard Tomic
Tennis Player
1
3
Withdrew

text: Ratings[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Premiere
Finale
Source

Premiere date
Premiere viewers
(Opening Night)
Rank
Premiere viewers
(Welcome to the Jungle)
Rank
Finale date
Finale viewers
(Grand final)
Rank
Finale viewers
(Winner announced)
Rank

1
31
1 February 2015 (2015-02-01)
1.199
4
1.136
5
15 March 2015 (2015-03-15)
0.999
8
1.144
3
[14][15]

2
31
31 January 2016 (2016-01-31)
1.324
3
1.081
5
13 March 2016 (2016-03-13)
0.719
8
0.858
6
[16][17]

3
32
29 January 2017 (2017-01-29)
1.103
7
0.963
8
13 March 2017
0.989
6
1.056
2
[18][19]

4
31
28 January 2018 (2018-01-28)
1.274
4
1.108
5
12 March 2018
0.684
11
0.804
8
[20][21]

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text:
Year
Award
Category
Recipients and nominees
Result
Refs.

2016
Logie Awards of 2016
Best Reality Program
I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!
Nominated
[22]

2017
Logie Awards of 2017
I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!
Nominated
[23]

text: Lawsuit[edit]

text: In June 2017, Tom Arnold filed a lawsuit against Network Ten and A List Entertainment for defrauding him for being on I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!. Arnold claims that he was promised a payment of $425,000 and a comedy tour in Australia, however he was missing $140,000 in payment and that Network Ten backed out of the comedy tour.[24]


document_title: Ross Stores

question_text: how many dd's discount stores are there

question_tokens: how many dd 's discount stores are there

text: Ross Stores

text: History[edit]

text: Ross Department Store was first opened in San Bruno, California, in 1950 by Morris "Morrie" Ross. Morris would work 85 hours a week doing all of the buying and bookkeeping for his department store. In 1958 Ross sold his store to William Isackson to become a residential and commercial real estate developer.[5] Isackson built the company to six stores, located in San Bruno, Pacifica, Novato, Vacaville, Redwood City, and Castro Valley. In 1982 a group of investors, including Mervin Morris, founder of the Mervyns chain of department stores, purchased the six Ross Department Stores in San Francisco, changed the format to off-price retail units, and within three years rapidly expanded the chain to 107 stores under Stuart Moldaw and Don Rowlett.[6][7] By the end of 1995 the chain reached an annual sales of $1.4 billion with 292 stores in 18 states. By 2012 Ross reached $9.7 billion for the fiscal year with 1,091 stores in 33 states with an additional 108 for Dd's Discounts in 8 states.[8] Ross moved its headquarters from Newark to Pleasanton, California, in the Tri-Valley area, in 2003.

text: Barbara Rentler took the place of CEO Michael Balmuth on June 1, 2014; she was the 25th female CEO of a Fortune 500 company.[9]  Ross  moved its headquarters from Pleasanton to neighboring Dublin, California in 2014.[10]