document_title: Apostolic Faith Church

question_text: who is the founder of the apostolic faith

text: Apostolic Faith Church

text: History[edit]

text: The founder of the Apostolic Faith Church was Florence L. Crawford. Crawford was a participant in the Azusa Street Revival. This revival began in 1906 at the Apostolic Faith Mission in Los Angeles. The Azusa Street Mission, as it was called, quickly became the center of the Apostolic Faith movement mainly through the publication of The Apostolic Faith newspaper. Seymour appointed Crawford as the state director of the Pacific Coast Apostolic Faith movement where she would help other missions and churches join the movement. Crawford's break with Seymour was complete by 1911. She began an independent work in Portland, Oregon, with the same name as Seymour's mission and most of the churches under her supervision followed her.[4]

text: This considerably weakened Seymour's undisputed leadership of the Apostolic Faith movement as most of the churches which had fed the movement chose alignment with Crawford. According to Crawford, the separation was necessitated by rumors that Seymour had abandoned the Wesleyan position that entire sanctification was a second work of grace after conversion. Crawford's mission gained further influence when Clara Lum, editor of The Apostolic Faith, transferred the paper, under controversial circumstances, to the Portland mission in mid-1908.[4] The Apostolic Faith would become the Higher Way at a later date and is still published.[5]

text: Doctrine[edit]

text: Through the years, the Apostolic Faith Church's leaders have maintained the doctrines outlined in Seymour's editions of the Apostolic Faith papers printed in 1906 through 1908. As a Trinitarian and fundamental church, their doctrinal position centers on a born-again experience, supports the Wesleyan teaching of holiness (Christian perfection), and stresses the need of sanctified believers to receive the Pentecostal experience of the baptism of the Holy Spirit. Their teachings are in direct conflict with Calvinistic beliefs regarding sin, predestination, and eternal security.

text: The doctrinal statement of the Apostolic Faith Church can be found on the headquarters' website.[6] The text of the page is reprinted below:

text:
The Divine Trinity consists of three Persons: God the Father, Jesus Christ the Son, and the Holy Ghost, perfectly united as one. Matthew 3:16-17; 1 John 5:7.
Repentance is a godly sorrow for sin with a renunciation of sin. Isaiah 55:7; Matthew 4:17.
Salvation is the act of God's grace whereby we receive forgiveness for sins and stand before God as though we had never sinned. Romans 5:1; 2 Corinthians 5:17.
Sanctification or Holiness, the act of God's grace whereby we are made holy, is the second definite work and is subsequent to justification. John 17:15-21; Hebrews 13:12.
The Baptism of the Holy Ghost is the enduement of power from on high upon the clean, sanctified life, and is evidenced by speaking in tongues as the Spirit gives utterance. Luke 24:49; Acts 1:5-8; 2:1-4.
Divine Healing of sickness is provided through the atonement. James 5:14-16; 1 Peter 2:24.
The Second Coming of Jesus will be just as literal and visible as His going away. Acts 1:9-11. There will be two appearances under one coming: First, to catch away His waiting Bride. Matthew 24:40-44; 1 Thessalonians 4:15-17; second, to execute judgment upon the ungodly. 2 Thessalonians 1:7-10; Jude 14-15.
The Great Tribulation will occur between Christ's coming for His Bride and His return in judgment. Isaiah 26:20-21; Revelation 9 and 16.
Christ's Millennial Reign is the literal 1000 years of peaceful reign by Jesus on earth. Isaiah 11 and 35.
The Great White Throne Judgment is the final judgment when all the wicked dead will stand before God. Revelation 20:11-15.
The New Heaven and The New Earth will replace the present heaven and earth, which will be destroyed after the Great White Throne Judgment. 2 Peter 3:12-13; Revelation 21:1-3.
Eternal Heaven and Eternal Hell are literal places of final destiny, each as eternal as the other. Matthew 25:41-46; Luke 16:22-28.
Marriage is for Life, a holy institution that is binding before God, giving neither partner liberty to marry again as long as the first companion lives. Mark 10:6-12; Romans 7:1-3.
Restitution is subsequent to salvation, wherein wrongs against our fellowmen are made right in order to have a clear conscience before God and man. Ezekiel 33:15; Matthew 5:23-24.
Water Baptism is by one immersion "in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost," as Jesus commanded. Matthew 3:16; 28:19.
The Lord's Supper is an institution ordained by Jesus so that we might remember His death until He returns. Matthew 26:26-29; 1 Corinthians 11:23,26.
Washing the Disciples' Feet is practiced according to the example and commandment Jesus gave. John 13:14-15.

text: The denomination differentiates itself from other Pentecostals by teaching that Speaking in Tongues is only acceptable in known languages and there must be someone there who can interpret.

text: Membership is not by formally joining the church but when you are Saved you are considered a member.

text: While they are pacifist members can do things that are not non-violent they served in hospitals and other such services.

text: They are one of the early groups that had bus ministries, ministries to ships, nursing homes, street meetings and jail meetings.

text: Literature is printed in many languages and is free. All literature is prayed over and can be used for healing and answers to prayers.

text: Services are composed of the music and they have an orchestra and choir. At the end was an altar call, with the altar being a bench on either side of the front of the church.

text: Ministers are not formally trained but were chosen by elders who laid hands on the person after it was believed they were called.

text: Camp meetings in Portland are two weeks, but used to be longer.

text: Members are expected to pay ten per cent of their income which is put in a box instead of passing a plate or bag. Expenses for the local church are paid out of this and ten per cent is sent to Portland which also used that to run the headquarters. There were never any sales of cakes, dinners or other fund raisers.

text: Among the missionary trips was a trip by boat every year to Alaska.


document_title: Winter Is Coming

question_text: who did ned stark kill in the first episode

root

text: Winter Is Coming

text: Plot[edit]

text: The episode begins the process of interweaving action happening in multiple separate locations within and around the fictional continent of Westeros.

tag: p

text: Beyond the Wall[edit]

text: Three rangers of the Night's Watch scout beyond the Wall, a massive barrier of ice at the north end of the kingdom. After finding the mutilated corpses of some wildlings (tribal humans who live north of the Wall), the rangers are confronted by White Walkers (demonic creatures) and undead wildlings. Two of the rangers are killed by the White Walkers, while the third, Will, is left alive. Fearing for his life, Will deserts the Night's Watch, going South.

text: In King's Landing[edit]

text: Queen Cersei, and her twin brother, Jaime Lannister, are watching as the dead body of Jon Arryn, The Hand of The King, is tended to by the Silent Sisters. They discuss whether he revealed any dangerous information regarding the two of them to anyone before his death. Jaime assures his sister that if Arryn had spoken to anyone, they would already have been executed.

text: In the North[edit]

text: The Starks of Winterfell are introduced, including Lord Eddard "Ned" Stark, his wife, Lady Catelyn "Cat" Stark and his five children: heir Robb, elder daughter Sansa, younger daughter Arya, ten-year-old son Bran and youngest son, Rickon. Also introduced are Ned's illegitimate son Jon Snow and ward Theon Greyjoy.

text: Ned is informed that a deserter of the Night's Watch has been captured. He takes his sons to witness Will's execution. Will reports that he saw White Walkers, but nobody believes him and Ned beheads him. When Bran asks his father about the White Walkers, Ned dismisses it as a madman's ravings, insisting that the Walkers have been extinct for thousands of years. Upon their return, the Starks find a dead stag, sigil (seal) of House Baratheon. A bit farther they find a dead dire wolf and her surviving pups. Noting that the dire wolf is the sigil of the Stark family and there are as many pups as the Stark children, they take the pups in as companions.

text: Back at Winterfell, a letter arrives announcing the death of Lord Arryn, Eddard's old friend and Catelyn's brother-in-law. An additional message reports that the king himself is coming to Winterfell. Winterfell receives the royal court, including King Robert Baratheon; his wife Queen Cersei; their three children: the heir Prince Joffrey, Princess Myrcella and the youngest Prince Tommen; as well as Cersei's twin brother, Jaime Lannister, a member of the Kingsguard; and their younger brother, Tyrion Lannister, a dwarf known as "The Imp". As Robert pays his respects to Lyanna Stark, his late fiancée and Ned's sister, Robert confides to his old friend that he doesn't trust anyone around him. He decides to name Ned as the new Hand of the King, and to solidify the alliance between the two families, he suggests that Sansa be betrothed to Joffrey.

text: At night, Catelyn receives a troubling message from her sister, Lord Arryn's widow. She suspects her husband Jon was murdered by the king's in-laws, the powerful Lannisters. Ned, who at first was reluctant to accept the position of Hand of the King, does so in order to protect his old friend. Bran, who enjoys climbing the walls of Winterfell, climbs an abandoned tower where he stumbles on Queen Cersei and Jaime having sex. To keep the incestuous relationship a secret, Jaime shoves Bran out of the high window.

text: In Pentos[edit]

text: Exiled prince Viserys Targaryen plots to overthrow King Robert and reclaim his father's throne. To this end, he brokers a marriage between his sister Daenerys and a powerful warlord Khal Drogo, leader of a nomadic horde of Dothraki. During the wedding ceremony, Daenerys is given two wedding gifts. The first is a collection of books from the Seven Kingdoms, given by Ser Jorah Mormont, an exiled knight loyal to the Targaryens. The second gift is a chest containing three petrified dragon eggs, given by Magister Illyrio Mopatis, the man who helped arrange the marriage.

text: Production[edit]

text: Conception and development[edit]

text: A number of Hollywood studios had contacted George R. R. Martin about possible adaptation of his book series A Song of Ice and Fire into a film, however Martin expressed the opinion the books could not be made into a film as too much would have to be cut from the books, but thought it could be made into a television series.[2] In January 2006, David Benioff spoke to Martin's literary agent about the books he represented for possible adaption, and the agent sent the first four books of A Song of Ice and Fire to David Benioff.[3] Benioff read a few hundred pages of the first book in the series, A Game of Thrones,[4] called D. B. Weiss and said: "Maybe I'm crazy, but I haven't had this much fun reading anything in about 20 years. So take a look because I think it might make a great HBO series."[5] Weiss, who then read the first book in two days, was very enthusiastic about a possible television project based on the books. They arranged a meeting with Martin, who asked them if they knew who Jon Snow’s real mother might be, and was satisfied with their answer.[4]

text: In March 2006, a few weeks after meeting Martin, Benioff and Weiss pitched the show to Showtime and Carolyn Strauss of HBO, who accepted their proposal.[4][6]  HBO acquired the rights to the novels to turn them into a television series,[7] with Benioff and Weiss as writers and executive producers of the series. The series went into development in January 2007.[8] The series would begin with the 1996 first book of A Song of Ice and Fire, "A Game of Thrones", with the intention that each novel in the series would form the basis for a season's worth of episodes.[8] However, Benioff and Weiss had to resubmit a proposal after Carolyn Strauss stepped down as president of HBO in 2008.[9]  The first and second drafts of the pilot script, written by Benioff and Weiss, were submitted in August 2007 and June 2008 respectively.[10] While HBO found both drafts to their liking, a pilot was not ordered until November 2008.[11]

text: Writing[edit]

text: Scripted by the show creators David Benioff and D. B. Weiss, the first episode includes the plot of the book's chapters 1–9 and 12 (Prologue, Bran I, Catelyn I, Daenerys I, Eddard I, Jon I, Catelyn II, partial Arya I, Bran II, Daenerys II). Changes in the adaptation include the sequence of events in the prologue (in the books it is Gared and not Will who survives and is beheaded by Eddard afterwards, and Arya's material is set before the arrival of the royal family), new scenes showing the Lannister twins' perspective, and Daenerys's wedding night showing Drogo not waiting for her to consent to sex.[12]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Tom McCarthy was chosen to direct the pilot episode, shot between October 24 and November 19, 2009 on location in Northern Ireland, Scotland and Morocco.[13]  However, the pilot was deemed unsatisfactory and had to be reshot.

text: The new pilot episode was filmed in 2010 by new director Tim Van Patten, and several actors appearing in the original pilot did not return for the series. Tamzin Merchant was replaced as Daenerys Targaryen by Emilia Clarke, and Jennifer Ehle was replaced as Catelyn Stark by Michelle Fairley.[14] Additionally, Ian McNeice was replaced as Magister Illyrio by Roger Allam,[15] Richard Ridings[16] as Gared by Dermot Keaney, and Jamie Campbell Bower[16] as Ser Waymar Royce by Rob Ostlere.[17]

text: Another difference is that the original pilot featured scenes shot in Scotland and scenes in Pentos were shot in Morocco,[18][19] but in the aired series, Winterfell was filmed in a combination of locations in Northern Ireland, while scenes from Pentos were from Malta.[20] The Doune Castle in Scotland was originally used to recreate Winterfell, and its great hall was used for some interior shots. Some scenes survived, but as it was not practical to return to Scotland for the reshoot, an exact replica of Doune's Great Hall was recreated in the soundstage in Belfast for the series. Castle Ward in Northern Ireland was used in the reshoot to film King Robert's entourage entry into Winterfell castle.[21]  A car park stood in for the Winterfell castle's courtyard and a wine cellar for the Stark family crypt.[22]  The Tollymore Forest Park was used for the opening scene of the encounter with the White Walkers.[23]

text: All the scenes shot in Morocco were reshot in Malta.[18]  The original pilot reused the sets of Kingdom of Heaven in Morocco to stand in for Pentos and the site of Drogo and Daenerys's wedding.[24] In Malta, the Verdala Palace, the 16th century summer palace of the president of Malta, was used for the exterior scenes at Illyrio's mansion.  The Azure Window was used as the backdrop for the wedding.[25]  Filming at the Azure Window, however, caused some controversy when a protected ecosystem was damaged by a subcontractor.[26]

text: In the sex scene, the then-pregnant Lena Headey was substituted by a body double; the production hid her pregnancy for the rest of the season.[27] In the scene in which the Starks encounter a stag killed by a dire wolf as they return from the execution, an actual animal was used rather than a prop. As the stag had been dead for two days, it stank so much that the actors had to take much care not to let it show on their faces.[28]  Some scenes filmed were never aired, for example a flashback to the death of Eddard Stark's brother, and the death of Jon Arryn.[29]

text: Original pilot[edit]

text: The original pilot from 2009 was poorly received in a private viewing with friends, one of whom, Craig Mazin, said to Benioff and Weiss, "You guys have a massive problem", and said "change everything" when asked for ideas.[30] It was so disliked that Kit Harington joked that when he annoys Benioff and Weiss, they threaten to release the episode on YouTube.[31] Weiss said of the viewing: "Watching them watch the pilot was a deeply humiliating, painful experience, because these are very smart individuals, and it just clearly wasn’t working for any of them on a very basic level."[32][33] For example, it was never established that the two major characters, Jaime and Cersei Lannister were in fact brother and sister, a major plot point.[33]

text: HBO did not make a decision for four months after the pilot was delivered.[33] In March 2010, HBO's decision to greenlight the series including the pilot was announced,[34] with the production of the series scheduled to start June 2010.[35] HBO however demanded extensive reshoot of the pilot, and wanted all the scenes from Morocco scrapped.[18] A cameo appearance by George RR Martin as a Pentoshi nobleman at Daenerys's wedding filmed in Morocco was therefore also cut.[36] In all 90 percent of the pilot was re-shot in 2010, with some cast changes and a different director.[32]

text: Aired episode[edit]

text: The original pilot remained unaired, although some footage from the original pilot was used in the first aired episode.[37] This includes Sansa's scenes with Catelyn (Michelle Fairley's footage as Catelyn was inserted over Jennifer Ehle's performance),[32] Will's ride through the woods (retained though also portrayed by a different actor), most of the feast at Winterfell, and Ned and Robert's scene in the crypt. That scene is one of a few to be filmed on 35 mm film, and consequently slight film grain can be seen in the HD version of the episode.[28]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Preview[edit]

text: On April 3, 2011, two weeks before the series premiere aired, the first 15 minutes of "Winter Is Coming" were released as a preview on HBO's website.[38] Wired's Dave Banks called the preview "much better than anticipated. (How's that even possible?)"[39] Scott Stinson of Toronto's National Post noted that "you know you aren’t watching a network drama when there have been two beheadings in the first 15 minutes."[40]

text: Ratings[edit]

text: The first episode of Game of Thrones obtained 2.2 million viewers in its premiere airing, with an additional 2 million viewers in the reruns aired during the same night. The day after the premiere HBO aired the episode six additional times, adding another 1.2 million to the viewer's figures.[41] Reruns aired during the following week upped the total viewership to 6.8 million.[42]

text: International[edit]

text: The show premiered on HBO Canada at the same time as its U.S. premiere.[40] On April 18, 2011, the show premiered in United Kingdom and Ireland through Sky Atlantic, gathering 750,000 viewers, a ratings record for the network.[41]  The series was broadcast throughout Latin America beginning on May 8, 2011.[43][44] New Zealand's Dominion Post noted in an article on copyright laws that the popular series was downloaded via file sharing service regularly before its release to that market.[45] In Australia, the July 17 premiere of the series was largely overshadowed by the release of A Dance with Dragons, but according to The Sydney Morning Herald was successful "especially with women, who aren't seen as a target market for sword-fighting sagas".[46]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: The critical response to the first episode of the series was positive. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes surveyed 10 reviews of the episode and judged 100% of them to be positive with an average score of 8.5 out of 10. The website's critical consensus reads, "'Winter is Coming' is an introduction to a wonderfully bleak journey that honors its source material with stellar execution and an impressive cast."[47] James Poniewozik from Time considered it an "epic win",[48] and Jace Lacob from The Daily Beast deemed it "unforgettable".[49] HitFix's Alan Sepinwall wrote that while it was too early to say if Game of Thrones belonged to the HBO pantheon with shows like The Sopranos or The Wire, it had many things in common with those shows.[50] IGN's Matt Fowler wrote that the pilot "effortlessly takes us along, faithfully, through the book, but it also manages to capture the majestically morbid spirit of Martin's pages and turn them into thrilling television".[51]

text: Much praise was given to the production values and the acting: Scott Meslow from The Atlantic states that "the show's immense cast is almost universally strong, and the fantasy land of Westeros feels lived-in, and looks terrific".[52] Alan Sepinwall also qualifies the casting as "really exceptional", and states that the show is "feast for the eyes", with all the different locations having their own memorable looks.[50] The opening sequence, with an aerial view of the world where the series takes place with the different settings emerging from it, was also acclaimed.[50][52]

text: On April 19, less than two days after the initial airing, HBO announced that the series had been renewed for a second season.[53] In a press teleconference, HBO executives announced their satisfaction with initial ratings, which they compared favorably to True Blood.[54]

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text:
Year

Award

Category

Nominee(s)

Result

Ref.

2011

Portal Award

Best Episode

Won

Primetime Emmy Awards

Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series

Tim Van Patten

Nominated

[55]

Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards

Outstanding Make-up for a Single-Camera Series (Non-Prosthetic)

Paul Engelen and Melissa Lackersteen

Nominated

2012

Golden Reel Awards

Best Sound Editing — Short Form Sound Effects and Foley in Television

Won

Directors Guild of America Awards

Dramatic Series

Tim Van Patten

Nominated

[55]

Visual Effects Society

Outstanding Supporting Visual Effects in a Broadcast Program

Lucy Ainsworth-Taylor, Angela Barson, Ed Bruce and Adam McInnes

Won

tag: table


document_title: Great Sphinx of Giza

question_text: the great sphinx is associated with which pharaoh’s pyramid

question_tokens: the great sphinx is associated with which pharaoh 's pyramid

text: Great Sphinx of Giza

text: Construction

text: The Sphinx is a monolith carved into the bedrock of the plateau, which also served as the quarry for the pyramids and other monuments in the area.[5] The nummulitic limestone of the area consists of layers which offer differing resistance to erosion (mostly caused by wind and windblown sand), leading to the uneven degradation apparent in the Sphinx's body.[5][6] The lowest part of the body, including the legs, is solid rock.[1] The body of the lion up to its neck is fashioned from softer layers that have suffered considerable disintegration.[7] The layer in which the head was sculpted is much harder.[7][8]

text: Origin and identity

text: The Great Sphinx is one of the world's largest and oldest statues, but basic facts about it are still subject to debate, such as when it was built, by whom and for what purpose.

text: Names of the Sphinx

text: It is impossible to identify what name the creators called their statue, as the Great Sphinx does not appear in any known inscription of the Old Kingdom and there are no inscriptions anywhere describing its construction or its original purpose. In the New Kingdom, the Sphinx was called Hor-em-akhet (English: Horus of the Horizon; Coptic: ϩⲁⲣⲙⲁϣⲓ; Hellenized: Harmachis), and the pharaoh Thutmose IV (1401–1391 or 1397–1388 BC)[9] specifically referred to it as such in his "Dream Stele."

text: The commonly used name "Sphinx" was given to it in classical antiquity, about 2000 years after the commonly accepted date of its construction by reference to a Greek mythological beast with a lion's body, a woman's head and the wings of an eagle (although, like most Egyptian sphinxes, the Great Sphinx has a man's head and no wings).[10] The English word sphinx comes from the ancient Greek Σφίγξ (transliterated: sphinx) apparently from the verb σφίγγω (transliterated: sphingo / English: to squeeze), after the Greek sphinx who strangled anyone who failed to answer her riddle.

text: The name may alternatively be a linguistic corruption of the phonetically different ancient Egyptian word Ssp-anx (in Manuel de Codage).  This name is given to royal statues of the Fourth dynasty of ancient Egypt (2575–2467 BC) and later in the New Kingdom (c. 1570–1070 BC) to the Great Sphinx more specifically.[original research?]

text: Medieval Arab writers, including al-Maqrīzī, call the Sphinx balhib and bilhaw, which suggest a Coptic influence. The modern Egyptian Arabic name is أبو الهول (Abū al Hūl, English: The Terrifying One).

text: Builder and timeframe

text: Though there have been conflicting evidence and viewpoints over the years, the view held by modern Egyptology at large remains that the Great Sphinx was built in approximately 2500 BC for the pharaoh Khafra, the builder of the Second Pyramid at Giza.[11]

text: Selim Hassan, writing in 1949 on recent excavations of the Sphinx enclosure, summed up the problem:

text: Taking all things into consideration, it seems that we must give the credit of erecting this, the world's most wonderful statue, to Khafre, but always with this reservation: that there is not one single contemporary inscription which connects the Sphinx with Khafre; so, sound as it may appear, we must treat the evidence as circumstantial, until such time as a lucky turn of the spade of the excavator will reveal to the world a definite reference to the erection of the Sphinx.[12]

text: The "circumstantial" evidence mentioned by Hassan includes the Sphinx's location in the context of the funerary complex surrounding the Second Pyramid, which is traditionally connected with Khafra.[13] Apart from the Causeway, the Pyramid and the Sphinx, the complex also includes the Sphinx Temple and Valley Temple, both of which display similar design of their inner courts. The Sphinx Temple was built using blocks cut from the Sphinx enclosure, while those of the Valley Temple were quarried from the plateau, some of the largest weighing upwards of 100 tons.[14]

text: A diorite statue of Khafre, which was discovered buried upside down along with other debris in the Valley Temple, is claimed as support for the Khafra theory.

text: The Dream Stele, erected much later by the pharaoh Thutmose IV (1401–1391 or 1397–1388 BC), associates the Sphinx with Khafra. When the stele was discovered, its lines of text were already damaged and incomplete, and only referred to Khaf, not Khafra. An extract was translated:

text: which we bring for him: oxen ... and all the young vegetables; and we shall give praise to Wenofer ... Khaf ... the statue made for Atum-Hor-em-Akhet.[15]

text: The Egyptologist Thomas Young, finding the Khaf hieroglyphs in a damaged cartouche used to surround a royal name, inserted the glyph ra to complete Khafra's name. When the Stele was re-excavated in 1925, the lines of text referring to Khaf flaked off and were destroyed.

text: Dissenting hypotheses

text: Theories held by academic Egyptologists regarding the builder of the Sphinx and the date of its construction are not universally accepted, and various persons have proposed alternative hypotheses about both the builder and dating.

text: Early Egyptologists

text: Some early Egyptologists and excavators of the Giza pyramid complex believed the Great Sphinx and associated temples to predate the fourth dynasty rule of Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure. Petrie wrote in 1883 regarding the state of opinion regarding the age of the nearby temples, and by extension the Sphinx: "The date of the Granite Temple [Valley Temple] has been so positively asserted to be earlier than the fourth dynasty, that it may seem rash to dispute the point".[16]

text: In 1857, Auguste Mariette, founder of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, unearthed the much later Inventory Stela (estimated Dynasty XXVI, c. 678–525 BC), which tells how Khufu came upon the Sphinx, already buried in sand. Although certain tracts on the Stela are considered good evidence,[17] this passage is widely dismissed as Late Period historical revisionism,[18] a purposeful fake, created by the local priests with the attempt to certify the contemporary Isis temple an ancient history it never had. Such an act became common when religious institutions such as temples, shrines and priest's domains were fighting for political attention and for financial and economic donations.[19][20]

text: Gaston Maspero, the French Egyptologist and second director of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, conducted a survey of the Sphinx in 1886. He concluded that because the Dream stela showed the cartouche of Khafre in line thirteen, it was he who was responsible for the excavation and therefore the Sphinx must predate Khafre and his predecessors—possibly Dynasty IV, c. 2575–2467 BC.[21] English Egyptologist E. A. Wallis Budge agreed that the Sphinx predated Khafre's reign, writing in The Gods of the Egyptians (1914): "This marvelous object [the Great Sphinx] was in existence in the days of Khafre, or Khephren,[a] and it is probable that it is a very great deal older than his reign and that it dates from the end of the archaic period [c. 2686 BC]."[22] Maspero believed the Sphinx to be "the most ancient monument in Egypt".[23]

text: Modern dissenting hypotheses

text: Rainer Stadelmann, former director of the German Archaeological Institute in Cairo, examined the distinct iconography of the nemes (headdress) and the now-detached beard of the Sphinx and concluded the style is more indicative of the Pharaoh Khufu (2589–2566 BC), builder of the Great Pyramid of Giza and Khafra's father.[24] He supports this by suggesting Khafra's Causeway was built to conform to a pre-existing structure, which, he concludes, given its location, could only have been the Sphinx.[18]

text: Colin Reader, an English geologist who independently conducted a more recent survey of the enclosure, agrees the various quarries on the site have been excavated around the Causeway. Because these quarries are known to have been used by Khufu, Reader concludes that the Causeway (and the temples on either end thereof) must predate Khufu, thereby casting doubt on the conventional Egyptian chronology.[18]

text: Frank Domingo, a forensic scientist in the New York City Police Department and an expert forensic anthropologist,[25] used detailed measurements of the Sphinx, forensic drawings and computer imaging to conclude the face depicted on the Sphinx is not the same face as is depicted on a statue attributed to Khafra.[26]

text: In 2004, Vassil Dobrev of the Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale in Cairo announced he had uncovered new evidence the Great Sphinx may have been the work of the little-known Pharaoh Djedefre (2528–2520 BC), Khafra's half brother and a son of Khufu.[27] Dobrev suggests Djedefre built the Sphinx in the image of his father Khufu, identifying him with the sun god Ra in order to restore respect for their dynasty. Dobrev also notes, like Stadelmann and others, the causeway connecting Khafre's pyramid to the temples was built around the Sphinx suggesting it was already in existence at the time.[24]

text: Fringe hypotheses

text: Orion correlation theory

text: The Orion correlation theory, as expounded by popular authors Graham Hancock and Robert Bauval,[28] is based on the proposed exact correlation of the three pyramids at Giza with the three stars ζ Ori, ε Ori and δ Ori, the stars forming Orion's Belt, in the relative positions occupied by these stars in 10500 BC. The authors argue that the geographic relationship of the Sphinx, the Giza pyramids and the Nile directly corresponds with Leo, Orion and the Milky Way respectively. Sometimes cited as an example of pseudoarchaeology, the theory is at variance with mainstream scholarship.[29][30][31]

text: Water erosion hypothesis

text: The Sphinx water erosion hypothesis contends that the main type of weathering evident on the enclosure walls of the Great Sphinx could only have been caused by prolonged and extensive rainfall,[32] and must therefore predate the time of the pharaoh Khafra.

text: The hypothesis is championed by René Schwaller de Lubicz (1887-1961), who lived and studied Egyptology for 12 years in Egypt, and by Robert M. Schoch, a geologist and associate professor of natural science at the College of General Studies at Boston University, as well as by John Anthony West, an author and alternative Egyptologist.

text: Colin Reader, a British geologist, studied the erosion patterns and noticed that they are found predominantly on the western enclosure wall and not on the Sphinx itself.  He proposed the rainfall water runoff hypothesis, which also recognizes climate change transitions in the area.[33][34]

text: The Great Sphinx as Anubis

text: Author Robert K. G. Temple proposes that the Sphinx was originally a statue of the Jackal-Dog Anubis, the God of the Necropolis, and that its face was recarved in the likeness of a Middle Kingdom pharaoh, Amenemhet II. Temple bases his identification on the style of the eye make-up and style of the pleats on the headdress.[35]

text: Racial characteristics

text: Over the years several authors have commented on what they perceive as "Negroid" characteristics in the face of the Sphinx.[36] This issue has become part of the Ancient Egyptian race controversy, with respect to the ancient population as a whole.[37] The face of the Sphinx has been damaged over the millennia.

text: Restoration

text: At some unknown time the Giza Necropolis was abandoned, and the Sphinx was eventually buried up to its shoulders in sand. The first documented attempt at an excavation dates to c. 1400 BC, when the young Thutmose IV (1401–1391 or 1397–1388 BC) gathered a team and, after much effort, managed to dig out the front paws, between which he placed a granite slab, known as the Dream Stele, inscribed with the following excerpt:

text: ... the royal son, Thothmos, being arrived, while walking at midday and seating himself under the shadow of this mighty god, was overcome by slumber and slept at the very moment when Ra is at the summit [of heaven]. He found that the Majesty of this august god spoke to him with his own mouth, as a father speaks to his son, saying: Look upon me, contemplate me, O my son Thothmos; I am thy father, Harmakhis-Khopri-Ra-Tum; I bestow upon thee the sovereignty over my domain, the supremacy over the living ... Behold my actual condition that thou mayest protect all my perfect limbs. The sand of the desert whereon I am laid has covered me. Save me, causing all that is in my heart to be executed.[38]

text: Later, Ramesses II the Great (1279–1213 BC) may have undertaken a second excavation.

text: Mark Lehner, an Egyptologist who has excavated and mapped the Giza plateau, originally asserted that there had been a far earlier renovation during the Old Kingdom (c. 2686–2184 BC),[39] although he has subsequently recanted this "heretical" viewpoint.[40]

text: In AD 1817 the first modern archaeological dig, supervised by the Italian Giovanni Battista Caviglia, uncovered the Sphinx's chest completely.

text: One of the people working on clearing the sands from around the Great Sphinx was Eugène Grébaut, a French Director of the Antiquities Service[41]

text: In the beginning of the year 1887, the chest, the paws, the altar, and plateau were all made visible. Flights of steps were unearthed, and finally accurate measurements were taken of the great figures. The height from the lowest of the steps was found to be one hundred feet, and the space between the paws was found to be thirty-five feet long and ten feet wide. Here there was formerly an altar; and a stele of Thûtmosis IV was discovered, recording a dream in which he was ordered to clear away the sand that even then was gathering round the site of the Sphinx.[42]

text: The entire Sphinx was finally excavated in 1925 to 1936, in digs led by Émile Baraize.[citation needed]

text: In 1931 engineers of the Egyptian government repaired the head of the Sphinx. Part of its headdress had fallen off in 1926 due to erosion, which had also cut deeply into its neck.[43] This questionable repair was by the addition of a concrete collar between the headdress and the neck, creating an altered profile.[44] Many renovations to the stone base and raw rock body were done in the 1980s, and then redone in the 1990s.[45]

text: Missing nose and beard

text: The one-metre-wide nose on the face is missing. Examination of the Sphinx's face shows that long rods or chisels were hammered into the nose, one down from the bridge and one beneath the nostril, then used to pry the nose off towards the south.[47]

text: The Arab historian al-Maqrīzī, writing in the 15th century, attributes the loss of the nose to iconoclasm by Muhammad Sa'im al-Dahr—a Sufi Muslim from the khanqah of Sa'id al-Su'ada—in AD 1378, upon finding the local peasants making offerings to the Sphinx in the hope of increasing their harvest. Enraged, he destroyed the nose, and was later hanged for vandalism.[48] Al-Maqrīzī describes the Sphinx as the "talisman of the Nile" on which the locals believed the flood cycle depended.[49]

text: There is a story that the nose was broken off by a cannonball fired by Napoleon's soldiers. Other variants indict British troops, the Mamluks, and others. Sketches of the Sphinx by the Dane Frederic Louis Norden, made in 1738 and published in 1757, show the Sphinx missing its nose.[50] This predates Napoleon's birth in 1769.

text: In addition to the lost nose, a ceremonial pharaonic beard is thought to have been attached, although this may have been added in later periods after the original construction. Egyptologist Vassil Dobrev has suggested that had the beard been an original part of the Sphinx, it would have damaged the chin of the statue upon falling.[24] The lack of visible damage supports his theory that the beard was a later addition.

text: Residues of red pigment are visible on areas of the Sphinx's face. Traces of yellow and blue pigment have been found elsewhere on the Sphinx, leading Mark Lehner to suggest that the monument "was once decked out in gaudy comic book colors".[51]

text: Mythology

text: Colin Reader has proposed that the Sphinx was probably the focus of solar worship in the Early Dynastic Period, before the Giza Plateau became a necropolis in the Old Kingdom (c. 2686–2134 BC).[52] He ties this in with his conclusions that the Sphinx, the Sphinx temple, the Causeway and the Khafra mortuary temple are all part of a complex which predates Dynasty IV (c. 2613–2494 BC). The lion has long been a symbol associated with the sun in ancient Near Eastern civilizations. Images depicting the Egyptian king in the form of a lion smiting his enemies date as far back as the Early Dynastic Period.

text: In the New Kingdom, the Sphinx became more specifically associated with the god Hor-em-akhet (Hellenized: Harmachis) or "Horus-at-the-Horizon", which represented the pharaoh in his role as the Shesep-ankh (English: Living Image) of the god Atum. Pharaoh Amenhotep II (1427–1401 or 1397 BC) built a temple to the north east of the Sphinx nearly 1000 years after its construction, and dedicated it to the cult of Hor-em-akhet.

text: Reception

text: In the last 700 years, there has been a proliferation of travellers and reports from Lower Egypt, unlike Upper Egypt, which was seldom reported from prior to the mid-18th century. Alexandria, Rosetta, Damietta, Cairo and the Giza Pyramids are described repeatedly, but not necessarily comprehensively.  Many accounts were published and widely read.  These include those of George Sandys, André Thévet, Athanasius Kircher, Balthasar de Monconys, Jean de Thévenot, John Greaves, Johann Michael Vansleb, Benoît de Maillet, Cornelis de Bruijn, Paul Lucas, Richard Pococke, Frederic Louis Norden and others. But there is an even larger set of more anonymous people who wrote obscure and little-read works, sometimes only unpublished manuscripts in libraries or private collections, including Henry Castela, Hans Ludwig von Lichtenstein, Michael Heberer von Bretten, Wilhelm von Boldensele, Pierre Belon du Mans, Vincent Stochove, Christophe Harant, Gilles Fermanel, Robert Fauvel, Jean Palerne Foresien, Willian Lithgow, Joos van Ghistele, etc.

text: Over the centuries, writers and scholars have recorded their impressions and reactions upon seeing the Sphinx.  The vast majority were concerned with a general description, often including a mixture of science, romance and mystique. A typical description of the Sphinx by tourists and leisure travelers throughout the 19th and 20th century was made by John Lawson Stoddard:

text: It is the antiquity of the Sphinx which thrills us as we look upon it, for in itself it has no charms. The desert's waves have risen to its breast, as if to wrap the monster in a winding-sheet of gold. The face and head have been mutilated by Moslem fanatics. The mouth, the beauty of whose lips was once admired, is now expressionless. Yet grand in its loneliness, – veiled in the mystery of unnamed ages, – the relic of Egyptian antiquity stands solemn and silent in the presence of the awful desert – symbol of eternity. Here it disputes with Time the empire of the past; forever gazing on and on into a future which will still be distant when we, like all who have preceded us and looked upon its face, have lived our little lives and disappeared.[53]

text: From the 16th century far into the 19th century, observers repeatedly noted that the Sphinx has the face, neck and breast of a woman.  Examples included Johannes Helferich (1579), George Sandys (1615), Johann Michael Vansleb (1677), Benoît de Maillet (1735) and Elliot Warburton (1844).

text: Most early Western images were book illustrations in print form, elaborated by a professional engraver from either previous images available or some original drawing or sketch supplied by an author, and usually now lost.  Seven years after visiting Giza, André Thévet (Cosmographie de Levant, 1556) described the Sphinx as "the head of a colossus, caused to be made by Isis, daughter of Inachus, then so beloved of Jupiter". He, or his artist and engraver, pictured it as a curly-haired monster with a grassy dog collar. Athanasius Kircher (who never visited Egypt) depicted the Sphinx as a Roman statue, reflecting his ability to conceptualize (Turris Babel, 1679). Johannes Helferich's (1579) Sphinx is a pinched-face, round-breasted woman with a straight haired wig; the only edge over Thevet is that the hair suggests the flaring lappets of the headdress. George Sandys stated that the Sphinx was a harlot; Balthasar de Monconys interpreted the headdress as a kind of hairnet, while François de La Boullaye-Le Gouz's Sphinx had a rounded hairdo with bulky collar.

text: Richard Pococke's Sphinx was an adoption of Cornelis de Bruijn's drawing of 1698, featuring only minor changes, but is closer to the actual appearance of the Sphinx than anything previous.  The print versions of Norden's careful drawings for his Voyage d'Egypte et de Nubie, 1755 are the first to clearly show that the nose was missing.  However, from the time of the Napoleonic invasion of Egypt onwards, a number of accurate images were widely available in Europe, and copied by others.

text: Legacy

text: Mystery of the Sphinx, narrated by Charlton Heston, a documentary presenting the theories of John Anthony West, was shown as an NBC Special on 10 November 1993 (winning an Emmy award for Best Research[citation needed]) A 95-minute DVD, Mystery of the Sphinx: Expanded Edition, was released in 2007. Age of the Sphinx, a BBC Two Timewatch documentary presenting the theories of John Anthony West and critical to both sides of the argument, was shown on 27 November 1994. In 2008, the film 10,000 BC showed a supposed original Sphinx with a lion's head. Before this film, this lion head theory had been published in documentary films about the origin of the Sphinx.

text: Gallery

text:
André Thévet, Cosmographie de Levant (1556)

Hogenberg and Braun (map), Cairus, quae olim Babylon (1572), exists in various editions, from various authors, with the Sphinx looking different.

Jan Sommer, (unpublished) Voyages en Egypte des annees 1589, 1590 & 1591, Institut de France, 1971 (Voyageurs occidentaux en Égypte 3)

George Sandys, A relation of a journey begun an dom. 1610 (1615)

François de La Boullaye-Le Gouz, Les Voyages et Observations (1653)

Balthasar de Monconys, Journal des voyages (1665)

Olfert Dapper, Description de l'Afrique (1665), note the two different displays of the Sphinx.

Cornelis de Bruijn, Reizen van Cornelis de Bruyn door de vermaardste Deelen van Klein Asia (1698)

The Sphinx as seen by Frederic Louis Norden (sketches made 1737, published 1755)

Frederic Louis Norden, Voyage d'Égypte et de Nubie (1755)

Description de l'Egypte (Panckoucke edition), Planches, Antiquités, volume V (1823), also published in the Imperial edition of 1822.

Description de l'Egypte (Panckoucke edition), Planches, Antiquités, volume V (1823), also published in the Imperial edition of 1822.

Members of the Second Japanese Embassy to Europe (1863) in front of the Sphinx, 1864.

Jean-Léon Gérôme's Bonaparte Before the Sphinx, 1867–1868.

Johanne Baptista Homann (map), Aegyptus hodierna (1724)

Lantern Slide Collection: Views, Objects: Egypt. Gizeh [selected images]. View 04: Pyramids and Sphinx., n.d., Kay C. Lenskold. Floral Park, N.Y. Brooklyn Museum Archives

tag: ul


document_title: Made in Dagenham

question_text: who played barbara castle in made in dagenham

text: Made in Dagenham

text: Plot[edit]

text: This article needs an improved plot summary. (October 2015)

text: Based on a true story, Made in Dagenham explores the movement that caused a significant law reform. Rita O'Grady (a fictional character) leads the 1968 Ford sewing machinists strike at the Ford Dagenham plant, where female workers walk out in protest against sexual discrimination, demanding equal pay. This strike causes a lot of public attention around the world and was seen as out of the ordinary to many because it was not in a woman's nature to do anything else other than the traditional family roles. The strike is successful and leads to the Equal Pay Act 1970. [3]

text: Locations[edit]

text:
Mardyke estate
Dagenham Civic Centre

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Sally Hawkins as Rita O'Grady
Bob Hoskins as Albert
Miranda Richardson as Employment Secretary Barbara Castle
Geraldine James as Connie
Rosamund Pike as Lisa Hopkins
Andrea Riseborough as Brenda
Jaime Winstone as Sandra
Daniel Mays as Eddie O'Grady
Richard Schiff as Robert Tooley
Lorraine Stanley as Monica
Nicola Duffett as Eileen
Andrew Lincoln as Mr. Clarke
Rupert Graves as Peter Hopkins
Joseph Mawle as Gordon
Robbie Kay as Graham O'Grady
Kenneth Cranham as Monty Taylor
John Sessions as Prime Minister Harold Wilson
Marcus Hutton as Grant
Roger Lloyd-Pack as George
Phil Cornwell as Dave
Matthew Aubrey as Brian
Karen Seacombe as Marge
Thomas Arnold as Martin
Sian Scott as Sharon O'Grady
Philip Perry as Arthur Horovitz
Peter-Hugo Daly as Bartholomew
Simon Armstrong as Rogers
Matilda Cole as Emily
Romy Taylor as Rosie
Danny Huston as American Boss (voice only)
Mitchell Mullen as Kronnfeld
Matt King as Trevor Innes
Gina Bramhill as Hopkins' Secretary

text: Reception[edit]

text: Of 122 Rotten Tomatoes reviews, 80% rated the film "fresh".[4] Maclean's, in a review for the film's 2010 Toronto International Film Festival premiere, called it a ".. combination of Milk and Mad Men.. It’s a film that blatantly condemns sexism and shows, despite its mostly light tone, the real cost of fighting for civil rights. The bee-hived and bobbed characters are fully fleshed and well-rounded even though they fit into ’60s archetypes, and the period piece balances optimism and realism in a way that’s both compelling and fun to watch."[5]

text: Xan Brooks of The Guardian gave it three stars out of five, calling it ".. uncomplicated fare, overly spiced with 60s cliches.... But the film is also robust, amiable and so warm-hearted you'd be a churl to take against it." Roger Ebert gave the film three and a half stars out of four.,[6] while David Cox, also of The Guardian, gave a less glowing review, suggesting that, despite initial potential, ".. a promising opportunity has been squandered."[7]

text: Mark Kermode praised the film highly on his weekly show on BBC Radio 5 Live. He ranked it as his fourth favourite film of 2010, beating such films as The Social Network and Another Year.[8]

text: Made in Dagenham was nominated for four awards at the 2010 British Academy Film Awards; Outstanding British Film, Costume Design, Make Up & Hair Design and Supporting Actress (Miranda Richardson).

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text: A soundtrack for the film was released, with the following tracks:[9]

text:
(There's) Always Something There to Remind Me - Sandie Shaw
Get Ready - The Temptations
Israelites - Desmond Dekker & The Aces
It's a Man's Man's Man's World - James Brown
Days - The Kinks
Can I Get a Witness - Dusty Springfield
All or Nothing - Small Faces
The Boat That I Row - Lulu
It's Getting Better - Mama Cass
A Groovy Kind of Love - The Mindbenders
Wooly Bully - Sam The Sham & The Pharaohs
Sunday Will Never Be The Same - Spanky and Our Gang
Green Tambourine - Lemon Pipers
Paper Sun - Traffic
Friday on My Mind - The Easybeats
With a Girl Like You - The Troggs
You Can Get It If You Really Want - Desmond Dekker
Made In Dagenham - Sandie Shaw

tag: ol

text: The title song was written by David Arnold and Billy Bragg just for the film.[9]

text: Musical[edit]

text: A musical adaption of the film opened on 5 November 2014, at the Adelphi Theatre in London. Scripted by Richard Bean, and directed by Rupert Goold, it starred Gemma Arterton in the lead role.[10]


document_title: European colonization of the Americas

question_text: who were the first european to reach the americas and when did they arrive

text: European colonization of the Americas

text: Norse trans-oceanic contact[edit]

text: Norse journeys to Greenland and Canada are supported by historical and archaeological evidence.[4] A Norse colony in Greenland was established in the late 10th century, and lasted until the mid 15th century, with court and parliament assemblies (þing) taking place at Brattahlíð and a bishop located at Garðar.[5] The remains of a Norse settlement at L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland, Canada, were discovered in 1960 and were dated to around the year 1000 (carbon dating estimate 990–1050 CE).[6] L'Anse aux Meadows is the only site widely accepted as evidence of pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact. It was named a World Heritage site by UNESCO in 1978.[7] It is also notable for its possible connection with the attempted colony of Vinland, established by Leif Erikson around the same period or, more broadly, with the West Norse colonization of the Americas.[8]

text: Early conquests, claims and colonies[edit]

text: Early explorations and conquests were made by the Spanish and the Portuguese immediately following their own final reconquest of Iberia in 1492. In the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas, ratified by the Pope, these two kingdoms divided the entire non-European world into two areas of exploration and colonization, with a north to south boundary that cut through the Atlantic Ocean and the eastern part of present-day Brazil. Based on this treaty and on early claims by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa, discoverer of the Pacific Ocean in 1513, the Spanish conquered large territories in North, Central and South America.

text: Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés took over the Aztec Kingdom and Francisco Pizarro conquered the Inca Empire. As a result, by the mid-16th century, the Spanish Crown had gained control of much of western South America, Central America and southern North America, in addition to its earlier Caribbean territories. Over this same timeframe, Portugal claimed lands in North America (Canada) and colonized much of eastern South America, naming it Santa Cruz and Brazil.

text: Other European nations soon disputed the terms of the Treaty of Tordesillas. England and France attempted to plant colonies in the Americas in the 16th century, but these failed. England and France succeeded in establishing permanent colonies in the following century, along with the Dutch Republic. Some of these were on Caribbean islands, which had often already been conquered by the Spanish or depopulated by disease, while others were in eastern North America, which had not been colonized by Spain north of Florida.

text: Early European possessions in North America included Spanish Florida, Spanish New Mexico, the English colonies of Virginia (with its North Atlantic offshoot, Bermuda) and New England, the French colonies of Acadia and Canada, the Swedish colony of New Sweden, and the Dutch New Netherland. In the 18th century, Denmark–Norway revived its former colonies in Greenland, while the Russian Empire gained a foothold in Alaska. Denmark-Norway would later make several claims in the Caribbean, starting in the 1600s.

text: As more nations gained an interest in the colonization of the Americas, competition for territory became increasingly fierce. Colonists often faced the threat of attacks from neighboring colonies, as well as from indigenous tribes and pirates.

text: Early state-sponsored colonists[edit]

text: The first phase of well-financed European activity in the Americas began with the Atlantic Ocean crossings of Christopher Columbus (1492–1504), sponsored by Spain, whose original attempt was to find a new route to India and China, known as "the Indies". He was followed by other explorers such as John Cabot, who was sponsored by England and reached Newfoundland. Pedro Álvares Cabral reached Brazil and claimed it for Portugal.

text: Amerigo Vespucci, working for Portugal in voyages from 1497 to 1513, established that Columbus had reached a new set of continents. Cartographers still use a Latinized version of his first name, America, for the two continents. Other explorers included Giovanni da Verrazzano, sponsored by France in 1524; the Portuguese João Vaz Corte-Real in Newfoundland; João Fernandes Lavrador, Gaspar and Miguel Corte-Real and João Álvares Fagundes, in Newfoundland, Greenland, Labrador, and Nova Scotia (from 1498 to 1502, and in 1520); Jacques Cartier (1491–1557), Henry Hudson (1560s–1611), and Samuel de Champlain (1567–1635), who explored the region of Canada he reestablished as New France.

text: In 1513, Vasco Núñez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and led the first European expedition to see the Pacific Ocean from the west coast of the New World. In an action with enduring historical import, Balboa claimed the Pacific Ocean and all the lands adjoining it for the Spanish Crown. It was 1517 before another expedition, from Cuba, visited Central America, landing on the coast of Yucatán in search of slaves.

text: These explorations were followed, notably in the case of Spain, by a phase of conquest: The Spaniards, having just finished the Reconquista of Spain from Muslim rule, were the first to colonize the Americas, applying the same model of governing their European holdings to their territories of the New World.

text: Ten years after Columbus's discovery, the administration of Hispaniola was given to Nicolás de Ovando of the Order of Alcántara, founded during the Reconquista. As in the Iberian Peninsula, the inhabitants of Hispaniola were given new landmasters, while religious orders handled the local administration. Progressively the encomienda system, which granted tribute (access to indigenous labor and taxation) to European settlers, was set in place.

text: A relatively common misconception is that a small number of conquistadores conquered vast territories, aided only by disease epidemics and their powerful caballeros. In fact, recent archaeological excavations have suggested a vast Spanish-Indian alliance numbering in the hundreds of thousands.[9] Hernán Cortés eventually conquered Mexico with the help of Tlaxcala in 1519–1521, while the conquest of the Incas was carried out by some 40,000 Incan renegades led by Francisco Pizarro in between 1532 and 1535.

text: Over the 1st century and a half after Columbus's voyages, the native population of the Americas plummeted by an estimated 80% (from around 50 million in 1492 to eight million in 1650[10]), mostly by outbreaks of Old World diseases.

text: In 1532, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor sent a vice-king to Mexico, Antonio de Mendoza, in order to prevent Cortes' independentist drives, who definitively returned to Spain in 1540. Two years later, Charles V signed the New Laws (which replaced the Laws of Burgos of 1512) prohibiting slavery and the repartimientos, but also claiming as his own all the American lands and all of the indigenous people as his own subjects.

text: When in May 1493, the Pope Alexander VI issued the Inter caetera bull granting the new lands to the Kingdom of Spain, he requested in exchange an evangelization of the people. Thus, during Columbus's second voyage, Benedictine friars accompanied him, along with twelve other priests. As slavery was prohibited between Christians, and could only be imposed in non-Christian prisoners of war or on men already sold as slaves, the debate on Christianization was particularly acute during the 16th century. In 1537, the papal bull Sublimis Deus definitively recognized that Native Americans possessed souls, thus prohibiting their enslavement, without putting an end to the debate. Some claimed that a native who had rebelled and then been captured could be enslaved nonetheless.

text: Later, the Valladolid debate between the Dominican priest Bartolomé de Las Casas and another Dominican philosopher Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda was held, with the former arguing that Native Americans were beings doted with souls, as all other human beings, while the latter argued to the contrary and justified their enslavement.

text: The process of Christianization was at first violent: when the first Franciscans arrived in Mexico in 1524, they burned the places dedicated to pagan cult, alienating much of the local population.[11] In the 1530s, they began to adapt Christian practices to local customs, including the building of new churches on the sites of ancient places of worship, leading to a mix of Old World Christianity with local religions.[11] The Spanish Roman Catholic Church, needing the natives' labor and cooperation, evangelized in Quechua, Nahuatl, Guaraní and other Native American languages, contributing to the expansion of these indigenous languages and equipping some of them with writing systems. One of the first primitive schools for Native Americans was founded by Fray Pedro de Gante in 1523.

text: To reward their troops, the Conquistadores often allotted Indian towns to their troops and officers. Black African slaves were introduced to substitute for Native American labor in some locations—including the West Indies, where the indigenous population was nearing extinction on many islands.

text: During this time, the Portuguese gradually switched from an initial plan of establishing trading posts to extensive colonization of what is now Brazil. They imported millions of slaves to run their plantations. The Portuguese and Spanish royal governments expected to rule these settlements and collect at least 20% of all treasure found (the quinto real collected by the Casa de Contratación), in addition to collecting all the taxes they could. By the late 16th century American silver accounted for one-fifth of Spain's total budget.[12] In the 16th century perhaps 240,000 Europeans entered American ports.[13][14]

text: The search for riches[edit]

text: Inspired by the Spanish riches from colonies founded upon the conquest of the Aztecs, Incas, and other large Native American populations in the 16th century, the first Englishmen to settle permanently in America hoped for some of the same rich discoveries when they established their first permanent settlement in Jamestown, Virginia in 1607. They were sponsored by common stock companies such as the chartered Virginia Company financed by wealthy Englishmen who exaggerated the economic potential of this new land. The main purpose of this colony was the hope of finding gold.[2]

text: It took strong leaders, like John Smith, to convince the colonists of Jamestown that searching for gold was not taking care of their immediate needs for food and shelter and the biblical principle that "he who will not work shall not eat" (see 2 Thessalonians 3). The lack of food security leading to extremely high mortality rate was quite distressing and cause for despair among the colonists. To support the Colony, numerous supply missions were organized. Tobacco later became a cash crop, with the work of John Rolfe and others, for export and the sustaining economic driver of Virginia and the neighboring colony of Maryland.

text: From the beginning of Virginia's settlements in 1587 until the 1680s, the main source of labor and a large portion of the immigrants were indentured servants looking for new life in the overseas colonies. During the 17th century, indentured servants constituted three-quarters of all European immigrants to the Chesapeake region. Most of the indentured servants were teenagers from England with poor economic prospects at home. Their fathers signed the papers that gave them free passage to America and an unpaid job until they became of age. They were given food, clothing, housing and taught farming or household skills. American landowners were in need of laborers and were willing to pay for a laborer’s passage to America if they served them for several years. By selling passage for five to seven years worth of work they could then start out on their own in America.[15] Many of the migrants from England died in the first few years.[2]

text: Economic advantage also prompted the Darien Scheme, an ill-fated venture by the Kingdom of Scotland to settle the Isthmus of Panama in the late 1690s. The Darien Scheme aimed to control trade through that part of the world and thereby promote Scotland into a world trading power. However, it was doomed by poor planning, short provisions, weak leadership, lack of demand for trade goods, and devastating disease.[16] The failure of the Darien Scheme was one of the factors that led the Kingdom of Scotland into the Act of Union 1707 with the Kingdom of England creating the united Kingdom of Great Britain and giving Scotland commercial access to English, now British, colonies.[17]

text: In the French colonial regions, the focus of economy was on sugar plantations in Caribbean. In Canada the fur trade with the natives was important. About 16,000 French men and women became colonizers. The great majority became subsistence farmers along the St. Lawrence River. With a favorable disease environment and plenty of land and food, their numbers grew exponentially to 65,000 by 1760. Their colony was taken over by Britain in 1760, but social, religious, legal, cultural and economic changes were few in a society that clung tightly to its recently formed traditions.[18][19]

text: Religious immigration[edit]

text: Roman Catholics were the first major religious group to immigrate to the New World, as settlers in the colonies of Portugal and Spain (and later, France) belonged to that faith. English and Dutch colonies, on the other hand, tended to be more religiously diverse. Settlers to these colonies included Anglicans, Dutch Calvinists, English Puritans and other nonconformists, English Catholics, Scottish Presbyterians, French Huguenots, German and Swedish Lutherans, as well as Quakers, Mennonites, Amish, Moravians and Jews of various nationalities.

text: Many groups of colonists went to the Americas searching for the right to practice their religion without persecution. The Protestant Reformation of the 16th century broke the unity of Western Christendom and led to the formation of numerous new religious sects, which often faced persecution by governmental authorities. In England, many people came to question the organization of the Church of England by the end of the 16th century. One of the primary manifestations of this was the Puritan movement, which sought to "purify" the existing Church of England of its many residual Catholic rites that they believed had no mention in the Bible.

text: A strong believer in the notion of rule by divine right, Charles I, King of England and Scotland, persecuted religious dissenters. Waves of repression led to the migration of about 20,000 Puritans to New England between 1629 and 1642, where they founded multiple colonies. Later in the century, the new Pennsylvania colony was given to William Penn in settlement of a debt the king owed his father. Its government was set up by William Penn in about 1682 to become primarily a refuge for persecuted English Quakers; but others were welcomed. Baptists, Quakers, German and Swiss Protestants and Anabaptists flocked to Pennsylvania. The lure of cheap land, religious freedom and the right to improve themselves with their own hand was very attractive.[20]

text: Forced immigration and enslavement[edit]

text: Slavery was a common practice in the Americas prior to the arrival of Europeans, as different American Indian groups captured and held other tribes' members as slaves.[21] Many of these captives were forced to undergo human sacrifice in Amerindian civilizations such as the Aztecs. In response to some enslavement of natives in the Caribbean during the early years, the Spanish Crown passed a series of laws prohibiting slavery as early as 1512. A new stricter set of laws was passed in 1542, called the New Laws of the Indies for the Good Treatment and Preservation of Indians, or simply New Laws. These were created to prevent the exploitation of the indigenous peoples by the encomenderos or landowners, by strictly limiting their power and dominion.[22] This helped curb Indian slavery considerably, though not completely. Later, with the arrival of other European colonial powers in the New World, the enslavement of native populations increased, as these empires lacked legislation against slavery until decades later. The population of indigenous peoples declined (mostly from European diseases, but also from forced exploitation and atrocities). Later, native workers were replaced by Africans imported through a large commercial slave trade.

text: By the 18th century, the overwhelming number of black slaves was such that Amerindian slavery was less commonly used. Africans, who were taken aboard slave ships to the Americas, were primarily obtained from their African homelands by coastal tribes who captured and sold them. Europeans traded for slaves with the slave capturers of the local native African tribes in exchange for rum, guns, gunpowder, and other manufactures.

text: Slavery[edit]

text: The total slave trade to islands in the Caribbean, Brazil, Mexico and to the United States is estimated to have involved 12 million Africans.[23][24] The vast majority of these slaves went to sugar colonies in the Caribbean and to Brazil, where life expectancy was short and the numbers had to be continually replenished. At most about 600,000 African slaves were imported into the U.S., or 5% of the 12 million slaves brought across from Africa.[25] Life expectancy was much higher in the U.S. (because of better food, less disease, lighter work loads, and better medical care) so the numbers grew rapidly by excesses of births over deaths, reaching 4 million by the 1860 Census. From 1770 until 1860, the rate of natural growth of North American slaves was much greater than for the population of any nation in Europe, and was nearly twice as rapid as that of England.[26]

text: Slaves imported to the Thirteen colonies/United States by time period:[27]

text:
1619–1700 – 21,000
1701–1760 – 189,000
1761–1770 – 63,000
1771–1790 – 56,000
1791–1800 – 79,000
1801–1810 – 124,000[28]
1810–1865 – 51,000
Total – 597,000

text: Disease and indigenous population loss[edit]

text: The European lifestyle included a long history of sharing close quarters with domesticated animals such as cows, pigs, sheep, goats, horses, dogs and various domesticated fowl, from which many diseases originally stemmed. Thus, in contrast to the indigenous people, Europeans had developed a richer endowment of antibodies.[29] The large-scale contact with Europeans after 1492 introduced novel germs to the indigenous people of the Americas.

text: Epidemics of smallpox (1518, 1521, 1525, 1558, 1589), typhus (1546), influenza (1558), diphtheria (1614) and measles (1618) swept the Americas subsequent to European contact,[30][31] killing between 10 million and 100 million[32] people, up to 95% of the indigenous population of the Americas.[33] The cultural and political instability attending these losses appears to have been of substantial aid in the efforts of various colonists in New England and Massachusetts to acquire control over the great wealth in land and resources of which indigenous societies had customarily made use.[34]

text: Such diseases yielded human mortality of an unquestionably enormous gravity and scale – and this has profoundly confused efforts to determine its full extent with any true precision. Estimates of the pre-Columbian population of the Americas vary tremendously.

text: Others have argued that significant variations in population size over pre-Columbian history are reason to view higher-end estimates with caution. Such estimates may reflect historical population maxima, while indigenous populations may have been at a level somewhat below these maxima or in a moment of decline in the period just prior to contact with Europeans. Indigenous populations hit their ultimate lows in most areas of the Americas in the early 20th century; in a number of cases, growth has returned.[35]

text: Impact of colonial land ownership on long-term development[edit]

text: Geographic differences between the colonies played a large determinant in the types of political and economic systems that later developed. In their paper on institutions and long-run growth, economists Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson, and James A. Robinson argue that certain natural endowments gave rise to distinct colonial policies promoting either smallholder or coerced labor production.[36] Densely settled populations, for example, were more easily exploitable and profitable as slave labor. In these regions, landowning elites were economically incentivized to develop forced labor arrangements such as the Peru mit'a system or Argentinian latifundias without regard for democratic norms. French and British colonial leaders, conversely, were incentivized to develop capitalist markets, property rights, and democratic institutions in response to natural environments that supported smallholder production over forced labor.

text: James Mahoney, a professor at Northwestern University, proposes that colonial policy choices made at critical junctures regarding land ownership in coffee-rich Central America fostered enduring path dependent institutions.[37] Coffee economies in Guatemala and El Salvador, for example, were centralized around large plantations that operated under coercive labor systems. By the 19th century, their political structures were largely authoritarian and militarized. In Colombia and Costa Rica, conversely, liberal reforms were enacted at critical junctures to expand commercial agriculture, and they ultimately raised the bargaining power of the middle class. Both nations eventually developed more democratic and egalitarian institutions than their highly concentrated landowning counterparts.

text: List of European colonies in the Americas[edit]

text:
Cuba (until 1898)
New Granada (1717–1819)

Captaincy General of Venezuela

New Spain (1535–1821)

Nueva Extremadura
Nueva Galicia
Nuevo Reino de León
Nuevo Santander
Nueva Vizcaya
Las Californias
Santa Fe de Nuevo México

Viceroyalty of Peru (1542–1824)

Captaincy General of Chile

Puerto Rico (1493–1898)
Rio de la Plata (1776–1814)
Hispaniola (1493–1865); the island currently comprising Haiti and the Dominican Republic, under Spanish rule in whole or in part from 1492–1865.

text:
British America (1607–1783)

Thirteen Colonies (1607–1783)
Rupert's Land (1670–1870)
British Columbia (1793–1871)
British North America (1783– 1907)

British West Indies
Belize

text: New Courland (Tobago) (1654–1689)

text:
Danish West Indies (1754–1917)
Greenland (1814–present)

text:
New Netherland (1609–1667)
Essequibo (1616–1815)
Dutch Virgin Islands (1625–1680)
Berbice (1627–1815)
New Walcheren (1628–1677)
Dutch Brazil (1630–1654)
Pomeroon (1650–1689)
Cayenne (1658–1664)
Demerara (1745–1815)
Suriname (1667–1954) (After independence still within the Kingdom Of The Netherlands until 1975)
Curaçao and Dependencies (1634–1954) (Aruba and Curaçao are still in the Kingdom Of The Netherlands, Bonaire; 1634–present)
Sint Eustatius and Dependencies (1636–1954) (Sint Maarten is still in the Kingdom Of The Netherlands, Sint Eustatius and Saba; 1636–present)

text:
New France (1604–1763)

Acadia (1604–1713)
Canada (1608–1763)
Louisiana (1699–1763, 1800–1803)
Newfoundland (1662–1713)
Île Royale (1713–1763)

French Guiana (1763–present)
French West Indies
Saint-Domingue (1659–1804, now Haiti)
Tobago
Virgin Islands
France Antarctique (1555–1567)
Equinoctial France (1612–1615)

text:
Saint Barthélemy (1651–1665)
Saint Christopher (1651–1665)
Saint Croix (1651–1665)
Saint Martin (1651–1665)

text:
Greenland (986–1814)
Vinland, known as Newfoundland (Partly in the 11th century)
Dano-Norwegian West Indies (1754–1814)
Sverdrup Islands (1898–1930)
Erik the Red's Land (1931–1933)

text:
Colonial Brazil (1500–1815) became a Kingdom, United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves.
Terra do Labrador (1499/1500–?) Claimed region (sporadically settled).
Land of the Corte-Real, also known as Terra Nova dos Bacalhaus (Land of Codfish) – Terra Nova (Newfoundland) (1501–?) Claimed region (sporadically settled).

Portugal Cove-St. Philip's (1501–1696)

Nova Scotia (1519?–1520s?) Claimed region (sporadically settled).
Barbados (1536–1620)
Colonia do Sacramento (1680–1705/1714–1762/1763–1777 (1811–1817))
Cisplatina (1811–1822, now Uruguay)
French Guiana (1809–1817)

text: Russian America (Alaska) (1799–1867)

text:
Nova Scotia (1622–1632)
Darien Scheme on the Isthmus of Panama (1698–1700)
Stuarts Town, Carolina (1684–1686)

text:
New Sweden (1638–1655)
Saint Barthélemy (1784–1878)
Guadeloupe (1813–1814)

text: Exhibitions and collections[edit]

text: In 2007, the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of American History and the Virginia Historical Society (VHS) co-organized a traveling exhibition to recount the strategic alliances and violent conflict between European empires (English, Spanish, French) and the Native people living in North America. The exhibition was presented in three languages and with multiple perspectives. Artifacts on display included rare surviving Native and European artifacts, maps, documents, and ceremonial objects from museums and royal collections on both sides of the Atlantic. The exhibition opened in Richmond, Virginia on March 17, 2007, and closed at the Smithsonian International Gallery on October 31, 2009.

text: The related online exhibition explores the international origins of the societies of Canada and the United States and commemorates the 400th anniversary of three lasting settlements in Jamestown (1607), Québec (1608), and Santa Fe (1609). The site is accessible in three languages.[38]


document_title: List of United States university campuses by enrollment

question_text: what are the largest colleges in the us

question_tokens: what are the largest colleges in the us

text: 2017–18 enrollment[edit]

text:
Ten largest public university campuses by enrollment during the 2017–18 academic year

Ranking
University
Location
Enrollment
Reference(s)

1
Texas A&M University
College Station, Texas
68,603
[1]

2
University of Central Florida
Orlando, Florida
66,180
[2]

3
Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio
59,837
[3]

4
Florida International University
Miami, Florida
56,851
[4]

5
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida
52,367
[5]

6
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis/Saint Paul, Minnesota
51,848

7
University of Texas at Austin
Austin, Texas
51,525
[7]

8
Arizona State University [note 1]
Tempe, Arizona
51,164
[8]

9
Georgia State University
Atlanta, Georgia
51,000
[9]

10
Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan
50,019
[10]

text: 2016–17 enrollment[edit]

text:
Ten largest public university campuses by enrollment during the 2016–17 academic year

Ranking
University
Location
Enrollment
Reference(s)

1
University of Central Florida
Orlando, Florida
64,335
[11]

2
Texas A&M University
College Station, Texas
60,435
[12]

3
Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio
59,482
[13]

4
Florida International University
Miami, Florida
55,111
[14]

5
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida
52,367
[15]

6
Arizona State University [note 2]
Tempe, Arizona
51,869
[16]

7
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis/Saint Paul, Minnesota
51,580
[17]

8
University of Texas at Austin
Austin, Texas
51,331
[18]

9
Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan
50,344
[19]

10
Indiana University
Bloomington, Indiana
49,695
[20]

text: 2015–16 enrollment[edit]

text:
Ten largest public university campuses by enrollment during the 2015–16 academic year

Ranking
University
Location
Enrollment
Reference(s)

1
University of Central Florida
Orlando, Florida
63,016
[21]

2
Ohio State University [note 3]
Columbus, Ohio
58,663
[22]

3
Texas A&M University
College Station, Texas
58,515
[23]

4
Florida International University
Miami, Florida
54,058
[24]

5
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida
52,518
[25]

6
Arizona State University [note 2]
Tempe, Arizona
51,984
[26]

7
University of Texas at Austin
Austin, Texas
50,950
[27]

8
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis/Saint Paul, Minnesota
50,678
[28]

9
Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan
50,543
[29]

10
Indiana University
Bloomington, Indiana
48,514
[30]

text: 2013–14 enrollment[edit]

text:
Ten largest public university campuses by enrollment during the 2013–14 academic year

Ranking
University
Location
Enrollment
Reference(s)

1
Arizona State University [note 2]
Tempe, Arizona
62,599
[31]

2
University of Central Florida
Orlando, Florida
59,770
[32]

3
Ohio State University [note 4]
Columbus, Ohio
58,322
[33]

4
Florida International University [note 5]
Miami, Florida
52,986
[34]

5
Texas A&M University
College Station, Texas
52,449
[35]

6
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis/Saint Paul, Minnesota
51,147
[36]

7
University of Texas at Austin
Austin, Texas
51,145
[37]

8
Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan
50,085
[38]

9
University of Florida [note 5]
Gainesville, Florida
49,042
[39]

10
Indiana University
Bloomington, Indiana
46,817
[40]

text: 2012–13 enrollment[edit]

text:
Ten largest public university campuses by enrollment during the 2012–13 academic year

Ranking
University
Location
Enrollment
Reference(s)

1
Arizona State University [note 2]
Tempe, Arizona
60,169
[41]

2
University of Central Florida [note 5]
Orlando, Florida
60,048
[42]

3
Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio
57,466
[43]

4
University of Texas at Austin
Austin, Texas
52,186
[44]

5
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis/Saint Paul, Minnesota
51,853
[45]

6
Florida International University [note 5]
Miami, Florida
50,396
[46]

7
Texas A&M University
College Station, Texas
50,227
[47]

8
University of Florida [note 5]
Gainesville, Florida
49,913
[48]

9
Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan
48,906
[49]

10
Pennsylvania State University
University Park, Pennsylvania
45,351
[50]

text: 2011–12 enrollment[edit]

text:
Ten largest public university campuses by enrollment during the 2011–12 academic year

Ranking
University
Location
Enrollment
Reference(s)

1
Arizona State University [note 2]
Tempe, Arizona
59,794
[51]

2
University of Central Florida [note 5]
Orlando, Florida
58,587
[52]

3
Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio
56,867
[53]

4
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis/Saint Paul, Minnesota
52,557
[54]

5
University of Texas at Austin [note 5]
Austin, Texas
51,112
[55]

6
Texas A&M University
College Station, TX
49,861
[56]

7
University of Florida [note 5]
Gainesville, Florida
49,589
[57]

8
Florida International University [note 5]
Miami, Florida
47,966
[58]

9
Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan
47,800
[49]

10
Pennsylvania State University
University Park, Pennsylvania
44,485
[59]

text: 2010–11 enrollment[edit]

text:
Ten largest public university campuses by enrollment during the 2010–11 academic year

Ranking
University
Location
Enrollment
Reference(s)

1
Arizona State University [note 2]
Tempe, Arizona
58,000
[60]

2
University of Central Florida [note 5]
Orlando, Florida
56,235
[61]

3
Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio
56,064
[62]

4
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis/Saint Paul, Minnesota
51,721
[63]

5
University of Texas at Austin [note 5]
Austin, Texas
51,195
[64]

6
University of Florida [note 5]
Gainesville, Florida
49,827
[65]

7
Texas A&M University [note 5]
College Station, Texas
49,129
[66]

8
Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan
47,131
[67]

9
Pennsylvania State University
University Park, Pennsylvania
44,034
[68]

10
Florida International University [note 5]
Miami, Florida
44,010
[69]

text: 2009–10 enrollment[edit]

text:
Ten largest public university campuses by enrollment during the 2009–10 academic year

Ranking
University
Location
Enrollment
Reference(s)

1
Arizona State University [note 2]
Tempe, Arizona
55,552
[70]

2
Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio
55,014
[71]

3
University of Central Florida [note 5]
Orlando, Florida
53,537
[72]

4
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis/Saint Paul, Minnesota
51,659
[73]

5
University of Texas at Austin [note 5]
Austin, Texas
51,032
[74]

6
University of Florida [note 5]
Gainesville, Florida
50,691
[75]

7
Texas A&M University [note 5]
College Station, Texas
48,885
[76]

8
Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan
47,100
[77]

9
Pennsylvania State University
University Park, Pennsylvania
44,832
[68]

10
Indiana University Bloomington
Bloomington, Indiana
42,347
[78]