document_title: Leprechaun (film)

question_text: who plays the leprechaun in the leprechaun movie

text: Leprechaun (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: In 1983, Dan O'Grady returns to his home in North Dakota from a trip to his native Ireland, where he stole the pot of gold from a leprechaun. After burying the gold, O'Grady discovers that the evil leprechaun has followed him home and murdered his wife. O'Grady uses a four-leaf clover to suppress the leprechaun's powers and trap it inside a crate. Before he can burn it, he suffers a stroke.

text: Ten years later, J. D. Redding and his teenage daughter Tory rent the O'Grady farmhouse for the summer. Contract workers Nathan Murphy, his 10-year-old brother Alex, and their dimwitted friend Ozzie Jones help re-paint the farmhouse. While looking around the basement, Ozzie hears the leprechaun's cry for help and mistakes him for a little child. He brushes the old four-leaf clover off the crate, freeing the leprechaun. After failing to convince the others that he met a leprechaun, Ozzie spots a rainbow and chases it, believing that he will find a pot of gold at the end. Alex accompanies him for fear that Ozzie might hurt himself. A bag of one hundred gold pieces magically appears before Ozzie. After Ozzie tests the gold and accidentally swallows a piece, they stash it in an old well and plot to keep it for themselves, hoping to fix Ozzie's brain.

text:
At the farm, the leprechaun lures J. D. into a trap by imitating a cat, biting and injuring his hand. Tory and the others rush him to the hospital, and the leprechaun follows on a tricycle. Alex and Ozzie visit a pawn shop to see if the gold is pure, and the leprechaun kills Joe the shop owner for stealing his gold.
The leprechaun returns to the farmhouse, where he searches for his gold and shines every shoe that he finds. After leaving J. D. at the hospital, the group drives back to the farmhouse. Finding it ransacked, Nathan checks outside, where he is injured by a bear trap set by the leprechaun.

text: After finding a shotgun in the farmhouse, they shoot the leprechaun several times.  When this has no effect, they attempt to flee the farm, but their truck's engine has been sabotaged by the leprechaun. After ramming the truck with a go-kart, the leprechaun terrorizes the group until Ozzie reveals that he and Alex found the pot of gold. Tory recovers the bag from the well and gives it to the leprechaun. Believing the worst to be over, they leave for the hospital. While counting his gold, the leprechaun discovers that he is missing the piece that Ozzie swallowed. Thinking that they have tricked him, he menaces them until Ozzie tells them about O'Grady, who was taken to a nursing home after his stroke. Tory visits the home to learn how to kill the leprechaun.

text: At the nursing home, the leprechaun pretends to be O'Grady. After he chases Tory to an elevator, the leprechaun throws O'Grady's bloodied body down the shaft as Tory flees. Before dying, O'Grady tells her that the only way to kill the leprechaun is with a four-leaf clover. Tory returns to the farmhouse, where she searches for a clover until she is attacked by the leprechaun; Nathan and Ozzie save her. Alex sets a trap near the well, but the leprechaun almost kills him. Ozzie reveals that he swallowed the last gold coin, and the leprechaun critically wounds him trying to get it. Before the leprechaun can kill Ozzie, Alex takes a four-leaf clover Tory has found, sticks it to a wad of gum, and shoots it into the leprechaun's mouth, taking away his power. The leprechaun falls into the well, but his skeleton climbs out. Nathan pushes the leprechaun back into the well and blows up both the well and  the leprechaun with gasoline. The police arrive, and Tory is reunited with her father. As the police investigate the remains of the well, the leprechaun vows he will not rest until he recovers every last piece of his gold.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Warwick Davis as The Leprechaun
Jennifer Aniston as Tory Redding
Ken Olandt as Nathan Murphy
Mark Holton as Ozzie Jones
Robert Hy Gorman as Alex Murphy
David Permenter as Deputy Tripet
William Newman as Sheriff Roy Cronin
Shay Duffin as Daniel O'Grady
Pamela Mant as Mrs. O'Grady
John Sanderford as J. D. Redding
John Voldstad as Joe

text: Production[edit]

text: Mark Jones, the writer-director, had a career in American television shows.  Desiring to make a film, he decided that a low budget horror film was his best opportunity.  Jones was inspired by the Lucky Charms commercials to create a leprechaun character, only his twist was to turn the character into an antagonist.  Jones was further influenced by the film Critters, which featured a small antagonist.  Jones brought the concept to Trimark, who were looking to get into film production and distribution.  Leprechaun became the first film produced in-house by Trimark to be theatrically released.  Entertainment Weekly quoted the budget at "just under $1 million".[2]  Warwick Davis, who had experienced a dry spell after playing the protagonist in Willow, liked the script and was excited to play against type. Jennifer Aniston, who was an unknown at the time, impressed Jones, and he fought to have her cast.[2]

text: Shooting occurred over three weeks, beginning at Valencia Studios, where Terminator 2: Judgment Day had recently finished production.  Several violent scenes were filmed at Big Sky Ranch, where Little House on the Prairie and The Waltons were shot.  Davis later said it felt "a little blasphemous".[4]  Davis performed most of his own stunts.  For the scene where Davis chases Aniston in a wheelchair, Aniston had to run in slow motion so that Davis could keep up with her, as he had trouble manipulating the wheels.[4]  The film was initially more of a straightforward horror film, but Davis sought to add more comedic elements.  Jones agreed with this tonal shift, and they shot it as a horror comedy.[2]  Several scenes had to be re-shot after the producers insisted that the film be made gorier to appeal to older audiences.[4]

text: Gabe Bartalos performed the make-up effects.  Trimark contacted Bartalos to produce a sample.  Bartalos's early efforts were not to his liking, and he pushed the design in a more grotesque direction, as that was what he wanted to see on the screen as a horror fan.  Bartalos's design impressed Trimark, and he got the account.  Applying the make-up took three hours, and taking it off took another 40 minutes.[2]  Davis described the experience as "not a pleasant sensation".[5]  To pass the time while the make-up was being applied, Davis said he had bizarre conversations with Bartalos, with whom he got along well.  Davis was conscious of the need to stay relaxed and not move, and he channelled his confidence that the make-up effects were properly applied into his acting.[5]

text: Release[edit]

text: Leading up to the film's release, Trimark engaged in an aggressive marketing campaign, partnering with the National Basketball Association, American Stock Exchange, and, after failing to secure deals with either corporate headquarters, individual franchisees of Domino's Pizza and Subway.[6] Leprechaun opened on January 8, 1993, in 620 theatres and took in $2,493,020 its opening week, ultimately earning $8,556,940 in the United States.[7] Vidmark released it on VHS in April 1993,[8] and it sold over 100,000 copies.[9] The film score was released on March 9, 1993, by Intrada Records.[10] The film was released on DVD in August 1998.[11]  Lionsgate released a triple feature collection on March 11, 2008.[12]  All seven films in the series were released on Blu-ray in a collection in September 2014.[13] The film is often broadcast on cable channels such as Syfy on Saint Patrick's Day.[14][15]

text: Sequels and reboot[edit]

text: Leprechaun was followed by five sequels: Leprechaun 2 (1994), Leprechaun 3 (1995), Leprechaun 4: In Space (1997), Leprechaun in the Hood (2000), and Leprechaun: Back 2 tha Hood (2003). In 2014, a reboot, Leprechaun: Origins was released.[16]  After Leprechaun 2's theatrical gross disappointed Trimark, Leprechaun 3 was released direct-to-video.[17] Origins was theatrically released.[18] Leprechaun Returns will be premiere on Syfy in 2019, the film serves as a direct sequel to the original film, ignoring the subsequent installments. The film stars Linden Porco as the Leprechaun and Mark Holton as Ozzie Jones, who reprise his role from the first film and directed by Steven Kostanski.[19]

text: Reception[edit]

text: On release, critical reception for the film was negative.[2]  Writing for The Deseret News, Chris Hicks said that the film should have been released direct-to-video.[20]  Also criticizing Trimark's release of the film, The Austin Chronicle's Marc Savlov called it cliched, uninteresting, and an "utter waste of perfectly good Kodak film stock".[21]  Internet-based critic James Berardinelli called it "unwatchable" and not even enjoyably bad,[22] and Matt Bourjaily of the Chicago Tribune wrote that the film "has brought new meaning to the term 'bad'".[23]  At the Los Angeles Daily News, Robert Strauss called it "as witless and worthless a horror film as could possibly be conjured".[24] Pittsburgh Post-Gazette critic Ron Weiskind called the film incompetent and criticized the film's acting, lack of suspense, and production values.  Weiskind concluded, "Forget about the proverbial pot of gold.  The movie Leprechaun is a crock."[25]

text: Michael Wilmington of the Los Angeles Times called the cast "the usual all-formula grab-bag",[26] and The Washington Post's Richard Harrington said the human actors are all bland.[27]  Berardinelli described the characters as "a group of morons who act like they flunked kindergarten"[22] but said Aniston "might be competent" in a better film.[22] Weiskind instead called Aniston's character a "Beverly Hills brat" who audiences will want to die.[25]  Of Davis, Harrington wrote that he "imbues a weak character with a strong presence", saying the film is only interesting while Davis is on-screen.   Harrington concludes that the film is notable only for Davis' performance.[27] Vincent Canby of The New York Times called the leprechaun "no more than dangerously cranky" and reminiscent of Chucky from Child's Play;[28] Hicks also described the leprechaun as similar to Chucky.[20]  Wilmington wrote that while a killer Leprechaun logically follows a trend of gimmicky antagonists, it is still a bad idea.[26]

text: Of the film's humor, Wilmington wrote that Leprechaun "isn't dumb enough to be fun".[26]  Hicks described the film's humor as "ill-advised slapstick",[20] and Canby wrote that it is "neither scary nor funny".[28]  Berardinelli called the leprechaun's one-liners "more idiotic than pithy".[22]  Writing in the Chicago Sun-Times, critic Jeff Makos unfavorably compared the film's tone to that of Tremors, which he posited as an influence.  Makos said Davis does his best to be funny, but the film has no funny jokes, making audience feedback probably more entertaining than the film itself.[29]  The use of Lucky Charms as humor also received commentary.  Harrington wrote that Jones is "so bereft of inventive ideas that he refers to Lucky Charms cereal not once but three times",[27] and Bourjaily criticized the Lucky Charms jokes as unfunny.[23]

text: Berardinelli said director Mark Jones has no style evident in the film.[22]  Wilmington described it as a "dingy, drab, pointless little movie ... made without flair or imagination, seemingly enervated by its own bad taste and low intentions".[26]  Canby called the screenplay and direction amateurish,[28] and Hicks wrote that Jones is bereft of ideas and should go back to his day job, describing the plot as "by-the-numbers killings with no rhyme or reason".[20]  Harrington wrote that the film "has major continuity and credibility problems".[27]  Strauss identified the theme as anti-greed but said the writing is "simultaneously prosaic and murky", causing Jones to miss his mark.[24]  Wilmington wrote that the leprechaun's cries for his gold reflects the filmmakers' cynical desire for box office success.[26] Sight & Sound described Leprechaun as a film which seems to have no concept of a target audience, stating, "Jones wants this to be a lively romp for older kids in the mould of Time Bandits...but also wants to corner the lucrative horror market."[30] The review concluded, "Unsuitable for adults or kids, this is ultimately for completists."[30]  Harrington called the make-up "quite evil-looking",[27] though Strauss wrote that "effects are strictly so-so".[24]

text: Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, reports that 23% of 13 surveyed critics gave the film a positive review; the average rating is 4/10.[31]  A 2014 retrospective from Entertainment Weekly identified it as Aniston's worst role to date,[32] and Aniston herself has expressed embarrassment over the film.[33] In 2009, Tanya Gold of The Guardian selected it as one of her ten favorite scary films to watch on Halloween.[34]


document_title: Bra size

question_text: what is a 32 bra size in cm

question_tokens: what is a 32 bra size in cm

root

text: Bra size

text: Measurement method origins[edit]

text: Parisienne Madeleine Gabeau received a United States patent on 21 November 1911 for a brassiere with soft cups and a metal band that supported and separated the breasts. To avoid the prevailing fashion that created a single "monobosom"[citation needed], her design provided "that the edges of the material d may be carried close along the inner and under contours of the breasts, so as to preserve their form, I employ an outlining band of metal b which is bent to conform to the lower curves of the breast."[4]

tag: p

text: Cup design origins[edit]

text: The term "cup" was not used to describe bras until 1916[5] when two patents were filed.[6]

text: In October 1932, the S.H. Camp and Company were the first to measure cup size by the letters of the alphabet, A, B, C, and D, though the letters represented how pendulous the breasts were and not their volume. Camp's advertising in the February 1933 issue of Corset and Underwear Review featured letter-labeled profiles of breasts. Cup sizes A through D were not intended to be used for larger-breasted women.[7]

text: In 1937, Warner introduced its Alphabet Bra with four cup sizes (A, B, C and D) to its product descriptions. Before long, these cup sizes got nicknames: egg cup, tea cup, coffee cup and challenge cup.[8] Two other companies, Model and Fay-Miss (renamed in 1935 as the Bali Brassiere Company) followed, offering A, B, C and D cup sizes in the late 1930s. Catalog companies continued to use the designations Small, Medium and Large through the 1940s.[9] Britain did not adopt the American cups in 1933, but resisted using cup sizes for its products until 1948. The Sears Company finally applied cup sizes to bras in its catalog in the 1950s.[10]

text: Band measurement origins[edit]

text: Adjustable bands were introduced using multiple hook and eye closures in the 1930s. Prior to the widespread use of bras, the undergarment of choice for Western women was a corset. To help women meet the perceived ideal female body shape, corset and girdle manufacturers used a calculation called hip spring, the difference between waist and hip measurement (usually 10–12 inches).[11]

text: The band measurement system was created by U.S. bra manufacturers just after World War II.

text: Other innovations[edit]

text: The underwire was first added to a strapless bra in 1937 by André, a custom-bra firm.[12] Patents for underwire-type devices in bras were issued in 1931 and 1932, but were not widely adopted by manufacturers until after World War II when metal shortages eased.[13]

text: In the 1930s, Dunlop chemists were able to reliably transform rubber latex into elastic thread. After 1940, "whirlpool," or concentric stitching was used to shape the cup structure of some designs.[14] The man-made fibres were quickly adopted by the industry because of their easy-care properties. Since a brassiere must be laundered frequently, easy-care fabric was in great demand.

text: Consumer fitting[edit]

text: Pendulous breasts can make it difficult for a person to properly fit a bra.[citation needed] For best results, the breasts should be measured twice: once when standing upright, once bending over at the waist with the breasts hanging down.[citation needed] If the difference between these two measurements is more than 10 cm, then the average is chosen for calculating the cup size.[citation needed] A number of reports, surveys and studies in different countries have found that between 80% to 85% of women wear incorrectly fitted bras.[15][unreliable source?]

text: In November 2005, Oprah Winfrey produced a show devoted to bras and bra sizes, during which she talked about research that eight out of ten women wear the wrong size bra.[16]

text: Larger breasts and bra fit[edit]

text: When purchasing bras, larger-breasted women usually have difficulty selecting a well-fitting bra.[citation needed] Buxom women are more likely than smaller-breasted women to wear an incorrectly sized bra.[citation needed] They tend to buy bras that are too small, while smaller-breasted women tend to purchase bras that are too large.[15] Studies have revealed that the most common mistake made by women when selecting a bra was to choose too large a back band and too small a cup, for example, 38C instead of 34E, or 34B instead of 30D.[17][18]

text: As breasts become larger, their shape and the distribution of tissue within them changes.[citation needed] The breasts may become ptotic.[citation needed] This makes measurements increasingly unreliable.[citation needed] The heavier a person's build, the more difficult it is to obtain accurate measurements, as measuring tape sinks into the flesh more easily.[19]

text: In a study conducted in the United Kingdom of 103 women seeking mammoplasty, researchers found a strong link between obesity and inaccurate back measurement. They concluded that "obesity, breast hypertrophy, fashion and bra-fitting practices combine to make those women who most need supportive bras the least likely to get accurately fitted bras."[19]

text: One issue that complicates finding a correctly fitting bra is that band and cup sizes are not standardized, but vary considerably from one manufacturer to another, resulting in sizes that only provide an approximate fit.[20][21] Women cannot rely on labeled bra sizes to identify a bra that fits properly.[22][23] Scientific studies show that the current system of bra sizing may be inaccurate.[24]

text: Manufacturers cut their bras differently, so, for example, two 34B bras from two companies may not fit the same person.[25] Customers should pay attention to which sizing system is used by the manufacturer. The main difference is in how cup sizes increase, by 2 cm or 1 inch (= 2.54 cm, see below). Some French manufacturers also increase cup sizes by 3 cm.[26] Unlike dress sizes, manufacturers do not agree on a single standard.

text: British bras currently range from A to LL cup size (with Rigby&Peller recently introducing bras by Elila which go up to US-N-Cup[27]), while most Americans can find bras with cup sizes ranging from A to G. Some brands (Goddess, Elila) go as high as N, a size roughly equal to a British JJ-Cup. In continental Europe, Milena Lingerie from Poland produces up to cup R. Larger sizes are usually harder to find in retail outlets. As the cup size increases, the labeled cup size of different manufacturers' bras tend to vary more widely in actual volume.[23] One study found that the label size was consistently different from the measured size.[28]

text: Even medical studies have attested to the difficulty of getting a correct fit.[29] Research by plastic surgeons has suggested that bra size is imprecise because breast volume is not calculated accurately:

text: The current popular system of determining bra size is inaccurate so often as to be useless. Add to this the many different styles of bras and the lack of standardization between brands, and one can see why finding a comfortable, well-fitting bra is more a matter of educated guesswork, trial, and error than of precise measurements.[30]

text: The use of the cup sizing and band measurement systems has evolved over time and continues to change. Experts recommend that women get fitted by an experienced person[31] at a retailer offering the widest possible selection of bra sizes and brands.

text: Bad bra-fit symptoms[edit]

text: If the straps dig into the shoulder, leaving red marks or causing shoulder or neck pain, the bra band is not offering enough support.[32] If breast tissue overflows the bottom of the bra, under the armpit, or over the top edge of the bra cup, the cup size is too small.[32] Loose fabric in the bra cup indicates the cup size is too big.[33] If the underwires poke the breast under the armpit or if the bra's center panel does not lie flat against the sternum,[34] the cup size is too small.[32] If the band rides up the torso at the back, the band size is too big. If it digs into the flesh, causing the flesh to spill over the edges of the band, the band is too small.[32] If the band feels tight, this may be due to the cups being too small; instead of going up in band size a person should try going up in cup size. Similarly a band might feel too loose if the cup is too big. It is possible to test whether a bra band is too tight or too loose by reversing the bra on her torso so that the cups are at the back and then check for fit and comfort. Generally, if the wearer must continually adjust the bra or experiences general discomfort, the bra is a poor fit and she should get a new fitting.[35]

text: Obtaining best fit[edit]

text: Bra experts recommend that women, especially those whose cup sizes are D or larger, get a professional bra fitting from the lingerie department of a clothing store or a specialty lingerie store.[31] However, even professional bra fitters in different countries including New Zealand[36] and the United Kingdom[37][38] produce inconsistent measurements of the same person. There is significant heterogeneity in breast shape, density, and volume. As such, current methods of bra fitting may be insufficient for this range of chest morphology.

text: A 2004 study by Consumers Reports in New Zealand found that 80% of department store bra fittings resulted in a poor fit.[39] However, because manufacturer's standards widely vary,[40] women cannot rely on their own measurements to obtain a satisfactory fit.[citation needed] Some bra manufacturers and distributors state that trying on and learning to recognize a properly fitting bra is the best way to determine a correct bra size, much like shoes.

text: Bra fitters generally agree[citation needed] that a correctly fitting bra should meet the following criteria:

text:
When viewed from the side, the edge of the chest band should be horizontal, should not ride up the back, and should be firm but comfortable.
Each cup's underwire at the front should lie flat against the sternum (not the breast), along the inframammary fold, and should not dig into the chest or the breasts, rub or poke out at the front.
The breasts should be enclosed by the cups and there should be a smooth line where the fabric at the top of the cup ends.
The apex of the breast, the nipple, must be in the center of the cup.
The breast should not bulge over the top or out the sides of the cups, even with a low-cut style such as the balconette bra.
The straps of a correctly fitted bra should not dig into or slip off the shoulder, which suggests a too-large band.
The back of the bra should not ride up and the chest band should remain parallel to the floor when viewed from the back.
The breasts should be supported primarily by the band around the rib cage, rather than by the shoulder straps.
The woman should be able to breathe and move easily without the bra slipping around.

tag: ul

text: Confirming bra fit[edit]

text: One method to confirm that the bra is the best fit has been nicknamed the Swoop and Scoop. After identifying a well-fitting bra, the woman bends forward (the swoop), allowing their breasts to fall into the bra, filling the cup naturally, and then fastening the bra on the outermost set of hooks.[41][42] When the woman stands up, she uses the opposite hand to place each breast gently into the cup (the scoop), and she then runs her index finger along the inside top edge of the bra cup to make sure her breast tissue does not spill over the edges.[32][43]

text: Experts suggest that women choose a bra band that fits well on the outermost hooks.[41][42] This allows the wearer to use the tighter hooks on the bra strap as it stretches during its lifetime of about eight months.[42] The band should be tight enough to support the bust, but the straps should not provide the primary support.[44]

text: Consumer measurement difficulties[edit]

text: A bra is one of the most complicated articles of clothing to make. A typical bra design has between 20 and 48 parts, including the band, hooks, cups, lining, and straps. Major retailers place orders from manufacturers in batches of 10,000. Orders of this size require a large-scale operation to manage the cutting, sewing and packing required.[45]

text: Constructing a properly fitting brassiere is difficult. Adelle Kirk, formerly a manager at the global Kurt Salmon management consulting firm that specializes in the apparel and retail businesses, said that making bras is complex:

text: Bras are one of the most complex pieces of apparel. There are lots of different styles, and each style has a dozen different sizes, and within that there are a lot of colors. Furthermore, there is a lot of product engineering. You've got hooks, you've got straps, there are usually two parts to every cup, and each requires a heavy amount of sewing. It is very component intensive.[46]

text: Asymmetrical breasts common[edit]

text: Obtaining the correct size is complicated by the fact that up to 25% of women's breasts display a persistent, visible breast asymmetry,[47] which is defined as differing in size by at least one cup size.[citation needed] For about 5% to 10% of women, their breasts are severely different, with the left breast being larger in 62% of cases.[48] Minor asymmetry may be resolved by wearing a padded bra,[citation needed] but in severe cases of developmental breast deformity—commonly called "Amazon's Syndrome" by physicians, may require corrective surgery due to morphological alterations caused by variations in shape, volume, position of the breasts relative to the inframammary fold, the position of the nipple-areola complex on the chest, or both.[49]

text: Breast volume variation[edit]

text: Obtaining the correct size is further complicated by the fact that the size and shape of women's breasts change, if they experience menstrual cycles, during the cycle[15] and can experience unusual or unexpectedly rapid growth in size due to pregnancy, weight gain or loss, or medical conditions.[citation needed] Even breathing can substantially alter the measurements.[29]

text: Some women's breasts can change shape by as much as 20% per month:

text: "Breasts change shape quite consistently on a month-to-month basis, but they will individually change their volume by a different amount ... Some girls will change less than 10% and other girls can change by as much as 20%." Would it be better not to wear a bra at all then? "... In fact there are very few advantages in wearing existing bras. Having a bra that's generally supportive would have significant improvement particularly in terms of stopping them going south ... The skin is what gives the breasts their support"[50]

text: Increasing breast size[edit]

text: In 2010, the most common bra size sold in the UK was 36D.[17][51] In 2004, market research company Mintel reported that bust sizes in the United Kingdom had increased from 1998 to 2004 in younger as well as older consumers and that the shift was not limited to overweight women,[31] while a more recent study showed that the most often sold bra size in the US in 2008 was 36D.[52]

text: Researchers also said more women wear the correct—bigger—size now, spurred on by shows like BBC 1's What Not To Wear and Channel 4's How To Look Good Naked.[53]

text: Consumer measurement methods[edit]

text: Bra retailers recommend several methods for measuring band and cup size. These are based on two primary methods, either under the bust or over the bust, and sometimes both. Calculating the correct bra band size is complicated by a variety of factors. The American National Standards Institute states that while a voluntary consensus of sizes exists, there is much confusion to the ‘true’ size of clothing.[40] As a result, bra measurement can be considered an art and a science.[1] Online shopping and in-person bra shopping experiences may differ because online recommendations are based on averages and in-person shopping can be completely personalized so the shopper may easily try on band sizes above and below her between measured band size. For the woman with a large cup size and a between band size, they may find their cup size is not available in local stores so may have to shop online where most large cup sizes are readily available on certain sites. Others recommend rounding to the nearest whole number.[54]

text: Band measurement methods[edit]

text: There are several possible methods for measuring the bust.

text: Underbust +0[edit]

text: A measuring tape is pulled around the torso at the inframammary fold. The tape is then pulled tight while remaining horizontal and parallel to the floor. The measurement in inches is then rounded to the nearest even number for the band size.[55][56]

text: Underbust +4[edit]

text: This method begins the same way as the underbust +0 method, where a measuring tape is pulled tight around the torso under the bust while remaining horizontal. If the measurement is even, 4 is added to calculate the band size. If it is odd, 5 is added. Kohl’s uses this method for its online fitting guide.[57]

text: Sizing chart[edit]

text: Currently, many large U.S. department stores determine band size by starting with the measurement taken underneath the bust similar to the aforementioned underbust +0 and underbust +4 methods. A sizing chart or calculator then uses this measurement to determine the band size.[58] Band sizes calculated using this method vary between manufacturers, although the band sizes generally lie in between band sizes that would result from the underbust +0 method and underbust+4 method.

text: Above the breasts[edit]

text: Victoria's Secret uses this method, where a measuring tape is pulled around the torso under the armpit and above the bust. Because band sizes are most commonly manufactured in even numbers, the wearer must round to the closest even number.[59]

text: Cup measurement methods[edit]

text: Bra-wearers can calculate their cup size by finding the difference between their bust size and their band size.[58][60] The bust size, bust line measure, or over-bust measure is the measurement around the torso over the fullest part of the breasts, with the crest of the breast halfway between the elbow and shoulder,[61] usually over the nipples,[62] ideally while standing straight with arms to the side and wearing a properly fitted bra.[54] This practice assumes the current bra fits correctly. The measurements are made in the same units as the band size, either inches or centimetres. The cup size is calculated by subtracting the band size from the over-the-bust measurement.[63][64]

text: Cup sizes vary[edit]

text: Cup sizes vary from one country to another. The larger the cup size, the bigger the variation.[65]

text:
Over the bust/band measurement difference and cup size [66][67]

Difference
(inches)
<1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17

Cupsize
U.S.
AA
A
B
C
D
DD/E
DDD/F
DDDD/G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
—
—

Cupsize
UK/Austr.
AA
A
B
C
D
DD
E
F
FF
G
GG
H
HH
J
JJ
K
KK
L

tag: table

text: Surveys of bra sizes tend to be very dependent on the population studied and how it was obtained. For instance, one U.S. study reported that the most common size was 34B, followed by 34C, that 63% were size 34 and 39% cup size B. However, the survey sample was drawn from 103 Caucasian student volunteers at a Midwest U.S. university aged 18–25, and excluded pregnant and nursing women.[68]

text: Bra maker Triumph conducted a survey in 2007 to determine the percentage of women wearing four cup sizes, and found that 57% of British women, more than any other country, need a D cup.[69]

text:
Triumph Survey

Country
D
C
B
A

UK
57%
18%
19%
6%

Denmark
50%
19%
24%
7%

Netherlands
36%
27%
29%
8%

Belgium
28%
28%
35%
9%

France
26%
29%
38%
7%

Sweden
24%
30%
33%
14%

Greece
23%
28%
40%
9%

Switzerland
19%
24%
43%
14%

Austria
11%
27%
51%
10%

Italy
10%
21%
68%
1%

text: Measuring cup size without a bra[edit]

text: Bra-wearers who have difficulty calculating a correct cup size may be able to find a correct fit using a method adopted by plastic surgeons. Using a flexible tape measure, position the tape at the outside of the chest, under the arm, where the breast tissue begins.[70] Measure across the fullest part of the breast, usually across the nipple, to where the breast tissue stops at the breast bone.[71] This measuring approach assumes that the breasts are not so large or pendulous that they sag significantly,[62] making measuring across the fullness of the breast impractical.[citation needed] Only women whose breasts are firm and spherical can measure without a bra.[citation needed]

text: Conversion of the measurement to cup size is as follows:[71]

text:
Measuring cup size

Measurement
Cup size

inch
cm

7.0
17.8
A

7.5
19.1
A

8.0
20.3
B

8.5
21.6
B

9.0
22.9
C

9.5
24.1
C

10.0
25.4
D

10.5
26.7
D

11.0
27.9
DD

text: These cup measurements are only correct for a 34-inch band because cup size is relative to band size. The volume of a brassiere cup is the same for 30D, 32C, 34B, and 36A, though the shape of each cup may be different. These related bra sizes of the same cup volume are called sister sizes. It is sometimes possible that two adjacent sister sizes will both fit a person, since the cup volume is the same, while the band size can be adjusted to a small degree by using the hook and eye fasteners in the bra clasp.[72]

text: Consumer fit research[edit]

text: A 2012 study by White and Scurr University of Portsmouth compared method that adds 4 to the band size over-the-bust method used in many United Kingdom lingerie shops with and compared that to measurements obtained using a professional method.[citation needed] The study relied on the professional bra-fitting method described by McGhee and Steele (2010).[73]

text: The study utilized a five-step approach to obtain the best fitting bra size for an individual. The study measured 45 women using the traditional selection method that adds 4 to the band size over-the-bust method. Women tried bras on until they obtained the best fit based on professional bra fitting criteria. The researchers found that 76% of women overestimated their band and 84% underestimated their cup size.[citation needed] When women wear bras with too big a band, breast support is reduced.[citation needed] Too small a cup size may cause skin irritation.[citation needed] They noted that "ill-fitting bras and insufficient breast support can lead to the development of musculoskeletal pain and inhibit women participating in physical activity."[citation needed] The study recommended that women should be educated about the criteria for finding a well-fitting bra.[citation needed] They recommended that women measure under their bust to determine their band size rather than the traditional over the bust measurement method.[74]

text: Manufacturer design standards[edit]

text: Bra-labeling systems used around the world are at times misleading and confusing. Cup and band sizes vary around the world.[72] In countries that have adopted the European EN 13402 dress-size standard, the torso is measured in centimetres and rounded to the nearest multiple of 5 cm. Bra-fitting experts in the United Kingdom state that many women who buy off the rack without professional assistance wear up to two sizes too small.[53]

text: Manufacturer Fruit of the Loom attempted to solve the problem of finding a well-fitting bra for asymmetrical breasts by introducing Pick Your Perfect Bra, which allow women to choose a bra with two different cup sizes, although it is only available in A through D cup sizes.[75]

text:
Approximate (band) size equivalents between various systems

Under bust (cm)
58–62
63–67
68–72
73–77
78–82
83–87
88–92
93–97
98–102
103–107
108–112
113–117
118–122
123–127
128–132
133–142
143+

EU
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
120
125
130
135
140

FR, BE, ES
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
120
125
130
135
140
145
150
155

IT
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

US, UK (in)
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
42
44
46
48
50
52
54
56
58
60

AU, NZ
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38

UK dress
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36

text: There are several sizing systems in different countries. Most use the chest circumferences measurement system and lettered cup sizes, but there are some significant differences. Many bras available come in only 36 sizes.[31]

text: UK[edit]

text: The UK uses the inch-system, this means that the difference in chest circumference between the cup sizes is always one inch, or 2.54 cm. The difference between 2 band sizes is 2 inches or 5.08 cm.

text: Leading brands and manufacturers including Panache, Bestform, Gossard, Freya, Curvy Kate, Bravissimo and Fantasie, which use the British standard band sizes 28-30-32-34-36-38-40-42-44, and so on. Cup sizes are designated by AA-A-B-C-D-DD-E-F-FF-G-GG-H-HH-J-JJ-K-KK-L.[76]

text: However, some clothing retailers and mail order companies have their own house brands and use a custom sizing system. Marks and Spencers uses AA-A-B-C-D-DD-E-F-G-GG-H-J, leaving out FF and HH. As a result, their J-Cup is equal to a British standard H-cup.[citation needed] Evans and ASDA sell bras (ASDA as part of their George clothing range) whose sizing runs A-B-C-D-DD-E-F-G-H. Their H-Cup is roughly equal to a British standard G-cup.[citation needed]

text: Some retailers reserve AA for young teens, and use AAA[77][78][79] for women.

text: Australia/New Zealand[edit]

text: Australia and New Zealand use a permutation of the British system. Cup sizes are the same, but Australia's bra band measurement system is based on dress sizing charts.[80] However, dress sizes and cuts are calculated for B and C cups only, so basing the choice of band size upon dress size is not an accurate way to get the bra size. Depending upon a person's build, a size 16 may wear a 16 C (UK 40 C), a 14 DD, 12 F or a 10 G (UK 34 G) underneath their clothes, because all bra sizes are made for the same chest circumference of approx. 40 inches.[citation needed]

text: United States and Canada[edit]

text: Bra-sizing in the United States and Canada is very similar to the United Kingdom. Band sizes use the same designation in inches and the cups also increase by 1-inch-steps. However, some manufacturers use conflicting sizing methods. Some label bras beyond a C cup as D-DD-DDD-DDDD-E-EE-EEE-EEEE-F…, some use the variation: D1, D2, D3, D4, D5..... but many use the following system: A, B, C, D, DD, DDD, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O. and others label them like the British system D-DD-E-F-FF… Comparing the larger cup sizes between different manufacturers can be difficult.[citation needed]

text: In 2013, underwear maker Jockey International offered a new way to measure bra and cup size. It introduced a system with ten cup sizes per band size that are numbered and not lettered, designated as 1-36, 2-36 etc. The company developed the system over eight years, during which they scanned and measured the breasts and torsos of 800 women. Researchers also tracked the women's use of their bras at home.[81] To implement the system, women must purchase a set of plastic cups from the company to find their Jockey cup size. Some analysts were critical of the requirement to buy the measurement kit, since women must pay about USD$20 to adopt Jockey's proprietary system, in addition to the cost of the bras themselves.[81]

text: Continental Europe[edit]

text:
Band size

Underbust circumference
Bust size
Underbust size

cm
FR/BE/ES
EU
IT

58–62
75
60
0

63–67
80
65
1
I

68–72
85
70
2
II

73–77
90
75
3
III

78–82
95
80
4
IV, IIII

83–87
100
85
5
V

88–92
105
90
6
VI

93–97
110
95
7
VII

98–102
115
100
8
VIII

103–107
120
105
9
IX, VIIII

108–112
125
110
10
X

text:
Cup size

Difference [cm]
Cup

10–12
AA

12–14
A

14–16
B

16–18
C

18–20
D

20–22
E

22–24
F

24–26
G

26–28
H

text: In Continental Europe the torso is measured in centimetres and rounded to the nearest multiple of 5 cm. Band sizes run 65-70-75-80…, increasing in steps of 5 cm, similar to the English double inch. A person with a loosely measured underbust circumference of 78–82 cm should wear a band size 80.

text: The cup labels begin with "AA" for an 11±1 cm difference between bust and underbust circumference, i.e. not between bust circumference and band size as in the English systems[further explanation needed]. They increase in steps of 2 cm, instead of 2.5 cm or 1-inch, and except for the initial cup size letters are neither doubled nor skipped. In very large cup sizes this causes smaller cups than their English counterparts.

text: This system has been standardized in the European dress size standard EN 13402 introduced in 2006, but was in use in many European countries before that date.

text: South Korea/Japan[edit]

text: In South Korea and Japan the torso is measured in centimetres and rounded to the nearest multiple of 5 cm. Band sizes run 65-70-75-80…, increasing in steps of 5 cm, similar to the English double inch. A person with a loosely measured underbust circumference of 78–82 cm should wear a band size 80.

text: The cup labels begin with "AAA" for an 5±1.25 cm difference between bust and underbust circumference, i.e. similar bust circumference and band size as in the English systems. They increase in steps of 2.5 cm, and except for the initial cup size letters are neither doubled nor skipped.

text: Japanese sizes are the same as Korean ones, but the cup labels begin with "AA" for a 7.5±1.25 cm difference and usually precedes the bust designation, i.e. "B75" instead of "75B".

text: This system has been standardized in the Korea dress size standard KS K9404 introduced in 1999 and in Japan dress size standard JIS L4006 introduced in 1998.

text: France/Belgium/Spain[edit]

text: The French and Spanish system is a permutation of the Continental European sizing system. While cup sizes are the same, band sizes are exactly 15 cm larger than the European band size.

text: Italy[edit]

text: The Italian band size uses small consecutive integers instead of the underbust circumference rounded to the nearest multiple of 5 cm. Since it starts with size 0 for European size 60, the conversion consists of a division by 5 and then a subtraction of 12. The size designations are often given in Roman numerals.

text: Cup sizes have traditionally used a step size of 2.5 cm, which is close to the English inch of 2.54 cm, and featured some double letters for large cups, but in recent years some Italian manufacturers have switched over to the European 2-cm system.

text: Here is a conversion table for bra sizes in Italy with respect other countries:

text:
Italy
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII

Europe
65 cm
70 cm
75 cm
80 cm
85 cm
90 cm
95 cm
100 cm

UK & USA
30
32
34
36
38
40
42
44

France & Spain
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115

text: Advertising and retail influence[edit]

text: Manufacturers' marketing and advertising often appeals to fashion and image over fit, comfort, and function.[29][82] Since about 1994, manufacturers have re-focused their advertising, moving from advertising functional brassieres that emphasize support and foundation, to selling lingerie that emphasize fashion while sacrificing basic fit and function, like linings under scratchy lace.[83]

text: Women with larger breasts (cup size greater than D) can have a difficult time finding a correctly sized bra[citation needed] because many stores do not offer a sufficient range of bras in greater sizes.[citation needed] Many salespeople are not trained in how to properly fit a bra, and when the customer can not find what they want, will sell the customer the next largest or smallest size.[25] Some salespeople measure customers over their shirt and bra, adding errors to every measurement.[citation needed] Elisabeth Squires, an author of a breast-health and bra guide, says "Most really good fitters will tell you this is an art, not a science."[84]

text: Research[edit]

text: English mechanical engineer and professor John Tyrer from Loughborough University tackled the problem of bra design after his wife returned disheartened from a shopping trip when she could not find anything to suit her needs.[85] On assignment from the British government,[86] he uncovered that 80% of women wear the wrong size of bra.[citation needed] He reported that women are measuring their chest diameter and maximum breast diameter rather than their breast volume, especially when the body is in motion. According to Tyrer, "to get the most supportive and fitted bra it's infinitely better if you know the volume of the breast and the size of the back.".[85] He says the A, B, C, D cup measurement system is flawed. "It's like measuring a motor car by the diameter of the gas cap." "The whole design is fundamentally flawed. It's an instrument of torture."[86] Tyrer has developed a bra design with crossed straps in the back.[citation needed] These use the weight of one breast to lift the other using counterbalance.[citation needed] Standard designs constrict chest movement during breathing.[citation needed] One of the tools used in the development of Tyrer's design has been a projective differential shape body analyzer for 40,000 GBP.[citation needed]

text: Contrary to popular belief, breasts weigh up to ~1 kg and not ~0.2 .. 0.3 kg.[85][87][88][89] Tyrer said, "By measuring the diameter of the chest and breasts current measurements are supposed to tell you something about the size and volume of each breast, but in fact it doesn't".[85] Bra companies remain reluctant to manufacture Tyrer's prototype,[86] which is a front closing bra with more vertical orientation and adjustable cups.[86]

text: Calculating cup volume and breast weight[edit]

text: The average breast weighs about 0.5 kilograms (1.1 lb).[90] Each breast contributes to about 4–5% of the body fat.[citation needed] The density of fatty tissue is more or less equal to 0.9 kg/l for all women.[citation needed]

text: If a cup is a hemisphere, its volume V is given by the following formula:[91]

text:
V
=

2
π

r

3

3

{\displaystyle V={2\pi r^{3} \over 3}}

V
=

π

D

3

12

{\displaystyle V={\pi D^{3} \over 12}}

text: where r is the radius of the cup, and D is its diameter.

text: If the cup is an hemi-ellipsoid, its volume is given by the formula :[citation needed]

text:
V
=

2
π
a
b
c

3

{\displaystyle V={2\pi abc \over 3}}

V
≈

π
×
c
w
×
c
d
×
w
l

12

{\displaystyle V\approx {\pi \times cw\times cd\times wl \over 12}}

text: where a, b and c are the three semi-axes of the hemi-ellipsoid, and cw cd and wl are respectively the cup width, the cup depth and the length of the wire.

text: Cups give a hemi-spherical shape to breasts and underwires give shape to cups.[citation needed] So the curvature radius of the underwire is the key parameter to determine volume and weight of the breast.[citation needed] The same underwires are used for the cups of sizes 36A, 34B, 32C, 30D etc. ... so those cups have the same volume.[citation needed] The reference numbers of underwire sizes are based on a B cup bra,[92] for example underwire size 32 is for 32B cup (and 34A, 30C...). An underwire size 30 width has a curvature diameter of 3-inch 5/6 ≈ 9.7 cm and this diameter increases by ⅓ inch ≈ 0.847 cm by size.[92] The table below shows volume calculations for some cups that can be found in a ready-to-wear large size shop.[93]

text:
Underwire size
Bra size (US system)
Bra size (UK system)
Cup diameter[92]
Volume of one cup
Weight of both breasts

30
32A 30B 28C
32A 30B 28C
9.7 cm (3 in 5/6)
240 cm3 (0.51 US pt)
0.43 kg (0.95 lb)

32
34A 32B 30C 28D
34A 32B 30C 28D
10.6 cm (4 in 1/6)
310 cm3 (0.66 US pt)
0.56 kg (1.2 lb)

34
36A 34B 32C 30D 28E
36A 34B 32C 30D 28DD
11.4 cm (4 in 1/2)
390 cm3 (0.82 US pt)
0.70 kg (1.5 lb)

36
38A 36B 34C 32D 30E 28F
38A 36B 34C 32D 30DD 28E
12.3 cm (4 in 5/6)
480 cm3 (1.0 US pt)
0.86 kg (1.9 lb)

38
40A 38B 36C 34D 32E 30F 28G
40A 38B 36C 34D 32DD 30E 28F
13.1 cm (5 in 1/6)
590 cm3 (1.2 US pt)
1.1 kg (2.4 lb)

40
42A 40B 38C 36D 34E 32F 30G 28H
42A 40B 38C 36D 34DD 32E 30F 28FF
14.0 cm (5 in 1/2)
710 cm3 (1.5 US pt)
1.3 kg (2.9 lb)

42
44A 42B 40C 38D 36E 34F 32G 30H 28I
44A 42B 40C 38D 36DD 34E 32F 30FF 28G
14.8 cm (5 in 5/6)
850 cm3 (1.8 US pt)
1.5 kg (3.3 lb)

44
44B 42C 40D 38E 36F 34G 32H 30I 28J
44B 42C 40D 38DD 36E 34F 32FF 30G 28GG
15.7 cm (6 in 1/6)
1,000 cm3 (2.1 US pt)
1.8 kg (4.0 lb)

46
44C 42D 40E 38F 36G 34H 32I 30J 28K
44C 42D 40DD 38E 36F 34FF 32G 30GG 28H
16.5 cm (6 in 1/2)
1,180 cm3 (2.5 US pt)
2.1 kg (4.6 lb)

48
44D 42E 40F 38G 36H 34I 32J 30K 28L
44D 42DD 40E 38F 36FF 34G 32GG 30H 28HH
17.4 cm (6 in 5/6)
1,370 cm3 (2.9 US pt)
2.5 kg (5.5 lb)

50
44E 42F 40G 38H 36I 34J 32K 30L 28M
44DD 42E 40F 38FF 36G 34GG 32H 30HH 28J
18.2 cm (7 in 1/6)
1,580 cm3 (3.3 US pt)
2.8 kg (6.2 lb)

52
44F 42G 40H 38I 36J 34K 32L 30M 28N
44E 42F 40FF 38G 36GG 34H 32HH 30J 28JJ
19.0 cm (7 in 1/2)
1,810 cm3 (3.8 US pt)
3.3 kg (7.3 lb)

54
44G 42H 40I 38J 36K 34L 32M 30N 28O
44F 42FF 40G 38GG 36H 34HH 32J 30JJ 28K
19.9 cm (7 in 5/6)
2,060 cm3 (4.4 US pt)
3.7 kg (8.2 lb)

56
44H 42I 40J 38K 36L 34M 32N 30O 28P
44FF 42G 40GG 38H 36HH 34J 32JJ 30K 28KK
20.7 cm (8 in 1/6)
2,340 cm3 (4.9 US pt)
4.2 kg (9.3 lb)

58
44I 42J 40K 38L 36M 34N 32O 30P
44G 42GG 40H 38HH 36J 34JJ 32K 30KK
21.6 cm (8 in 1/2)
2,640 cm3 (5.6 US pt)
4.8 kg (11 lb)

60
44J 42K 40L 38M 36N 34O 32P
44GG 42H 40HH 38J 36JJ 34K 32KK
22.4 cm (8 in 5/6)
3,000 cm3 (6.3 US pt)
5.3 kg (12 lb)