document_title: Light-independent reactions

question_text: where in the plant cell does the calvin cycle take place

text: Light-independent reactions

text: Coupling to other metabolic pathways [edit]

text: These reactions are closely coupled to the thylakoid electron transport chain as reducing power provided by NADPH produced in the photosystem I is actively needed. The process of photorespiration, also known as C2 cycle, is also coupled to the dark reactions, as it results from an alternative reaction of the RuBisCO enzyme, and its final byproduct is also another glyceraldehyde-3-P.

text: The Calvin cycle, Calvin–Benson–Bassham (CBB) cycle, reductive pentose phosphate cycle or C3 cycle is a series of biochemical redox reactions that take place in the stroma of chloroplast in photosynthetic organisms.

text: The cycle was discovered by Melvin Calvin, James Bassham, and Andrew Benson at the University of California, Berkeley[3] by using the radioactive isotope carbon-14.

text: Photosynthesis occurs in two stages in a cell. In the first stage, light-dependent reactions capture the energy of light and use it to make the energy-storage and transport molecules ATP and NADPH. The Calvin cycle uses the energy from short-lived electronically excited carriers to convert carbon dioxide and water into organic compounds[4] that can be used by the organism (and by animals that feed on it). This set of reactions is also called carbon fixation. The key enzyme of the cycle is called RuBisCO. In the following biochemical equations, the chemical species (phosphates and carboxylic acids) exist in equilibria among their various ionized states as governed by the pH.

text: The enzymes in the Calvin cycle are functionally equivalent to most enzymes used in other metabolic pathways such as gluconeogenesis and the pentose phosphate pathway, but they are found in the chloroplast stroma instead of the cell cytosol, separating the reactions. They are activated in the light (which is why the name "dark reaction" is misleading), and also by products of the light-dependent reaction. These regulatory functions prevent the Calvin cycle from being respired to carbon dioxide. Energy (in the form of ATP) would be wasted in carrying out these reactions that have no net productivity.

text: The sum of reactions in the Calvin cycle is the following:

text:
Hexose (six-carbon) sugars are not a product of the Calvin cycle. Although many texts list a product of photosynthesis as C
6H
12O
6, this is mainly a convenience to counter the equation of respiration, where six-carbon sugars are oxidized in mitochondria. The carbohydrate products of the Calvin cycle are three-carbon sugar phosphate molecules, or "triose phosphates", namely, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P).

text: Steps[edit]

text: In the first stage of the Calvin cycle, a CO2 molecule is incorporated into one of two three-carbon molecules (glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate or G3P), where it uses up two molecules of ATP and two molecules of NADPH, which had been produced in the light-dependent stage. The three steps involved are:

text:
The enzyme RuBisCO catalyses the carboxylation of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate, RuBP, a 5-carbon compound, by carbon dioxide (a total of 6 carbons) in a two-step reaction.[5] The product of the first step is enediol-enzyme complex that can capture CO
2 or O
2. Thus, enediol-enzyme complex is the real carboxylase/oxygenase. The CO
2 that is captured by enediol in second step produces an unstable six-carbon compound called 2-carboxy 3-keto 1,5-biphosphoribotol (or 3-keto-2-carboxyarabinitol 1,5-bisphosphate) that immediately splits into 2 molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate, or 3-PGA, a 3-carbon compound[6] (also: 3-phosphoglyceric acid, PGA, 3PGA).
The enzyme phosphoglycerate kinase catalyses the phosphorylation of 3-PGA by ATP (which was produced in the light-dependent stage). 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate (1,3BPGA, glycerate-1,3-bisphosphate) and ADP are the products. (However, note that two 3-PGAs are produced for every CO
2 that enters the cycle, so this step utilizes two ATP per CO
2 fixed.)
The enzyme glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase catalyses the reduction of 1,3BPGA by NADPH (which is another product of the light-dependent stage). Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (also called G3P, GP, TP, PGAL, GAP) is produced, and the NADPH itself is oxidized and becomes NADP+. Again, two NADPH are utilized per CO
2 fixed.

tag: ol

text: The next stage in the Calvin cycle is to regenerate RuBP. Five G3P molecules produce three RuBP molecules, using up three molecules of ATP. Since each CO2 molecule produces two G3P molecules, three CO2 molecules produce six G3P molecules, of which five are used to regenerate RuBP, leaving a net gain of one G3P molecule per three CO2 molecules (as would be expected from the number of carbon atoms involved).

text: The regeneration stage can be broken down into steps.

text:
Triose phosphate isomerase converts all of the G3P reversibly into dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP), also a 3-carbon molecule.
Aldolase and fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase convert a G3P and a DHAP into fructose 6-phosphate (6C). A phosphate ion is lost into solution.
Then fixation of another CO
2 generates two more G3P.
F6P has two carbons removed by transketolase, giving erythrose-4-phosphate. The two carbons on transketolase are added to a G3P, giving the ketose xylulose-5-phosphate (Xu5P).
E4P and a DHAP (formed from one of the G3P from the second CO
2 fixation) are converted into sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphate (7C) by aldolase enzyme.
Sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphatase (one of only three enzymes of the Calvin cycle that are unique to plants) cleaves sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphate into sedoheptulose-7-phosphate, releasing an inorganic phosphate ion into solution.
Fixation of a third CO
2 generates two more G3P. The ketose S7P has two carbons removed by transketolase, giving ribose-5-phosphate (R5P), and the two carbons remaining on transketolase are transferred to one of the G3P, giving another Xu5P. This leaves one G3P as the product of fixation of 3 CO
2, with generation of three pentoses that can be converted to Ru5P.
R5P is converted into ribulose-5-phosphate (Ru5P, RuP) by phosphopentose isomerase. Xu5P is converted into RuP by phosphopentose epimerase.
Finally, phosphoribulokinase (another plant-unique enzyme of the pathway) phosphorylates RuP into RuBP, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate, completing the Calvin cycle. This requires the input of one ATP.

text:
Thus, of six G3P produced, five are used to make three RuBP (5C) molecules (totaling 15 carbons), with only one G3P available for subsequent conversion to hexose. This requires nine ATP molecules and six NADPH molecules per three CO
2 molecules. The equation of the overall Calvin cycle is shown diagrammatically below.

text:
RuBisCO also reacts competitively with O
2 instead of CO
2 in photorespiration. The rate of photorespiration is higher at high temperatures. Photorespiration turns RuBP into 3-PGA and 2-phosphoglycolate, a 2-carbon molecule that can be converted via glycolate and glyoxalate to glycine. Via the glycine cleavage system and tetrahydrofolate, two glycines are converted into serine +CO
2. Serine can be converted back to 3-phosphoglycerate. Thus, only 3 of 4 carbons from two phosphoglycolates can be converted back to 3-PGA. It can be seen that photorespiration has very negative consequences for the plant, because, rather than fixing CO
2, this process leads to loss of CO
2. C4 carbon fixation evolved to circumvent photorespiration, but can occur only in certain plants native to very warm or tropical climates—corn, for example.

text: Products[edit]

text: The immediate products of one turn of the Calvin cycle are 2 glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) molecules, 3 ADP, and 2 NADP+. (ADP and NADP+ are not really "products." They are regenerated and later used again in the Light-dependent reactions). Each G3P molecule is composed of 3 carbons. For the Calvin cycle to continue, RuBP (ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate) must be regenerated. So, 5 out of 6 carbons from the 2 G3P molecules are used for this purpose. Therefore, there is only 1 net carbon produced to play with for each turn. To create 1 surplus G3P requires 3 carbons, and therefore 3 turns of the Calvin cycle. To make one glucose molecule (which can be created from 2 G3P molecules) would require 6 turns of the Calvin cycle. Surplus G3P can also be used to form other carbohydrates such as starch, sucrose, and cellulose, depending on what the plant needs.[7]

text: Light-dependent regulation[edit]

text: These reactions do not occur in the dark or at night. There is a light-dependent regulation of the cycle enzymes, as the third step requires reduced NADP.

text: There are two regulation systems at work when the cycle must be turned on or off: the thioredoxin/ferredoxin activation system, which activates some of the cycle enzymes; and the RuBisCo enzyme activation, active in the Calvin cycle, which involves its own activase.

text: The thioredoxin/ferredoxin system activates the enzymes glyceraldehyde-3-P dehydrogenase, glyceraldehyde-3-P phosphatase, fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase, sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphatase, and ribulose-5-phosphatase kinase, which are key points of the process. This happens when light is available, as the ferredoxin protein is reduced in the photosystem I complex of the thylakoid electron chain when electrons are circulating through it.[8] Ferredoxin then binds to and reduces the thioredoxin protein, which activates the cycle enzymes by severing a cystine bond found in all these enzymes. This is a dynamic process as the same bond is formed again by other proteins that deactivate the enzymes. The implications of this process are that the enzymes remain mostly activated by day and are deactivated in the dark when there is no more reduced ferredoxin available.

text: The enzyme RuBisCo has its own, more complex activation process. It requires that a specific lysine amino acid be carbamylated to activate the enzyme. This lysine binds to RuBP and leads to a non-functional state if left uncarbamylated. A specific activase enzyme, called RuBisCo activase, helps this carbamylation process by removing one proton from the lysine and making the binding of the carbon dioxide molecule possible. Even then the RuBisCo enzyme is not yet functional, as it needs a magnesium ion bound to the lysine to function. This magnesium ion is released from the thylakoid lumen when the inner pH drops due to the active pumping of protons from the electron flow. RuBisCo activase itself is activated by increased concentrations of ATP in the stroma caused by its phosphorylation.


document_title: United States dollar

question_text: who's picture is on the two dollar bill

question_tokens: who 's picture is on the two dollar bill

root

text: United States dollar

text: Overview[edit]

text: Article I, Section 8 of the U.S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power "To coin money".[13] Laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U.S.C. § 5112. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued.[14] These coins are both designated in Section 5112 as "legal tender" in payment of debts.[14] The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar. The pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins, which have values ranging from one cent to 100 dollars.[14] These other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar.

tag: p

text: The Constitution provides that "a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be published from time to time".[15] That provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code.[16] The sums of money reported in the "Statements" are currently being expressed in U.S. dollars (for example, see the 2009 Financial Report of the United States Government).[17] The U.S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States.

text: The word "dollar" is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution. There, "dollars" is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U.S. Congress passed a Coinage Act. Section 9 of that act authorized the production of various coins, including "DOLLARS OR UNITS—each to be of the value of a Spanish milled dollar as the same is now current, and to contain three hundred and seventy-one grains and four sixteenth parts of a grain of pure, or four hundred and sixteen grains of standard silver". Section 20 of the act provided, "That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units... and that all accounts in the public offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation". In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States.

text: Unlike the Spanish milled dollar, the U.S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. In addition to the dollar the coinage act officially established monetary units of mill or one-thousandth of a dollar (symbol ₥), cent or one-hundredth of a dollar (symbol ¢), dime or one-tenth of a dollar, and eagle or ten dollars, with prescribed weights and composition of gold, silver, or copper for each. It was proposed in the mid-1800s that one hundred dollars be known as a union, but no union coins were ever struck and only patterns for the $50 half union exist. However, only cents are in everyday use as divisions of the dollar; "dime" is used solely as the name of the coin with the value of 10¢, while "eagle" and "mill" are largely unknown to the general public, though mills are sometimes used in matters of tax levies, and gasoline prices are usually in the form of $X.XX9 per gallon, e.g., $3.599, more commonly written as $3.599⁄10. When currently issued in circulating form, denominations equal to or less than a dollar are emitted as U.S. coins while denominations equal to or greater than a dollar are emitted as Federal Reserve notes (with the exception of gold, silver and platinum coins valued up to $100 as legal tender, but worth far more as bullion). Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the note form is significantly more common. In the past, "paper money" was occasionally issued in denominations less than a dollar (fractional currency) and gold coins were issued for circulation up to the value of $20 (known as the "double eagle", discontinued in the 1930s). The term eagle was used in the Coinage Act of 1792 for the denomination of ten dollars, and subsequently was used in naming gold coins. Paper currency less than one dollar in denomination, known as "fractional currency", was also sometimes pejoratively referred to as "shinplasters". In 1854, James Guthrie, then Secretary of the Treasury, proposed creating $100, $50 and $25 gold coins, which were referred to as a "Union", "Half Union", and "Quarter Union",[18] thus implying a denomination of 1 Union = $100.

text: Today, USD notes are made from cotton fiber paper, unlike most common paper, which is made of wood fiber. U.S. coins are produced by the United States Mint. U.S. dollar banknotes are printed by the Bureau of Engraving and Printing and, since 1914, have been issued by the Federal Reserve. The "large-sized notes" issued before 1928 measured 7.42 by 3.125 inches (188.5 by 79.4 mm); small-sized notes, introduced that year, measure 6.14 by 2.61 by 0.0043 inches (155.96 by 66.29 by 0.11 mm). When the current, smaller sized U.S. currency was introduced it was referred to as Philippine-sized currency because the Philippines had previously adopted the same size for its legal currency.

text: Etymology[edit]

text: In the 16th century, Count Hieronymus Schlick of Bohemia began minting coins known as Joachimstalers (from German thal, or nowadays usually Tal, "valley", cognate with "dale" in English), named for Joachimstal, the valley where the silver was mined (St. Joachim's Valley, now Jáchymov; then part of the Kingdom of Bohemia, now part of the Czech Republic).[19] Joachimstaler was later shortened to the German Taler, a word that eventually found its way into Danish and Swedish as daler, Norwegian as dalar and daler, Dutch as daler or daalder, Ethiopian as ታላሪ (talari), Hungarian as tallér, Italian as tallero, and English as dollar.[19] Alternatively, thaler is said to come from the German coin Guldengroschen ("great guilder", being of silver but equal in value to a gold guilder), minted from the silver from Joachimsthal.

text: The coins minted at Joachimsthal soon lent their name to other coins of similar size and weight from other places. One such example, was a Dutch coin depicting a lion, hence its Dutch name leeuwendaler (in English: lion dollar).

text: The leeuwendaler was authorized to contain 427.16 grains of .75 fine silver and passed locally for between 36 and 42 stuivers. It was lighter than the large-denomination coins then in circulation, thus it was more advantageous for a Dutch merchant to pay a foreign debt in leeuwendalers and it became the coin of choice for foreign trade.

text: The leeuwendaler was popular in the Dutch East Indies and in the Dutch New Netherland Colony (New York), and circulated throughout the Thirteen Colonies during the 17th and early 18th centuries. It was also popular throughout Eastern Europe, where it led to the current Romanian and Moldovan currency being called leu (literally "lion").

text: Among the English-speaking community, the coin came to be popularly known as lion dollar – and is the origin of the name dollar.[20] The modern American-English pronunciation of dollar is still remarkably close to the 17th-century Dutch pronunciation of daler.[21]

text: By analogy with this lion dollar, Spanish pesos – with the same weight and shape as the lion dollar – came to be known as Spanish dollars.[21] By the mid-18th century, the lion dollar had been replaced by the Spanish dollar, the famous "piece of eight", which was distributed widely in the Spanish colonies in the New World and in the Philippines.[22] Eventually, dollar became the name of the first official American currency.

text: Nicknames[edit]

text: The colloquialism "buck"(s) (much like the British word "quid"(s, pl) for the pound sterling) is often used to refer to dollars of various nations, including the U.S. dollar. This term, dating to the 18th century, may have originated with the colonial leather trade. It may also have originated from a poker term.[23] "Greenback" is another nickname originally applied specifically to the 19th century Demand Note dollars created by Abraham Lincoln to finance the costs of the Civil War for the North.[24] The original note was printed in black and green on the back side. It is still used to refer to the U.S. dollar (but not to the dollars of other countries). Other well-known names of the dollar as a whole in denominations include "greenmail", "green" and "dead presidents" (the last because deceased presidents are pictured on most bills).

text: A "grand", sometimes shortened to simply "G", is a common term for the amount of $1,000. The suffix "K" or "k" (from "kilo-") is also commonly used to denote this amount (such as "$10k" to mean $10,000). However, the $1,000 note is no longer in general use. A "large" or "stack", it is usually a reference to a multiple of $1,000 (such as "fifty large" meaning $50,000). The $100 note is nicknamed "Benjamin", "Benji", "Ben", or "Franklin" (after Benjamin Franklin), "C-note" (C being the Roman numeral for 100), "Century note" or "bill" (e.g. "two bills" being $200). The $50 note is occasionally called a "yardstick" or a "grant" (after President Ulysses S. Grant, pictured on the obverse). The $20 note is referred to as a "double sawbuck", "Jackson" (after Andrew Jackson), or "double eagle". The $10 note is referred to as a "sawbuck", "ten-spot" or "Hamilton" (after Alexander Hamilton). The $5 note as "Lincoln", "fin", "fiver" or "five-spot". The infrequently-used $2 note is sometimes called "deuce", "Tom", or "Jefferson" (after Thomas Jefferson). The $1 note as a "single" or "buck". The dollar has also been referred to as a "bone" and "bones" in plural (e.g. "twenty bones" is equal to $20). The newer designs, with portraits displayed in the main body of the obverse (rather than in cameo insets), upon paper color-coded by denomination, are sometimes referred to as "bigface" notes or "Monopoly money".

text: "Piastre" was the original French word for the U.S. dollar, used for example in the French text of the Louisiana Purchase. Calling the dollar a piastre is still common among the speakers of Cajun French and New England French. Modern French uses dollar for this unit of currency as well. The term is still used as slang for U.S. dollars in the French-speaking Caribbean islands, most notably Haiti.

text: Dollar sign[edit]

text: The symbol $, usually written before the numerical amount, is used for the U.S. dollar (as well as for many other currencies). The sign was the result of a late 18th-century evolution of the scribal abbreviation "ps" for the peso, the common name for the Spanish dollars that were in wide circulation in the New World from the 16th to the 19th centuries. These Spanish pesos or dollars were minted in Spanish America, namely in Mexico City; Potosí, Bolivia; and Lima, Peru. The p and the s eventually came to be written over each other giving rise to $.[25][26][27][28]

text: Another popular explanation is that it is derived from the Pillars of Hercules on the Spanish Coat of arms of the Spanish dollar. These Pillars of Hercules on the silver Spanish dollar coins take the form of two vertical bars (||) and a swinging cloth band in the shape of an "S".

text: Yet another explanation suggests that the dollar sign was formed from the capital letters U and S written or printed one on top of the other. This theory, popularized by novelist Ayn Rand in Atlas Shrugged,[29] does not consider the fact that the symbol was already in use before the formation of the United States.[30]

text: History[edit]

text: The American dollar coin was initially based on the value and look of the Spanish dollar, used widely in Spanish America from the 16th to the 19th centuries. The first dollar coins issued by the United States Mint (founded 1792) were similar in size and composition to the Spanish dollar, minted in Mexico and Peru. The Spanish, U.S. silver dollars, and later, Mexican silver pesos circulated side by side in the United States, and the Spanish dollar and Mexican peso remained legal tender until the Coinage Act of 1857. The coinage of various English colonies also circulated. The lion dollar was popular in the Dutch New Netherland Colony (New York), but the lion dollar also circulated throughout the English colonies during the 17th century and early 18th century. Examples circulating in the colonies were usually worn so that the design was not fully distinguishable, thus they were sometimes referred to as "dog dollars".[31]

text: The U.S. dollar was first defined by the Coinage Act of 1792, which specified a "dollar" to be based in the Spanish milled dollar and of 371 grains and 4 sixteenths part of a grain of pure or 416 grains (27.0 g) of standard silver and an "eagle" to be 247 and 4 eighths of a grain or 270 grains (17 g) of gold (again depending on purity).[32] The choice of the value 371 grains arose from Alexander Hamilton's decision to base the new American unit on the average weight of a selection of worn Spanish dollars. Hamilton got the treasury to weigh a sample of Spanish dollars and the average weight came out to be 371 grains. A new Spanish dollar was usually about 377 grains in weight, and so the new U.S. dollar was at a slight discount in relation to the Spanish dollar.

text: The same coinage act also set the value of an eagle at 10 dollars, and the dollar at 1⁄10 eagle. It called for 90% silver alloy coins in denominations of 1, 1⁄2, 1⁄4, 1⁄10, and 1⁄20 dollars; it called for 90% gold alloy coins in denominations of 1, 1⁄2, 1⁄4, and 1⁄10 eagles. The value of gold or silver contained in the dollar was then converted into relative value in the economy for the buying and selling of goods. This allowed the value of things to remain fairly constant over time, except for the influx and outflux of gold and silver in the nation's economy.[33]

text: The early currency of the United States did not exhibit faces of presidents, as is the custom now;[34] although today, by law, only the portrait of a deceased individual may appear on United States currency.[35] In fact, the newly formed government was against having portraits of leaders on the currency, a practice compared to the policies of European monarchs.[36] The currency as we know it today did not get the faces they currently have until after the early 20th century; before that "heads" side of coinage used profile faces and striding, seated, and standing figures from Greek and Roman mythology and composite Native Americans. The last coins to be converted to profiles of historic Americans were the dime (1946) and the Dollar (1971).

text: For articles on the currencies of the colonies and states, see Connecticut pound, Delaware pound, Georgia pound, Maryland pound, Massachusetts pound, New Hampshire pound, New Jersey pound, New York pound, North Carolina pound, Pennsylvania pound, Rhode Island pound, South Carolina pound, and Virginia pound.

text: Continental currency[edit]

text: During the American Revolution the thirteen colonies became independent states. Freed from British monetary regulations, they each issued £sd paper money to pay for military expenses. The Continental Congress also began issuing "Continental Currency" denominated in Spanish dollars. The dollar was valued relative to the states' currencies at the following rates:

text:
5 shillings – Georgia
6 shillings – Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Virginia
7 1⁄2 shillings – Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey, Pennsylvania
8 shillings – New York, North Carolina
32 1⁄2 shillings – South Carolina

tag: ul

text: Continental currency depreciated badly during the war, giving rise to the famous phrase "not worth a continental".[37] A primary problem was that monetary policy was not coordinated between Congress and the states, which continued to issue bills of credit. Additionally, neither Congress nor the governments of the several states had the will or the means to retire the bills from circulation through taxation or the sale of bonds.[38] The currency was ultimately replaced by the silver dollar at the rate of 1 silver dollar to 1000 continental dollars.

text: Silver and gold standards[edit]

text: From 1792, when the Mint Act was passed, the dollar was defined as 371.25 grains (24.056 g) of silver. The gold coins that were minted were not given any denomination and traded for a market value relative to the Congressional standard of the silver dollar. 1834 saw a shift in the gold standard to 23.2 grains (1.50 g), followed by a slight adjustment to 23.22 grains (1.505 g) in 1837 (16:1 ratio).[citation needed]

text: In 1862, paper money was issued without the backing of precious metals, due to the Civil War. Silver and gold coins continued to be issued and in 1878 the link between paper money and coins was reinstated. This disconnection from gold and silver backing also occurred during the War of 1812. The use of paper money not backed by precious metals had also occurred under the Articles of Confederation from 1777 to 1788. With no solid backing and being easily counterfeited, the continentals quickly lost their value, giving rise to the phrase "not worth a continental". This was a primary reason for the "No state shall... make any thing but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts" clause in article 1, section 10 of the United States Constitution.

text: In order to finance the War of 1812, Congress authorized the issuance of Treasury Notes, interest-bearing short-term debt that could be used to pay public dues. While they were intended to serve as debt, they did function "to a limited extent" as money. Treasury Notes were again printed to help resolve the reduction in public revenues resulting from the Panic of 1837 and the Panic of 1857, as well as to help finance the Mexican–American War and the Civil War.

text: In addition to Treasury Notes, in 1861, Congress authorized the Treasury to borrow $50 million in the form of Demand Notes, which did not bear interest but could be redeemed on demand for precious metals. However, by December 1861, the Union government's supply of specie was outstripped by demand for redemption and they were forced to suspend redemption temporarily. The following February, Congress passed the Legal Tender Act of 1862, issuing United States Notes, which were not redeemable on demand and bore no interest, but were legal tender, meaning that creditors had to accept them at face value for any payment except for public debts and import tariffs. However, silver and gold coins continued to be issued, resulting in the depreciation of the newly printed notes through Gresham's Law. In 1869, Supreme Court ruled in Hepburn v. Griswold that Congress could not require creditors to accept United States Notes, but overturned that ruling the next year in the Legal Tender Cases. In 1875, Congress passed the Specie Payment Resumption Act, requiring the Treasury to allow US Notes to be redeemed for gold after January 1, 1879. The Treasury ceased to issue United States Notes in 1971.

text: The Gold Standard Act of 1900 abandoned the bimetallic standard and defined the dollar as 23.22 grains (1.505 g) of gold, equivalent to setting the price of 1 troy ounce of gold at $20.67. Silver coins continued to be issued for circulation until 1964, when all silver was removed from dimes and quarters, and the half dollar was reduced to 40% silver. Silver half dollars were last issued for circulation in 1970. Gold coins were confiscated by Executive Order 6102 issued in 1933 by Franklin Roosevelt. The gold standard was changed to 13.71 grains (0.888 g), equivalent to setting the price of 1 troy ounce of gold at $35. This standard persisted until 1968.

text: Between 1968 and 1975, a variety of pegs to gold were put in place, eventually culminating in a sudden end, on August 15, 1971, to the convertibility of dollars to gold later dubbed the Nixon Shock. The last peg was $42.22 per ounce[citation needed] before the U.S. dollar was allowed to freely float on currency markets.

text: According to the Bureau of Engraving and Printing, the largest note it ever printed was the $100,000 Gold Certificate, Series 1934. These notes were printed from December 18, 1934, through January 9, 1935, and were issued by the Treasurer of the United States to Federal Reserve Banks only against an equal amount of gold bullion held by the Treasury. These notes were used for transactions between Federal Reserve Banks and were not circulated among the general public.

text: Coins[edit]

text: Official United States coins have been produced every year from 1792 to the present.

text:
Denomination
Common name
Front
Reverse
Portrait and design date
Reverse motif and design date
Weight
Diameter
Material
Edge
Circulation

Cent
1¢
penny

Abraham Lincoln
Union Shield
2.5 g
(0.088 oz)
0.75 in
(19.05 mm)
97.5% Zn
2.5% Cu
plain
Wide

Five-Cent
5¢
nickel

Thomas Jefferson
Monticello
5 g
(0.176 oz)
0.835 in
(21.21 mm)
75% Cu
25% Ni
plain
Wide

Dime
10¢
dime

Franklin D. Roosevelt
olive branch, torch, oak branch
0.08 oz
(2.268 g)
0.705 in
(17.91 mm)
91.67% Cu
8.33% Ni
118 reeds
Wide

Quarter Dollar
25¢
quarter

George Washington
Various; five designs per year
0.2 oz
(5.67 g)
0.955 in
(24.26 mm)
91.67% Cu
8.33% Ni
119 reeds
Wide

Half Dollar
50¢
half

John F. Kennedy
Presidential Seal
0.4 oz
(11.34 g)
1.205 in
(30.61 mm)
91.67% Cu
8.33% Ni
150 reeds
Limited

Dollar coin
$1
dollar coin, golden dollar

Profile of Sacagawea with her child, Jean Baptiste Charbonneau
Bald eagle in flight (2000–2008), Various; new design per year
0.286 oz
(8.10 g)
1.043 in
(26.50 mm)
88.5% Cu
6% Zn
3.5% Mn
2% Ni
Lettered
Limited

tag: table

text: Discontinued coin denominations include:

text:
Half cent: 1⁄2¢, 1793–1857
Fugio Cent: 1¢, 1787
Two-cent piece: 2¢, 1863–1873
Three-cent bronze: 3¢, 1863 (not circulated)
Three-cent nickel: 3¢, 1865–1889
Trime: 3¢, 1851–1873
Half dime: 5¢, 1792–1873
Twenty-cent piece: 20¢, 1875–1878
Gold dollar: $1.00, 1849–1889
Quarter eagle: $2.50, 1792–1929
Three-dollar piece: $3.00, 1854–1889
Stella: $4.00, (not circulated)
Half eagle: $5.00, 1795–1929, minted as a commemorative 1986–present
Eagle: $10.00, minted as a commemorative 1984–2003
Double eagle: $20.00, 1849–1933, 2009
Half-union: $50.00, 1877 (pattern only), 1915 (Panama–Pacific International Exposition coin)
Union: $100.00, 2015 (High relief; not circulated)

text: Collector coins for which everyday transactions are non-existent.[39]

text:
American Eagles originally were not available from the Mint for individuals but had to be purchased from authorized dealers. In 2006 The Mint began direct sales to individuals of uncirculated bullion coins with a special finish, and bearing a "W" mintmark.

American Silver Eagle $1 (1 troy ounce) silver bullion coin 1986–present
American Gold Eagle $5 (1⁄10 troy oz), $10 (1⁄4 troy oz), $25 (1⁄2 troy oz), and $50 (1 troy oz) Gold bullion coin 1986–present
American Platinum Eagle ($10, $25, $50, and $100 platinum coin) 1997–present

United States commemorative coins—special issue coins

$50.00 (Half Union) 1915
Presidential Proofs (see below) 2007–present

text: Technically, all these coins are still legal tender at face value, though some are far more valuable today for their numismatic value, and for gold and silver coins, their precious metal value. From 1965 to 1970 the Kennedy half dollar was the only circulating coin with any silver content, which was removed in 1971 and replaced with cupronickel. However, since 1992, the U.S. Mint has produced special Silver Proof Sets in addition to the regular yearly proof sets with silver dimes, quarters, and half dollars in place of the standard copper-nickel versions. In addition, an experimental $4.00 (Stella) coin was also minted in 1879, but never placed into circulation, and is properly considered to be a pattern rather than an actual coin denomination.

text: The $50 coin mentioned was only produced in 1915 for the Panama-Pacific International Exposition (1915) celebrating the opening of the Panama Canal. Only 1,128 were made, 645 of which were octagonal; this remains the only U.S. coin that was not round as well as the largest and heaviest U.S. coin ever produced.

text: A $100 gold coin was produced in High relief during 2015, although it was primarily produced for collectors, not for general circulation.[40]

text: From 1934 to present, the only denominations produced for circulation have been the familiar penny, nickel, dime, quarter, half dollar and dollar. The nickel is the only coin still in use today that is essentially unchanged (except in its design) from its original version. Every year since 1866, the nickel has been 75% copper and 25% nickel, except for 4 years during World War II when nickel was needed for the war.

text: Due to the penny's low value, some efforts have been made to eliminate the penny as circulating coinage.[41][42]

text: Collector coins[edit]

text: The United States Mint produces Proof Sets specifically for collectors and speculators. Silver Proofs tend to be the standard designs but with the dime, quarter, and half dollar containing 90% silver. Starting in 1983 and ending in 1997, the Mint also produced proof sets containing the year's commemorative coins alongside the regular coins. Another type of proof set is the Presidential Dollar Proof Set where four special $1 coins are minted each year featuring a president. Because of budget constraints and increasing stockpiles of these relatively unpopular coins, the production of new Presidential dollar coins for circulation was suspended on December 13, 2011, by U.S. Treasury Secretary Timothy F. Geithner. Future minting of such coins will be made solely for collectors.[43]

text:
2007 had George Washington, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and James Madison
2008 had James Monroe, John Quincy Adams, Andrew Jackson, and Martin Van Buren
2009 had William Henry Harrison, John Tyler, James K. Polk, and Zachary Taylor
2010 had Millard Fillmore, Franklin Pierce, James Buchanan, and Abraham Lincoln
2011 had Andrew Johnson, Ulysses S. Grant, Rutherford B. Hayes, and James A. Garfield
2012 had Chester Arthur, Grover Cleveland (1st term), Benjamin Harrison, and Grover Cleveland (2nd term)
2013 had William McKinley, Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft and Woodrow Wilson
2014 had Warren G. Harding, Calvin Coolidge, Herbert Hoover, and Franklin D. Roosevelt
2015 had Harry S Truman, Dwight D. Eisenhower, John F. Kennedy, and Lyndon B. Johnson
2016 had Richard M. Nixon, Gerald R. Ford and Ronald Reagan.

text: Dollar coins[edit]

text: The first United States dollar was minted in 1794. Known as the Flowing Hair Dollar, contained 416 grains of "standard silver" (89.25% silver and 10.75% copper), as specified by Section 13[44] of the Coinage Act of 1792. It was designated by Section 9 of that Act as having "the value of a Spanish milled dollar".

text: Dollar coins have not been very popular in the United States.[45] Silver dollars were minted intermittently from 1794 through 1935; a copper-nickel dollar of the same large size, featuring President Dwight D. Eisenhower, was minted from 1971 through 1978. Gold dollars were also minted in the 19th century. The Susan B. Anthony dollar coin was introduced in 1979; these proved to be unpopular because they were often mistaken for quarters, due to their nearly equal size, their milled edge, and their similar color. Minting of these dollars for circulation was suspended in 1980 (collectors' pieces were struck in 1981), but, as with all past U.S. coins, they remain legal tender. As the number of Anthony dollars held by the Federal Reserve and dispensed primarily to make change in postal and transit vending machines had been virtually exhausted, additional Anthony dollars were struck in 1999. In 2000, a new $1 coin, featuring Sacagawea, (the Sacagawea dollar) was introduced, which corrected some of the problems of the Anthony dollar by having a smooth edge and a gold color, without requiring changes to vending machines that accept the Anthony dollar. However, this new coin has failed to achieve the popularity of the still-existing $1 bill and is rarely used in daily transactions. The failure to simultaneously withdraw the dollar bill and weak publicity efforts have been cited by coin proponents as primary reasons for the failure of the dollar coin to gain popular support.[46]

text: In February 2007, the U.S. Mint, under the Presidential $1 Coin Act of 2005,[47] introduced a new $1 U.S. Presidential dollar coin. Based on the success of the "50 State Quarters" series, the new coin features a sequence of presidents in order of their inaugurations, starting with George Washington, on the obverse side. The reverse side features the Statue of Liberty. To allow for larger, more detailed portraits, the traditional inscriptions of "E Pluribus Unum", "In God We Trust", the year of minting or issuance, and the mint mark will be inscribed on the edge of the coin instead of the face. This feature, similar to the edge inscriptions seen on the British £1 coin, is not usually associated with U.S. coin designs. The inscription "Liberty" has been eliminated, with the Statue of Liberty serving as a sufficient replacement. In addition, due to the nature of U.S. coins, this will be the first time there will be circulating U.S. coins of different denominations with the same president featured on the obverse (heads) side (Lincoln/penny, Jefferson/nickel, Franklin D. Roosevelt/dime, Washington/quarter, Kennedy/half dollar, and Eisenhower/dollar). Another unusual fact about the new $1 coin is Grover Cleveland will have two coins with two different portraits issued due to the fact he was the only U.S. President to be elected to two non-consecutive terms.[48]

text: Early releases of the Washington coin included error coins shipped primarily from the Philadelphia mint to Florida and Tennessee banks. Highly sought after by collectors, and trading for as much as $850 each within a week of discovery, the error coins were identified by the absence of the edge impressions "E PLURIBUS UNUM IN GOD WE TRUST 2007 P". The mint of origin is generally accepted to be mostly Philadelphia, although identifying the source mint is impossible without opening a mint pack also containing marked units. Edge lettering is minted in both orientations with respect to "heads", some amateur collectors were initially duped into buying "upside down lettering error" coins.[49] Some cynics also erroneously point out that the Federal Reserve makes more profit from dollar bills than dollar coins because they wear out in a few years, whereas coins are more permanent. The fallacy of this argument arises because new notes printed to replace worn out notes, which have been withdrawn from circulation, bring in no net revenue to the government to offset the costs of printing new notes and destroying the old ones. As most vending machines are incapable of making change in banknotes, they commonly accept only $1 bills, though a few will give change in dollar coins.

text: Mint marks[edit]

text:
Mint
Mint mark
Metal minted
Year established
Current status

Denver
D
All metals
1906
Facility open

Philadelphia
P or none[a]
All metals
1792
Facility open

San Francisco
S
All metals
1854
Facility open (proof only)

West Point
W or none[b]
Gold, Silver and Platinum
1973
Facility open (bullion only)

Carson City
CC
Gold and Silver
1870
Facility closed, 1893[c]

Charlotte
C
Gold only
1838
Facility closed, 1861

Dahlonega
D[d]
Gold only
1838
Facility closed, 1861

Manila[e]
M or none[f]
All metals
1920
Facility closed, 1922; re-opened 1925–1941

New Orleans
O
Gold and Silver
1838
Facility closed, 1861; re-opened 1879–1909[g]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ The letter "P" is used for the Philadelphia mint mark on all coins (except cents) released from 1980 onward. Before this it had only been used on silver Jefferson nickels from 1942 to 1945.
Jump up ^ Between 1973 and 1986 there was no mint mark (these coins are indistinguishable from coins produced at the Philadelphia Mint from 1973 to 1980); after 1988 the letter "W" was used for coinage, except for the 2009 Ultra High Relief Double Eagle.
Jump up ^ It is now the home of the Nevada State Museum, which still strikes commemorative medallions with the "CC" mint mark (most recently in 2014 commemorating the Nevada Sesquicentennial), using former mint's the original coin press.
Jump up ^ Although the mint mark "D" has been used by two separate mints, it is easy to distinguish between the two, as any 19th century coinage is Dahlonega, and any 20th or 21st century coins are Denver.
Jump up ^ During the period in which this mint branch was operational, The Philippines was an insular territory and then commonwealth of the U.S.; it was the first (and to date only) U.S. branch mint located outside the Continental United States.
Jump up ^ The letter "M" was used for the Manila mint mark on all coins released from 1925 onward; before this it had produced its coins with no mintmark.
Jump up ^ During the Civil War, this mint operated under the control of the State of Louisiana (February 1861) and the Confederate States of America (March 1861) until it ran out of bullion later in that year; some Half Dollars have been identified as being the issue of the State of Louisiana and the Confederacy.

text: Banknotes[edit]

text:
Denomination
Front
Reverse
Portrait
Reverse motif
First series
Latest series
Circulation

One Dollar

George Washington
Great Seal of the United States
Series 1935
Series 2017[50]
Wide

Two Dollars

Thomas Jefferson
Trumbull's Declaration of Independence
Series 1976
Series 2013
Limited

Five Dollars

Abraham Lincoln
Lincoln Memorial
Series 2006
Series 2013
Wide

Ten Dollars

Alexander Hamilton
U.S. Treasury
Series 2004A
Series 2013
Wide

Twenty Dollars

Andrew Jackson
White House
Series 2004
Series 2013
Wide

Fifty Dollars

Ulysses S. Grant
United States Capitol
Series 2004
Series 2013
Wide

One Hundred Dollars

Benjamin Franklin
Independence Hall
Series 2009
Series 2013
Wide

text: The U.S. Constitution provides that Congress shall have the power to "borrow money on the credit of the United States".[51] Congress has exercised that power by authorizing Federal Reserve Banks to issue Federal Reserve Notes. Those notes are "obligations of the United States" and "shall be redeemed in lawful money on demand at the Treasury Department of the United States, in the city of Washington, District of Columbia, or at any Federal Reserve bank".[52] Federal Reserve Notes are designated by law as "legal tender" for the payment of debts.[53] Congress has also authorized the issuance of more than 10 other types of banknotes, including the United States Note[54] and the Federal Reserve Bank Note. The Federal Reserve Note is the only type that remains in circulation since the 1970s.

text: Currently printed denominations are $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50, and $100. Notes above the $100 denomination stopped being printed in 1946 and were officially withdrawn from circulation in 1969. These notes were used primarily in inter-bank transactions or by organized crime; it was the latter usage that prompted President Richard Nixon to issue an executive order in 1969 halting their use. With the advent of electronic banking, they became less necessary. Notes in denominations of $500, $1,000, $5,000, $10,000, and $100,000 were all produced at one time; see large denomination bills in U.S. currency for details. With the exception of the $100,000 bill (which was only issued as a Series 1934 Gold Certificate and was never publicly circulated; thus it is illegal to own), these notes are now collectors' items and are worth more than their face value to collectors.

text: Though still predominantly green, post-2004 series incorporate other colors to better distinguish different denominations. As a result of a 2008 decision in an accessibility lawsuit filed by the American Council of the Blind, the Bureau of Engraving and Printing is planning to implement a raised tactile feature in the next redesign of each note, except the $1 and the current version of the $100 bill. It also plans larger, higher-contrast numerals, more color differences, and distribution of currency readers to assist the visually impaired during the transition period.[55]

text: Means of issue[edit]

text: The monetary base consists of coins and Federal Reserve Notes in circulation outside the Federal Reserve Banks and the U.S. Treasury, plus deposits held by depository institutions at Federal Reserve Banks. The adjusted monetary base has increased from approximately 400 billion dollars in 1994, to 800 billion in 2005, and over 3000 billion in 2013.[56] The amount of cash in circulation is increased (or decreased) by the actions of the Federal Reserve System. Eight times a year, the 12-person Federal Open Market Committee meets to determine U.S. monetary policy.[57] Every business day, the Federal Reserve System engages in Open market operations to carry out that monetary policy.[58] If the Federal Reserve desires to increase the money supply, it will buy securities (such as U.S. Treasury Bonds) anonymously from banks in exchange for dollars. Conversely, it will sell securities to the banks in exchange for dollars, to take dollars out of circulation.[59]

text: When the Federal Reserve makes a purchase, it credits the seller's reserve account (with the Federal Reserve). This money is not transferred from any existing funds—it is at this point that the Federal Reserve has created new high-powered money. Commercial banks can freely withdraw in cash any excess reserves from their reserve account at the Federal Reserve. To fulfill those requests, the Federal Reserve places an order for printed money from the U.S. Treasury Department.[60] The Treasury Department in turn sends these requests to the Bureau of Engraving and Printing (to print new dollar bills) and the Bureau of the Mint (to stamp the coins).

text: Usually, the short-term goal of open market operations is to achieve a specific short-term interest rate target. In other instances, monetary policy might instead entail the targeting of a specific exchange rate relative to some foreign currency or else relative to gold. For example, in the case of the United States the Federal Reserve targets the federal funds rate, the rate at which member banks lend to one another overnight. The other primary means of conducting monetary policy include: (i) Discount window lending (as lender of last resort); (ii) Fractional deposit lending (changes in the reserve requirement); (iii) Moral suasion (cajoling certain market players to achieve specified outcomes); (iv) "Open mouth operations" (talking monetary policy with the market).

text: Value[edit]

text:
Buying power of one U.S. dollar compared to 1774 USD

 Year
 Equivalent  buying power

1774
 $1.00

1780
 $0.59

1790
 $0.89

1800
 $0.64

1810
 $0.66

1820
 $0.69

1830
 $0.88

1840
 $0.94

1850
 $1.03

1860
 $0.97

 Year
 Equivalent  buying power

1870
 $0.62

1880
 $0.79

1890
 $0.89

1900
 $0.96

1910
 $0.85

1920
 $0.39

1930
 $0.47

1940
 $0.56

1950
 $0.33

1960
 $0.26

 Year
 Equivalent  buying power

1970
 $0.20

1980
 $0.10

1990
 $0.06

2000
 $0.05

2007
 $0.04

2008
 $0.04

2009
 $0.04

2010
 $0.035

2011
 $0.034

2012
 $0.03

text: The 6th paragraph of Section 8 of Article 1 of the U.S. Constitution provides that the U.S. Congress shall have the power to "coin money" and to "regulate the value" of domestic and foreign coins. Congress exercised those powers when it enacted the Coinage Act of 1792. That Act provided for the minting of the first U.S. dollar and it declared that the U.S. dollar shall have "the value of a Spanish milled dollar as the same is now current".[61]

text: The table to the right shows the equivalent amount of goods that, in a particular year, could be purchased with $1. The table shows that from 1774 through 2012 the U.S. dollar has lost about 97.0% of its buying power.[62]

text: The decline in the value of the U.S. dollar corresponds to price inflation, which is a rise in the general level of prices of goods and services in an economy over a period of time.[63] A consumer price index (CPI) is a measure estimating the average price of consumer goods and services purchased by households. The United States Consumer Price Index, published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, is a measure estimating the average price of consumer goods and services in the United States.[64] It reflects inflation as experienced by consumers in their day-to-day living expenses.[65] A graph showing the U.S. CPI relative to 1982–1984 and the annual year-over-year change in CPI is shown at right.

text: The value of the U.S. dollar declined significantly during wartime, especially during the American Civil War, World War I, and World War II.[66] The Federal Reserve, which was established in 1913, was designed to furnish an "elastic" currency subject to "substantial changes of quantity over short periods", which differed significantly from previous forms of high-powered money such as gold, national bank notes, and silver coins.[67] Over the very long run, the prior gold standard kept prices stable—for instance, the price level and the value of the U.S. dollar in 1914 was not very different from the price level in the 1880s. The Federal Reserve initially succeeded in maintaining the value of the U.S. dollar and price stability, reversing the inflation caused by the First World War and stabilizing the value of the dollar during the 1920s, before presiding over a 30% deflation in U.S. prices in the 1930s.[68]

text: Under the Bretton Woods system established after World War II, the value of gold was fixed to $35 per ounce, and the value of the U.S. dollar was thus anchored to the value of gold. Rising government spending in the 1960s, however, led to doubts about the ability of the United States to maintain this convertibility, gold stocks dwindled as banks and international investors began to convert dollars to gold, and as a result the value of the dollar began to decline. Facing an emerging currency crisis and the imminent danger that the United States would no longer be able to redeem dollars for gold, gold convertibility was finally terminated in 1971 by President Nixon, resulting in the "Nixon shock".[69]

text: The value of the U.S. dollar was therefore no longer anchored to gold, and it fell upon the Federal Reserve to maintain the value of the U.S. currency. The Federal Reserve, however, continued to increase the money supply, resulting in stagflation and a rapidly declining value of the U.S. dollar in the 1970s. This was largely due to the prevailing economic view at the time that inflation and real economic growth were linked (the Phillips curve), and so inflation was regarded as relatively benign.[69] Between 1965 and 1981, the U.S. dollar lost two thirds of its value.[62]

text: In 1979, President Carter appointed Paul Volcker Chairman of the Federal Reserve. The Federal Reserve tightened the money supply and inflation was substantially lower in the 1980s, and hence the value of the U.S. dollar stabilized.[69]

text: Over the thirty-year period from 1981 to 2009, the U.S. dollar lost over half its value.[62] This is because the Federal Reserve has targeted not zero inflation, but a low, stable rate of inflation—between 1987 and 1997, the rate of inflation was approximately 3.5%, and between 1997 and 2007 it was approximately 2%. The so-called "Great Moderation" of economic conditions since the 1970s is credited to monetary policy targeting price stability.[70]

text: There is ongoing debate about whether central banks should target zero inflation (which would mean a constant value for the U.S. dollar over time) or low, stable inflation (which would mean a continuously but slowly declining value of the dollar over time, as is the case now). Although some economists are in favor of a zero inflation policy and therefore a constant value for the U.S. dollar,[68] others contend that such a policy limits the ability of the central bank to control interest rates and stimulate the economy when needed.[71]

text: Exchange rates[edit]

text: Historical exchange rates[edit]

text:
Currency units per U.S. dollar, averaged over the year

19702
19802
19852
19902
1993
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2018[72]

Euro
 —
 —
 —
 —
 —
0.9387
1.0832
1.1171
1.0578
0.8833
0.8040
0.8033
0.7960
0.7293
0.6791
0.7176
0.6739
0.7178
0.7777
0.7530
0.7520
0.9015
0.8504

Japanese yen
357.6
240.45
250.35
146.25
111.08
113.73
107.80
121.57
125.22
115.94
108.15
110.11
116.31
117.76
103.39
93.68
87.78
79.70
79.82
97.60
105.74
121.05
111.130

Pound sterling
8s 4d
=0.4167
0.4484[73]
0.8613[73]
0.6207
0.6660
0.6184
0.6598
0.6946
0.6656
0.6117
0.5456
0.5493
0.5425
0.4995
0.5392
0.6385
0.4548
0.6233
0.6308
0.6393
0.6066
0.6544
0.7454

Canadian dollar
1.081
1.168
1.321
1.1605
1.2902
1.4858
1.4855
1.5487
1.5704
1.4008
1.3017
1.2115
1.1340
1.0734
1.0660
1.1412
1.0298
0.9887
0.9995
1.0300
1.1043
1.2789
1.2842

Mexican peso
0.01250–0.026501
2.801
2.671
2.501
3.1237
9.553
9.459
9.337
9.663
10.793
11.290
10.894
10.906
10.928
11.143
13.498
12.623
12.427
13.154
12.758
13.302
15.837
19.911

Renminbi yuan
2.46
1.7050
2.9366
4.7832
5.7620
8.2783
8.2784
8.2770
8.2771
8.2772
8.2768
8.1936
7.9723
7.6058
6.9477
6.8307
6.7696
6.4630
6.3093
6.1478
6.1620
6.2840
6.383

Indian rupee
7.56
8.000
12.38
16.96
31.291
43.13
45.00
47.22
48.63
46.59
45.26
44.00
45.19
41.18
43.39
48.33
45.65
46.58
53.37
58.51
62.00
64.1332
68.11

Singapore dollar
 —
 —
2.179
1.903
1.6158
1.6951
1.7361
1.7930
1.7908
1.7429
1.6902
1.6639
1.5882
1.5065
1.4140
1.4543
1.24586
1.2565
1.2492
1.2511
1.2665
1.3748
1.343

South African rand
0.7182
0.7780
2.2343[74]
2.5600
3.2729
6.1191
6.9468
8.6093
10.5176
7.5550
6.4402
6.3606
6.7668
7.0477
8.2480
8.4117
7.3159
7.2510
8.2014
9.6436
10.8420
12.7759
12.736

text:
Notes:
1. Mexican peso values prior to 1993 revaluation
2. Value at the start of the year

text: Sources:

text:
US: Last 4 years, 2009–2012, 2005–2008, 2001–2004, 1997–2000, 1993–1996, all available years[75]
Multiple countries: 2004–present
Australia: 1970–present
China: 1974–1991, 1993–1995
Mexico: 1976–1991
Canada: 1977–1991

text: Current exchange rates[edit]

text:
Current USD exchange rates

From Google Finance:
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From XE:
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document_title: Beautiful Creatures (novel)

question_text: what book are they reading in beautiful creatures

text: Beautiful Creatures (novel)

text: Characters[edit]

text:
Ethan Lawson Wate is the 16 year old narrator of the novel. He is a high school boy from the fictional town of Gatlin, South Carolina. Though he is not a Caster himself, he somehow has the ability to protect Lena from powerful magic and Dark Casters. He and Lena share a connection called Kelting, which lets them communicate telepathically, even if they are miles away.
Lena Duchannes is a Caster who appears in Ethan's dreams before moving to Gatlin. She must be claimed for either Light or Dark on her sixteenth birthday.
Sarafine Duchannes, Lena's mother and the strongest Dark Caster. She tries to convince Lena to become a Dark Caster.
Macon Melchizedek Ravenwood, is Lena's uncle. He is an Incubus who chooses to live off dreams rather than blood. While characters in the book compare him to Boo Radley, he is described by the writers in an interview with Boys with Books, as an "Atticus Finch of badasses".
Genevieve Duchannes was the Caster who caused the curse in Lena's family by trying to bring her dead fiancé, Ethan Carter Wate, back to life using the Book of Moons. She was likely a Natural.
Ethan Carter Wate was Genevieve's fiancé who died when he was shot during the great burning of Gatlin. Genevieve tried to bring him back to life by using the Book of Moons, which led to her turning Dark. However, Ethan was only revived for a few moments before dying again.
Ridley Duchannes is Lena's cousin and a Dark Caster. She can manipulate people using a lollipop.
Mitchell Wate, Ethan's father, is a reclusive writer deep in mourning for his wife.
Amarie "Amma" Treadeau is a Seer who is like a grandmother to Ethan. She can communicate with her dead family, whom she calls the Greats. Amma is known throughout Gatlin for her culinary skill.
Marian Ashcroft is the librarian of the Mortal and Caster libraries. She was the best friend of Ethan's late mother, Lila Evers Wate, and has known Ethan since he was born. Though she greatly rues it, she cannot help Ethan when he is in danger because she is a Caster librarian and is bound by their rules.
Hunting Phineas Ravenwood is a ruthless incubus and Macon's brother. Unlike Macon, he feeds on blood, which gives him a more youthful appearance.

text: Plot summary[edit]

text: Sixteen-year-old Ethan Wate lives in Gatlin, South Carolina, with his widowed father. Lena Duchannes is a mysterious girl with magical powers who appears in Ethan's recurring nightmares. Though she initially rebuffs his attempts at interacting with her, they eventually become friends despite harassment from other classmates that almost gets her expelled. Lena's uncle Macon Ravenwood also attempts to keep Ethan and Lena apart to protect them. Every member of Lena's family is a "Caster" with magical powers. On Lena's sixteenth birthday, she will be "claimed" as either a Light or Dark Caster, but she is terrified of becoming an evil Dark Caster.

text: Meanwhile, Ethan discovers a locket at Ravenwood Manor, Lena's home, that induces visions of Lena's ancestor Genevieve Duchannes and Ethan's ancestor Ethan Carter Wate, who were engaged during the Civil War. Through the locket, they discover that Genevieve tried to resurrect Ethan Carter Wate using the magical Book of Moons. Due to Genevieve's use of the spell, the Book has the ability to determine which of the Duchannes will be Light or Dark. Ethan and Lena find the Book of Moons in Genevieve's grave and study it for ways to prevent Lena from becoming Dark. Furthermore, Lena is continuously spiritually attacked by a Dark Caster named Sarafine, who is actually her mother. While the Duchannes cannot prevent the attacks, Ethan's presence seems to stop them.

text: Lena's sixteenth birthday is celebrated by Ethan, the Duchannes, and her classmates. Macon forbids Lena to attend the party set up by her classmates, but Lena sneaks out anyway and confesses her love to Ethan, who reciprocates. Sarafine reveals herself at the party, accompanied by incubus Hunting Ravenwood. Sarafine tells Lena that she will be able to Claim herself for the Dark or Light at midnight. If she chooses to go Dark, all the Light Casters in her family will die, but she would be able to have a previously-impossible physical relationship with Ethan. If she chooses to go Light, all the Dark Casters in her family will die, including Macon. A fight occurs, culminating in Sarafine escaping and Hunting nearly killing Macon. After Ethan gathers the other Duchannes for help, Ethan searches for Lena, but instead meets Sarafine, who kills him. At midnight, Lena uses her power over nature to block out the moonlight, preventing her from being claimed. She recites a spell from the Book of Moons to resurrect Ethan. The spell works, but as payment, the Book kills Macon.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Kirkus Reviews writes that "Ethan's wry narrative voice will resonate with readers of John Green as well as the hordes of supernatural-romance fans looking for the next book to sink their teeth into".[2] Booklist also positively reviewed the book, stating "there's plenty teens will like: romance, magic, hauntings, and the promise of more to come."[3] The School Library Journal praised Beautiful Creatures's "detailed descriptions" and "satisfying conclusion", writing that it would appeal to fans of True Blood.[4] Publishers Weekly criticized the book's "protracted climax" but wrote that Beautiful Creatures had a "compelling and dimensional mythology".[5] Despite its use of magic, the book is praised for its "authentic" characters and world. Linda Perez of the Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy states "Stohl writes clearly and lyrically," "the world they've created... is so believable that readers will find themselves unwittingly believing in magic".[6] According to Ilene Cooper of Booklist "the 600 pages could have been cut to make a tight, better story".[3]

text: Accolades[edit]

text: The series was named one of MTV News's "series to watch" in 2010.[7]

text: Adaptations[edit]

text: Film[edit]

text: Alcon Entertainment, with 3 Arts Entertainment and Belle Pictures, produced a 2013 movie version for Warner Bros., adapted and directed by Richard LaGravenese, starring Alden Ehrenreich and Alice Englert as Ethan Wate and Lena Duchannes and Jeremy Irons, Viola Davis, Emma Thompson, and Emmy Rossum in supporting roles. The film was released on February 14, 2013. The film received mixed to average reviews and was a box office disappointment.

text: Beautiful Creatures: The Official Illustrated Movie Companion by Mark Cotta Vaz, was published in the UK by Penguin Books on 2 January 2013, as a Puffin Paperback.[8][9]

text: Comic book[edit]

text: Yen Press announced in 2012 it was adapting Beautiful Creatures into manga format,[10] with artist Cassandra Jean.

text: Sequels[edit]

text:
Beautiful Creatures was signed by Little, Brown, and Company for a four-book series, the Caster Chronicles, with the follow-up books titled:
Beautiful Darkness, Book 2 – published October 12, 2010
Beautiful Chaos, Book 3 – published October 18, 2011
Beautiful Redemption, Book 4 – published October 23, 2012

text: Bibliography[edit]

text: Garcia, Kami; Stohl, Margaret (2009). Beautiful Creatures. Beautiful Creatures. New York: Little, Brown and company. p. 563.


document_title: Oregon Medical Insurance Pool

question_text: who does the oregon medical insurance pool protect

text: Oregon Medical Insurance Pool

text: The Oregon Medical Insurance Pool (OMIP), instituted in 1987, is designed to provide medical insurance coverage for residents of the state of Oregon with pre-existing conditions (i.e. HIV/AIDS, diabetes, etc.) who do not already have private insurance.  OMIP is administered by Oregon's Office of Private Health Partnerships through Blue Cross/Blue Shield. It functions similarly to other private insurance.[1]

text: Ryan White CARE Act[edit]

text: HIV/AIDS clients of OMIP are able to receive needed assistance through the federally sponsored Ryan White CARE Act.  CAREAssist, Oregon's AIDS Drug Assistance Program, is funded the federal Ryan White CARE program. CAREAssist pays insurance premiums and medical services/prescription co-pays for individuals in need who are infected with HIV/AIDS. [2]

text: Impact of federal legislation[edit]

text: Due to the enactment of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act as federal law in 2010, as of January 1, 2014, insurers will no longer be permitted to charge higher rates or discriminate against those individuals who have a pre-existing condition.  This will effectively end the need for OMIP.


document_title: Met Gala

question_text: who chooses who goes to the met gala

question_tokens: who chooses who goes to the met gala

text: Met Gala

text: Details[edit]

text: Institute Gala is a major fundraising benefit that serves as an opening celebration for the Institute's annual fashion exhibit.[3][4] Following the event, the exhibition runs for several months. The 2014 exhibition was scheduled to run from May 8 until August 10, 2014.[5] The Gala is widely regarded as one of the most exclusive social events in New York and one of the biggest fundraising nights in the city with $9 million raised in 2013 and a record of $12 million the following year.[6][7][8][9] It is one of the most notable sources of funding for the Institute.[10] The affair, attended by personalities from the arts, fashion, high-society, film, and music, has been held at the Met since 1948[11] and is considered to be the fashion industry's premier annual red carpet event.[4][12][13][14][15][16] Its red carpet fashions are widely photographed, reviewed, critiqued, and emulated.[17][18][19][20] The museum is closed to the general public on the first Monday of May due to the gala occurring.[21]

text: Anna Wintour, Vogue editor-in-chief and a chair of the event since 1995 (excluding 1996 and 1998), oversees both the benefit committee and the guest list, with Vogue staffers helping assemble the list of invitees.[2][13] According to Cathy Horyn of The New York Times, the gathering rivals the West Coast's Vanity Fair Oscar Party, which is said to have more "star power" but less fashion panache.[22] In 2014, the individual tickets cost $30,000 for those outside the official guest list, after prices were raised $10,000 to increase the exclusivity of the event.[23][13][24] The annual guest list includes only 650–700 people.[25][26]

text: Themes[edit]

text: Each year the event has a theme, and includes a cocktail hour and a formal dinner.[27][28] During the cocktail hour, guests arrive to walk on the red carpet, tour the year's special themed exhibition, and be seated before the dinner party that includes entertainment from the preeminent entertainers of the day.[26] The theme not only sets the tone for the annual exhibit, but also for the guests who attempt to dress to uphold the theme of the year, oftentimes causing runs on certain fashion themes among the world's leading fashion retailers.[29][30] Sometimes, such as in 2013, the theme is a bit befuddling because it does not provide a clear stylistic directive, while at other times, such as 2014 the theme may be far more challenging to one gender than the other.[31][32]

text:
1971–1972: Fashion Plate (October 1971 – January 1972)[33][34]
1972–1973: Untailored Garments (January–July 1972)[35][36]
1973–1974: The World of Balenciaga (March–September 1973)[37]
1974–1975: Romantic and Glamorous Hollywood Design (November 1974 – August 1975)[34][38]
1975–1976: American Women of Style (December 1975 – August 1976)[34][39]
1976–1977: The Glory of Russian Costume (December 1976 – August 1977)[34][40][41]
1977–1978: Vanity Fair: A Treasure Trove (December 1977– September 1978)[34][42]
1978–1979: Diaghilev: Costumes and Designs of the Ballets Russes (November 1978 – June 1979)[34]
1979–1980: Fashions of the Habsburg Era: Austria-Hungary (December 1979 – August 1980)[34][43]
1980–1981: The Manchu Dragon: Costumes of China, the Chi'ng Dynasty (December 1980 – August 1981)[34]
1981–1982: The Eighteenth-Century Woman (December 1981 – September 1982)[34][44][45]
1982–1983: La Belle Époque (December 1982 – September 1983)[34][46]
1983–1984: Yves Saint Laurent: 25 Years of Design (December 1983 – September 1984)[34][47]
1984–1985: Man and the Horse (December 1984 – September 1985)[34][48]
1985–1986: Costumes of Royal India (December 1985 – August 1986)[34][49]
1986–1987: Dance (December 1986 – September 1987)[34][50]
1987–1988: In Style: Celebrating Fifty Years of the Costume Institute (November 1987 – April 1988)[34][51]
1988–1989: From Queen to Empress: Victorian Dress 1837–1877 (December 1988 – April 1989)[34][52]
1989–1990: The Age of Napoleon: Costume from Revolution to Empire, 1789–1815 (December 1989 – April 1990)[34]
1990–1991: Théâtre de la Mode – Fashion Dolls: The Survival of Haute Couture (December 1990 – April 1991)[34]
1991–1992: Gala held, but no concurrent costume exhibition[53]
1992–1993: Fashion and History: A Dialogue (December 1992 – March 1993)[34][54]
1993–1994: Diana Vreeland: Immoderate Style (December 1993 – March 1994)[34][55]
1994–1995: Orientalism: Visions of the East in western dress (December 1994 – March 1995)[34][56][57]
1995–1996: Haute Couture (December 1995 – March 1996)[34][58]
1996–1997: Christian Dior (December 1996 – March 1997)[34][59][60]
1997–1998: Gianni Versace (December 1997 – March 1998)[34][61][62][63]
1998–1999: Cubism and Fashion (December 10, 1998 – March 14, 1999)[34][64]
1999–2000: Rock Style (December 9, 1999 – March 19, 2000)[34][65]
2000–2001: No costume exhibition gala presented[66]
2001: Jacqueline Kennedy: The White House Years (May 1 –July 29, 2001)[34][67]
2001–2002: No costume exhibition gala presented[66]
2003: Goddess: The Classical Mode (May 1 – August 3, 2003)[34][68]
2004: Dangerous Liaisons: Fashion and Furniture in the 18th Century (April 2?, –August 8, 2004)[34][69]
2005: The House of Chanel (May 5 –August 7, 2005)[34][70]
2006: AngloMania: Tradition and Transgression in British Fashion (May 3 –September 6, 2006)[34][71]
2007: Poiret: King of Fashion (May 9 –August 5, 2007)[34][72][73]
2008: Superheroes: Fashion and Fantasy (May 7 –September 1, 2008)[34][74][75]
2009: The Model As Muse: Embodying Fashion (May 6 –August 9, 2009)[34][76][77][78]
2010: American Woman: Fashioning a National Identity (May 5 –August 10, 2010)[34][79][80][81]
2011: Alexander McQueen: Savage Beauty (May 4 –August 7, 2011)[34][82][83][84]
2012: Schiaparelli and Prada: Impossible Conversations (May 10 –August 19, 2012)[85]
2013: Punk: Chaos to Couture (May 9 –August 14, 2013)[86][87]
2014: Charles James: Beyond Fashion (May 8 –August 10, 2014)[88][89][90]
2015: China: Through the Looking Glass (May 7 – September 7, 2015)[91]
2016: Manus x Machina: Fashion In An Age Of Technology[92]
2017: Rei Kawakubo/Comme des Garçons: Art of the In-Between[93]
2018: Heavenly Bodies: Fashion and the Catholic Imagination (May 10–October 8, 2018)[94]

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
Guo Pei gown displayed at "China: Through the Looking Glass" in 2015

Balenciaga dress with a Chinese floral motif

Savage Beauty exhibition

text: The 2015 Gala and its theme of "China: Through the Looking Glass" became the subject of a documentary—The First Monday in May' directed by Andrew Rossi produced by Condé Nast Entertainment, Vogue, and Relativity Studios.[95] 225 approved photographers, reporters, and social media participants documented the event for the documentary.[96] All other attendees were forbidden from using social media at the event.[97] Guests received notices about the restriction of selfies and social media inside the gala.[98] The no-selfie ordinance was extended to the following editions of the Met Gala.

text: Honorary Event Day Chairs[edit]

text: In addition to Wintour's role of chairing the whole event, there are annual chairs and co-chairs for the day of the event. The list of past honorary event day chairs includes the following:

text: Controversy[edit]

text: In 2015, the theme "China: Through the Looking Glass" was previously named "Chinese Whispers: Tales of the East in Art, Film and Fashion".[100] The same year's theme was met with critics saying it was "A reminder of the subtle institutionalised racism that's been compounded by centuries of Asian isolationism across the board, and enduring Western stereotypes exacerbated by ignorance and the meme-able nature of social media."[100]

text: In 2016, Madonna, whilst channeling the theme "Manus x Machina: Fashion in an Age of Technology", provided one of the most controversial outfits in the gala's history. She appeared in an ensemble designed by Givenchy creative director Riccardo Tisci exposing both her breasts and buttocks.[101] Madonna hit back on her official social media channels by stating "We have fought and continue to fight for civil rights and gay rights around the world. When it comes to women’s rights we are still in the dark ages. My dress at the Met Ball was a political statement as well as a fashion statement".[102]

text: The 2018 Gala had a Roman Catholic theme, and included Rihanna wearing a papal mitre. Critics on social media called it "blasphemous" and "sacrilegious cosplay", even though the Catholic Church lent more than forty papal vestments from the Vatican and Cardinal Timothy M. Dolan attended.[103][104] Kyle Smith argued that the Catholic Church was in fact "abetting the mockery of its symbols".[105] Catholic apologist Michael Voris has criticized Cardinal Dolan for attending the 2018 Met Gala.[106]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Borrelli-Persson, Laird. "A History of the Met Gala in 60 Seconds, Narrated by Vogue's Hamish Bowles". Vogue. Retrieved 2016-05-17.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Costume Institute | The Metropolitan Museum of Art". www.metmuseum.org. Retrieved 2016-05-17.
Jump up ^ Whitworth, Melissa (2011-04-28). "Countdown to the Met Ball 2011". The Daily Telegraph. Telegraph Media Group Limited. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
^ Jump up to: a b "First Look: Inside the Met for Tonight's Costume Institute Gala". New York. May 2, 2011. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
Jump up ^ "Charles James: Beyond Fashion: May 8 – August 10, 2014". Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
Jump up ^ Sarah Jessica Parker and Anna Wintour Interview – Late Night with Seth Meyers – YouTube
Jump up ^ Bourne, Leah (May 5, 2011). "Everything You Ever Wanted to Know About the Met Gala (But Were Too Afraid To Ask)". NBC New York. Retrieved 2014-05-02.
Jump up ^ "Anna Wintour 'Wants More Exclusivity' at the Met Ball – The Cut". Nymag.com. April 16, 2014. Retrieved 2014-05-02.
Jump up ^ Kramer, Peter (May 4, 2010). "Top social ticket: NYC's Costume Institute gala". USA Today. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
Jump up ^ The Metropolitan Museum of Art Guide. Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 9781588394552.
Jump up ^ http://www.metmuseum.org/about-the-met/curatorial-departments/the-costume-institute
Jump up ^ Trebay, Guy (November 25, 2003). "Final Splash For Publicist". New York Times. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
^ Jump up to: a b c "The Charity Ball Game". New York. May 21, 2005. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
Jump up ^ Vogel, Carol (December 15, 2008). "Brooklyn Museum's Costume Treasures Going to the Met". New York Times. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
Jump up ^ Derschowitz, Jessica (April 9, 2013). "Beyonce named honorary chair for Costume Institute gala". CBS News. Retrieved 2014-05-02.
Jump up ^ "Newly Slim Beyonce and Daring Racy in Lace Rihanna Turn Heads in Their Dramatic Gowns at Met Gala". Daily Mail. May 3, 2011. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
Jump up ^ Rodriguez, Leah (May 5, 2014). "See All the Looks From the 2014 Met Gala". New York. Retrieved 2014-05-23.
Jump up ^ Malle, Chloe. "Met Gala 2014: The 64 Best Dressed Celebrities". Vogue. Retrieved 2014-05-23.
Jump up ^ Oliver, Simone S. (May 6, 2014). "Beauty on the Met Gala Red Carpet". The New York Times. Retrieved 2014-05-23.
Jump up ^ Dee, Britteny (May 6, 2014). "Met Gala 2014 Theme: Ball Gowns That Would Make Charles James Proud". Fashion Times. Retrieved 2014-05-25.
Jump up ^ "The Met Fifth Avenue". The Metropolitan Museum of Art, i.e. The Met Museum. Retrieved 2016-05-17.
Jump up ^ Horyn, Cathy (May 4, 2006). "Anna's Party: Silk, Satin and Pub Grub". New York Times. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
Jump up ^ https://www.aol.com/article/finance/2017/05/01/met-gala-cost-of-attending-ticket/22063931/
Jump up ^ Gurfein, Laura (April 17, 2014). "Anna Wintour Raised Met Ball Ticket Prices, Wants 'Exclusivity' – That's a Spicy Met Ball! – Racked NY". Ny.racked.com. Retrieved 2014-05-02.
Jump up ^ Bourne, Leah (April 29, 2013). "10 Ways to Get Invited to the Met Gala". The Vivant. Retrieved 2014-05-23.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Wild Bunch". Vogue: 110–32. July 2009.
Jump up ^ Levine, Joshua (March 24, 2011). "Anna Wintour's Brand Anna - WSJ.com". Online.wsj.com. Retrieved 2014-05-02.
Jump up ^ Cristobal, Sarah. "Salute to the King: The Haute Monde Descends on the Met to Celebrate Legendary Couturier Paul Poiret". Style.com. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
Jump up ^ "Revel, Revel". Vogue: 116–50. July 2011.
Jump up ^ Hyland, Véronique (May 1, 2014). "Men Are Freaking Out About What to Wear to the Met Ball". New York. Retrieved 2014-05-23.
Jump up ^ "Costume Institute Calls for White Tie Dress Code at Gala". Women's Wear Daily. April 7, 2014. Retrieved 2014-05-23.
Jump up ^ Hyland, Véronique (April 7, 2014). "This Year's Met Ball Has Some Weird Dress-Code Requirements". New York. Retrieved 2014-05-23.
Jump up ^ Cavallo, Adolph S (October 1971). Stoddart, Katherine, ed. "Fashion Plate: An Opening Exhibition for the New Costume Institute" (PDF). The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin. 30 (1): 5. doi:10.2307/3258574. Retrieved 2014-05-23. To salute the fashion industry of New York, whose tireless efforts and financial contributions were instrumental in making the new Costume Institute a reality, the Museum will present Fashion Plate in the Costume Institute in the fall of 1971...Fashion Plate will be the first of these gallery installations – the inaugural exhibition.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj "Museum Exhibitions 1870–2012" (PDF). Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
Jump up ^ "Costume Institute opens new exhibition" (Press release). New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. January 1972. Retrieved 2014-05-23. The Costume Institute of The Metropolitan Museum of Art opens its second exhibition on Wednesday, January 26. Entitled Untailored Garments it presents a diverse assemblage of clothing—mostly non-European in origin—which is folded and draped on the human body rather than cut and seamed.
Jump up ^ "Around Town:Museums". New York: 26. June 19, 1972. Retrieved 2014-05-23.
Jump up ^ Martin, Richard; Koda, Harold (1993). Diana Vreeland: Immoderate Style. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 15. ISBN 9780870996917. OCLC 29315100. Retrieved 2014-05-23.
Jump up ^ "In and Around Town:Museums". New York: 26. August 25, 1975. Retrieved 2014-05-23.
Jump up ^ "New Costume Institute exhibition, American women of style, to open at Metropolitan Museum December 13" (Press release). New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. December 1975. Retrieved 2014-05-23.
Jump up ^ "Museum to Exhibit Old Russian Clothes". Palm Beach Daily News. November 9, 1975. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
Jump up ^ "History of Russian costume from the eleventh to the twentieth century : from the collections of the Arsenal Museum, Leningrad ; Hermitage, Leningrad ; Historical Museum, Moscow ; Kremlin Museums, Moscow ; Pavlovsk Museum / [catalogue compiled by T.S. Alyoshina, I.I. Vishnevskaya, L.V. Efimova, T.T. Korshunova. V.A. Malm, E. Yu. Moiseenko, M.M. Postnokova-Loseva, E.P. Chernukha]". Retrieved 2014-05-24.
Jump up ^ "Treasure trove of costumes". St. Petersburg Times. November 2, 1977. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
Jump up ^ Cone, Polly, ed. (1980). The Imperial Style: Fashions of the Hapsburg Era: Based on the Exhibition "Fashions of the Hapsburg era, Austria-Hungary" at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, December 1979 – August 1980. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 0870992325. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
Jump up ^ Morris, Bernadine (December 8, 1981). "18th Century Sparks Gala Fashion Night". Retrieved 27 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Leon Talley, Andre (December 6, 1981). "Vreeland's Show". New York Times. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Duka, John (December 7, 1982). "La Belle Europe Reigns Again At Met Museum". New York Times. Retrieved 27 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Morris, Bernadine (December 6, 1983). "Gala Night at Met Hails Saint Laurent". New York Times. Retrieved 27 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Morris, Bernadine (December 4, 1984). "At Costume Institute Show, Equestrian is the Theme". New York Times. Retrieved 27 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Morris, Bernadine (December 10, 1985). "A Celebration of Royal India's Fashions". New York Times. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Morris, Bernadine (December 10, 1986). "Amid Costumes A Little Night Music". New York Times. Retrieved 27 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Morris, Bernadine (December 8, 1997). "Spectacular outfits abound at 15th annual costume gala". New York Times. Retrieved 27 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Morris, Bernadine (December 6, 1988). "Costume Show: Victorian Elegance". New York Times. Retrieved 27 May 2014.
Jump up ^ "In Decked Halls, Wassails". New York Times. December 15, 1991. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Morris, Bernadine (December 8, 1992). "Review/Fashion; Costume Change At the Met". New York Times. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
Jump up ^ "EVENING HOURS; The Ladies in Red". New York Times. December 12, 1993. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Orientalism: Visions of the East in Western Dress. Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 0870997335.
Jump up ^ Dullea, Georgia (September 25, 1994). "Glamour Guys for the Ball". New York Times. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Brozan, Nadine (October 9, 1995). "Chronicle". New York Times. Retrieved 27 May 2014.
Jump up ^ "USA: NEW YORK: CHRISTIAN DIOR'S COSTUME INSTITUTE GALA". Associated Press. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Brozan, Nadine (August 1, 1996). "Chronicle". New York Times. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
Jump up ^ DiGiacomo, Frank (December 15, 1997). "Inside the sold-out Costume Institute gala". New York. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Menkes, Suzy (December 9, 1997). "The Verve and Vivacity of Versace in Met Retrospective". New York Times. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
Jump up ^ C.R. White, Constance (December 11, 1997). "At the Met, a Golden Melting Pot". New York Times. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "CUBISM AND FASHION" (Press release). New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. November 2, 1998. Retrieved 2014-05-25.
^ Jump up to: a b "ROCK STYLE IS THEME FOR METROPOLITAN MUSEUM'S DECEMBER COSTUME INSTITUTE EXHIBITION" (Press release). New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. December 3, 1999. Retrieved 2014-05-25.
^ Jump up to: a b "Costume Institute Gala Returns". BizBash. July 31, 2002. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "JACQUELINE KENNEDY: THE WHITE HOUSE YEARS" (Press release). New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. November 13, 2000. Retrieved 2014-05-25.
^ Jump up to: a b "Goddess to be Theme of Costume Institute's Spring 2003 Exhibition and Gala at Metropolitan Museum" (Press release). New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. May 2003. Retrieved 2014-05-25.
^ Jump up to: a b Menkes, Suzy (April 27, 2004). "Voluptuous lives, 'Dangerous Liaisons'". New York Times. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "Metropolitan Museum to Present Unprecedented Chanel Exhibition" (Press release). New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. May 2005. Retrieved 2014-05-25.
^ Jump up to: a b "AngloMania: Tradition and Transgression in British Fashion" (Press release). New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. April 22, 2006. Retrieved 2014-05-25.
^ Jump up to: a b ""Poiret: King of Fashion" at Metropolitan Museum's Costume Institute to Celebrate Paul Poiret, Visionary Artist-Couturier of Early 20th Century" (Press release). New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. April 22, 2006. Retrieved 2014-05-26.
Jump up ^ "Poiret's Descendents". runway.blogs.nytimes.com/. New York Times. May 8, 2007. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
^ Jump up to: a b "Metropolitan Museum's Costume Institute Salutes Power of "Superheroes" Imagery in Fashion" (Press release). New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. May 2008. Retrieved 2014-05-26.
Jump up ^ Wilson, Eric (May 6, 2008). "Stars and Superheroes Sparkle at Museum Gala". New York Times. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
Jump up ^ "The Model as Muse Embodying Fashion". Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
^ Jump up to: a b "Metropolitan Museum's Costume Institute Explores Role of Fashion Models as Muses of Recent Eras" (Press release). New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. May 2009. Retrieved 2014-05-26.
Jump up ^ Wilson, Eric (May 4, 2009). "A Museum Gala Where High Cheekbones and Higher Hemlines Rule". New York Times. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
Jump up ^ ""American Woman: Fashioning a National Identity" at Metropolitan Museum to Open May 5, 2010; First Costume Institute Exhibition Based on Renowned Brooklyn Museum Costume Collection" (Press release). New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. May 3, 2010. Retrieved 2014-05-25.
Jump up ^ Horyn, Cathy (May 3, 2010). "American Women on the March". New York Times. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
Jump up ^ Menkes, Suzy (May 3, 2010). "Elegance Is the Norm at Costume Institute Gala". New York Times. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
^ Jump up to: a b "Alexander McQueen's Iconic Designs to be Celebrated in a Spring 2011 Costume Institute Retrospective". Metropolitan Museum of Art. February 1, 2010. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
Jump up ^ Menkes, Suzy (May 2, 2011). "Alexander McQueen in All His Dark Glory". New York Times. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
Jump up ^ Forrester, Sharon. "Met Ball 2011". vogue.co.uk. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
^ Jump up to: a b "Elsa Schiaparelli and Miuccia Prada's Impossible Conversations at Metropolitan Museum's Costume Institute" (Press release). New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. May 7, 2012. Retrieved 2014-05-23.
^ Jump up to: a b "Punk Fashion Is Focus of Costume Institute Exhibition at The Metropolitan Museum of Art" (Press release). New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. May 9, 2013. Retrieved 2014-05-23.
Jump up ^ Armstrong, Lisa (May 7, 2013). "Met Ball 2013: The Punk Parade". Telegraph. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
^ Jump up to: a b "Charles James: Beyond Fashion May 8 – August 10, 2014" (Press release). New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. April 10, 2014. Retrieved 2014-05-23.
Jump up ^ Trebay, Guy (May 7, 2014). "Inside the Met Ball: Sculptures in Silk". New York Times. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
Jump up ^ Moore, Booth. "Met Costume Institute Gala: Beyond fashion indeed". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
^ Jump up to: a b "China: Through the Looking Glass: Costume Institute's Spring 2015 Exhibition at Metropolitan Museum to Focus on Chinese Imagery in Art, Film, and Fashion" (Press release). New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. April 14, 2015. Retrieved 2015-05-04.
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Jump up ^ "Costume Institute's Spring 2017 Exhibition at The Met to Focus on Rei Kawakubo and the Art of the In-Between". New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2016-10-21. Retrieved 2016-10-25.
Jump up ^ "Met Gala 2018 Theme Revealed: "Heavenly Bodies: Fashion and the Catholic Imagination"" (Press release). New York: Vogue. November 8, 2017. Retrieved 2017-11-08.
Jump up ^ Chan, Stephanie (2015-04-16). "The Met Gala Is Getting the Documentary Treatment". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 2015-05-04.
Jump up ^ Friedman, Vanessa (2015-05-02). "It's Called the Met Gala, but It's Definitely Anna Wintour's Party". The New York Times. Retrieved 2015-05-04.
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Jump up ^ "Selfies Banned Inside Met Gala?!". Entertainment Tonight. Retrieved 2017-05-05.
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^ Jump up to: a b "The China-Themed Met Gala Wasn't Totally Offensive, But Still Problematic". Complex AU. Retrieved 2016-05-17.
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Jump up ^ "Madonna slams 'ageist and sexist' Met Gala outfit critics". NewsComAu. Retrieved 2016-05-17.
Jump up ^ Quinn, Dave (8 May 2018). "The Met Gala's 'Catholic Imagination' Theme Called 'Blasphemous' and 'Sacrilegious' by Critics". People. Retrieved 9 May 2018.
Jump up ^ Syme, Rachel (8 May 2018). "Pope Rihanna and Other Revelations from the Catholic-Themed 2018 Met Gala". The New Yorker. Retrieved 9 May 2018.
Jump up ^ Smith, Kyle (9 May 2018). "Red-Carpet Catholicism Is a Loss for the Church". National Review. Retrieved 9 May 2018.
Jump up ^ https://www.churchmilitant.com/video/episode/vortex-dolan-disgrace-again