document_title: George Washington in the French and Indian War

question_text: who was the leader of the french in the french and indian war

text: Background[edit]

text: Born into a well-to-do Virginia family in Bridges Creek near Fredericksburg in 1732 [O.S. 1731], Washington was schooled locally until the age of 15. His father's sudden death occurred when Washington was just a mere eleven years old. This completely eliminated the possibility of schooling in England, and his mother rejected attempts to place him in the Royal Navy.[2] Thanks to the connection by marriage of his half-brother Lawrence to the wealthy Fairfax family, Washington was appointed surveyor of Culpeper County in 1749; he was just 17 years old. Washington's brother had purchased an interest in the Ohio Company, a land acquisition and settlement company whose objective was the settlement of Virginia's frontier areas, including the Ohio Country, territory north and west of the Ohio River.[3] Its investors also included Virginia's Royal Governor, Robert Dinwiddie, who appointed Washington a major in the provincial militia in February 1753.[4][5]

text: Emissary[edit]

text: The Ohio Country was occupied by a variety of Indian tribes that were nominally under the suzerainty of the Iroquois Confederacy based in what is now northwestern New York.[6] The area was also the subject of several conflicting claims by British and French colonies. The British provinces of Virginia and Pennsylvania both claimed the area, and traders from Pennsylvania had been trading with the Indians at least since the early 1740s.[7] In 1752, representatives of the Ohio Company reached an agreement with the local Indian leaders allowing the construction of a fort and a small settlement at the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers (present-day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania), and for the establishment of some settlements south of the Ohio River.[8] The French were alarmed by these developments, and in 1753 began the construction of a series of fortifications in the uppermost headwaters of the Ohio River (near present-day Erie, Pennsylvania), intending to extend the line of forts downriver and deny British traders and settlers access to the territory.[9] When news of this reached Virginia, Governor Dinwiddie sought advice from the British government in London. He received orders to send a messenger to the French, reiterating British claims and demanding that they stop construction of their forts and quit the territory.[10]

text: Governor Dinwiddie chose Major Washington, then 21 years old, for the trek into the Ohio Country to assess the French military situation, and to deliver the British demands.[11] He was a good choice despite his youth because he was familiar with the frontier from survey work, had good health, and both government and Ohio Company leaders trusted Washington. Although he had no frontier warfare experience, neither did most other Virginians.[12] Washington departed from Williamsburg at the end of October 1753. In Fredericksburg he picked up Jacob Van Braam, a family friend who spoke French, before heading into the Virginia highlands. There he was joined by Christopher Gist, an Ohio Company agent who was familiar with the territory, and a few backwoodsmen to assist with expedition logistics.[13] When the expedition arrived at the site of the proposed fort, Washington noted that the site was well chosen, having "the entire Command of the Monongahela".[13]

text: The expedition then proceeded on to Logstown, a large Indian settlement a short way down the Ohio River. After parleying with the Indians, the Mingo "Half King" Tanacharison and three of his men agreed to accompany the British expedition to meet with the French. Washington also learned that many of the Ohio tribes were as unhappy about the British plans for settling the area as they were of the French plans to fortify it. Leaving Logstown on November 30,[14] they arrived at Fort Machault on December 4. The commander there, Captain Philippe-Thomas de Joncaire, directed Washington to his superior officer, stationed at Fort LeBoeuf, further north.[15] While dining with Joncaire, Washington learned of French intentions to "take possession of the Ohio".[16]

text: Washington's party reached Fort LeBoeuf on December 11, in the middle of a raging snowstorm.[14] The French commander, Captain Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre, received them with hospitality; however, in response to Dinwiddie's demands, he pointed out that the letter was more properly addressed to his superior, New France's governor the Marquis Duquesne.[17] The letter Legardeur drafted in response to Dinwiddie's was clear and to the point: "as to the summons you send me to retire, I do not think myself obliged to obey it."[17] Washington took careful notes of the military arrangements at both forts before departing on December 16.[17] He was somewhat concerned by the fact that Tanacharison and his men remained behind for further discussions with the French; he wrote, "I saw that every strategem which the most fruitful brain could invent, was practiced to win Half King to their interest".[18] He returned to Williamsburg after a month of difficult travel.[17] Dinwiddie had Washington's account of the expedition widely distributed to emphasize the French threat. It was printed on both sides of the Atlantic, giving Washington an international reputation.[19]

text: Jumonville and Fort Necessity[edit]

text: While Washington was returning from this expedition, Dinwiddie sent men from the Ohio Company (who were also commissioned into the provincial militia) under William Trent to begin construction of the company's fort. In February, with Tanacharison's blessing, Trent and his men began construction of the fort at the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers.[20] Legardeur's successor at Venango, Claude-Pierre Pécaudy de Contrecœur, led a force of about 500 men Canadiens and Indians (rumors reaching Trent's men put its size at 1,000) to dislodge them. On April 16, they arrived at the forks; the next day, Trent's force of 36 men, led by Ensign Edward Ward in Trent's absence, agreed to leave the site,[21] over the vociferous objections of Tanacharison. The French then began construction of Fort Duquesne.[22]

text: Washington, upon his return to Williamsburg, was commissioned a Lieutenant Colonel in the newly created Virginia Regiment, and ordered by Dinwiddie to raise a force to assist in the completion of Trent's fort.[23] Dinwiddie's orders were to "act on the [defensive], but in Case any Attempts are made to obstruct the Works or interrupt our [settlements] by any Persons whatsoever, You are to restrain all such Offenders, & in Case of resistance to make Prisoners of or kill and destroy them."[24] Historian Fred Anderson describes Dinwiddie's instructions, which were issued without the knowledge or direction of the British government, as "an invitation to start a war."[24] Washington was ordered to gather up as many supplies and paid volunteers as he could along the way. By the time he left for the frontier on April 2, he had recruited fewer than 160 men.[25] Moving quickly and without artillery, his force marched north and west, picking up additional militia companies along the way. On April 19, outside Winchester, Virginia, Washington received word that a large French force was descending the Allegheny. On reaching Wills Creek he met part of Trent's company, who, in addition to confirming the arrival of the French, brought a supportive message from Tanacharison.[26] To keep Tanacharison's support, Washington decided to advance rather than turning back. However, road-building went slowly, and by the end of May Washington's company had reached a place known as the Great Meadows (now in Fayette County, Pennsylvania), about 37 miles (60 km) south of the forks. There he began construction of a small fort and awaited further news or instructions.[27]

text: On May 23, Contrecœur, now in command at Fort Duquesne, sent Joseph Coulon de Villiers de Jumonville with 35 Canadiens to see if Washington had entered French territory, and with a summons to order Washington's troops out; this summons was similar in nature to the one Washington had delivered to them in 1753.[28] On May 27, Washington was told by Christopher Gist that a French party numbering about 50 was in the area. In response, Washington sent 75 men with Gist to find them.[29] That evening, Washington received a message from Tanacharison, informing him that he had found the Canadien camp, and that the two of them should meet. Despite the fact that he had just sent another group in pursuit of the French, Washington went with a detachment of 40 men to meet with Tanacharison. The Mingo leader had with him 12 warriors, two of whom were boys. After discussing the matter, the two leaders agreed to make an attack on the Canadiens.[30]

text: Washington and Tanacharison then ambushed Jumonville's party, sneaking up and surrounding the French camp. Some were still asleep, others preparing breakfast, when without warning, Washington gave the order to fire. Those who escaped the volley scrambled for their weapons, but were swiftly overwhelmed. Ten of the French, including Jumonville, were killed, one was wounded, and all but one (who escaped to warn the French commander at Fort Duquesne) of the rest were taken prisoner.[31]

text: The exact circumstances of Jumonville's death are disputed. Contrecœur claimed that Jumonville and most of the other wounded French were massacred in cold blood by British musket fire after having surrendered;[31] Washington claimed in his account that Jumonville was killed, but did not give any details.[32] Other accounts claimed that Tanacharison tomahawked Jumonville while he (Jumonville) was reading the summons.[33] When the British left the battlefield to return to their camp at Great Meadows, they did not bury any of the French dead.[31]

text: Washington then finished building Fort Necessity at the Great Meadows, anticipating a French counterattack. The fort, completed June 2, was not much more than a wooden stockade 7 feet (2.1 m) high and about 50 feet (15 m) in diameter surrounded by a ditch. It was so poorly sited (surrounded by higher hills and woods providing cover to the enemy) that Tanacharison tried to point out its defects. Washington dismissed these concerns, convinced the fort could withstand "the attack of 500 Indians."[34] Over the next month, his force grew by 200 men from Virginia and an independent company of 100 British regulars that had marched up from South Carolina, while he continued to build the road toward the forks.[35] The arriving Virginians brought congratulations from Governor Dinwiddie on his success at Jumonville Glen, and word that Washington had been promoted to colonel, owing to the death of Colonel Joshua Fry in a fall from his horse.[36]

text: While the road building went on, Washington pressed Tanacharison for more Indian support. However, the Half King seemed to have lost confidence in the British cause, and he and his followers soon abandoned the British camp. This complete loss of Indian support prompted Washington to withdraw his work crews back to Fort Necessity.[37] Not long afterward, a force of 700 French and Indians surrounded the fort, and Washington was soon compelled to surrender. The surrender document that Washington signed prevented his men from returning to the Ohio Country for one year, and included an admission that Jumonville had been "assassinated".[38] (The document was written in French, which Washington could not read, and may have been poorly translated for him.)[39] Because the French claimed that Jumonville's party had been on a diplomatic (rather than military) mission, the "Jumonville affair" became an international incident, and the military escalation that followed blossomed into the global Seven Years' War.[40][41] Although most Virginians were not particularly critical, there was rumbling about Washington's actions in other quarters. One New Yorker wrote that Washington acted rashly and that he was "too ambitious of acquiring all the honor", while London commentators dismissed the failure casually, citing a lack of colonial military experience.[42] Governor Dinwiddie was publicly supportive of Washington, but criticized him privately, noting that some of the Virginia Regiment's problems originated in a "want of proper Command".[43] Dinwiddie assigned command of a follow-up expedition (that never actually reached the Ohio Country) to North Carolina militia colonel James Innes. In another step that may have been calculated to clip the young colonel's wings, Dinwiddie reorganized the Virginia Regiment into separate companies, with no ranks above captain; Washington resigned rather than accept a demotion.[43]

text: Braddock's Defeat[edit]

text: In 1755, as part of the British military escalation, Major General Edward Braddock arrived in North America with a force of British Army regulars to head a major effort against the French in the Ohio Country. Washington wanted to serve on the expedition, but refused to do so as a provincial officer, since he would be outranked by even junior officers in the regular army establishment.[44] (Washington was said to "[bubble] with fury when British regular officers expressed their disdain of provincial officers and soldiers", and at the realization that British officers were always senior to colonials regardless of rank.)[45] Through negotiations mediated by Governor Dinwiddie, Washington was offered an unpaid volunteer position as one of Braddock's aides.[46] Washington accepted, writing to Braddock's principal aide, Captain Robert Orme, "I wish for nothing more earnestly, than to attain a small degree of knowledge in the Military Art", and that the position would provide him "a good opportunity ... of forming an acquaintance which may be serviceable hereafter, if I can find it worth while pushing my Fortune in the Military way."[47]

text: When Braddock's regulars arrived in Alexandria, Washington spent much time there, observing infantry drills and other internal workings of the army,[48] and even copied Braddock's orders to absorb the style in which they were written.[46] The expedition finally marched off in April 1755, and made extremely slow progress along the road Washington had cut in 1754, owing to the heavy artillery and long baggage train. Braddock and his entourage arrived at Fort Cumberland on May 10.[49] From there the progress slowed even further as the army made its way to the Monongahela River. Washington fell ill with dysentery en route, and only rejoined the column on July 8, when it was nearing the Monongahela.[46][50]

text: The next day, after Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Gage's light infantry had crossed the Monongahela about 10 miles (16 km) from Fort Duquesne, they stumbled into a French and Indian force that had been sent to locate them.[50] Both sides were surprised, but the French and Indians quickly organized themselves and made a vicious onslaught against the British.[51] Gage's men, and the work crews they were guarding, turned and fled in a panic, right into the arriving column of regulars, which included Braddock and his entourage.[52] The discipline of the British regulars broke down, and a panicked retreat began, with the French and Indians firing at them from the cover of the surrounding woods. Braddock lost several horses, and eventually went down with a mortal wound. Washington was one of the few of Braddock's aides to emerge relatively unscathed, despite being significantly involved in the fighting. He had two horses shot out from under him, and four bullets pierced his coat. He sustained no injuries and showed coolness under fire.[53] Braddock, who had been loaded onto a wagon in a makeshift litter, ordered Washington to ride back to fetch the remainder of the army that was working its way up from the Great Meadows.[54] The battered remnants of Braddock's force eventually returned to Fort Cumberland, where Washington wrote letters harshly critical of the event. To Governor Dinwiddie he reported that, although the British officers fought well, their "cowardly Dogs of soldiers" did not.[55] The Virginians, he said, acquitted themselves well: they "behaved like Men, and died like Soldiers."[55] His reports burnished the reputation of the Virginia Regiment, and Washington was lauded as the "hero of Monongahela" for his work organizing the retreat.[55][56] Dinwiddie was also forced to acknowledge Washington's "gallant Behav[io]r", and the Virginia House of Burgesses reorganized the colony's defenses with Washington as colonel of a 1,200 strong regiment.[57]

text: Command, rank, and defense[edit]

text: Governor Dinwiddie had designated Fort Cumberland the regimental headquarters, even though it was located in Maryland. Washington learned that it was commanded by Captain John Dagworthy, who led a company of Maryland militia but also held a royal commission and would thus outrank him.[58] After a brief visit to Fort Cumberland in September 1755, Washington left, and chose to base himself at Winchester instead.[59] He then embarked on recruiting expeditions to fill out the regiment, traveling often to Williamsburg. There, he complained bitterly to Dinwiddie about serving under Dagworthy. When Dagworthy refused to let the Virginians draw supplies from Fort Cumberland (which, despite its location, had been paid for and provisioned by Virginia), Dinwiddie came to agree with Washington. He wrote to Massachusetts Governor William Shirley, who was acting as commander in chief after Braddock's death, requesting royal commissions for Washington and other Virginia officers. When Shirley did not respond in a timely manner, Dinwiddie authorized Washington to travel to Boston to renew the request in person. Washington spent some time visiting in all of the major towns on the way, but his mission was ultimately only partially successful.[60] After receiving Washington, Shirley issued a decree that Virginia's officers outranked Dagworthy and other British officers of lower rank.[61]

text: In his first year in command of the Virginia Regiment, Washington shaped the unit into one of the best provincial military units in the colonies. He rigorously enforced military discipline, often punishing transgressions with the lash, but also sometimes hanging those convicted of serious offenses like desertion.[61] The latter was a particular problem: many of the recruits were either foreigners or from Virginia's lower classes, and had little at stake in the conflict.[62] He developed detailed guidelines for frontier warfare, was personally responsible for organizing the supply and equipment of the regiment, and even designed the regimental uniforms.[61] He was also a voracious reader of military treatises of all sorts, from Julius Caesar's Commentaries to recent British training manuals.[63] Despite all of his work, Virginia's frontier was ravaged by raiding parties, and he lost one third of his men in eighteen months.[64] Washington's relationship with Dinwiddie deteriorated again over these difficulties and ongoing complaints about pay that was inadequate compared to British regimental standards.[65]

text: In 1757 Washington renewed attempts to cultivate relations in the army in the hopes of getting a commission. He wrote flattering letters to the new commander in chief, the Earl of Loudoun, and even named one of Virginia's frontier forts after him. However, Loudoun was only in command for one year, and was recalled after a failed expedition against Fortress Louisbourg.[66] Later in the year, Washington again suffered a serious bout of dysentery; he was bedridden for much of the winter of 1757–58, and even suggested to the Virginia Burgesses that he be replaced since he could not properly do his duty as colonel of the regiment.[67]

text: Forbes expedition[edit]

text: The failures of British military policy in 1757 led to a change of government in London, with William Pitt coming firmly into control of Britain's global war effort.[68] Pitt decided to focus a large number of resources on the war in North America, and three major expeditions were planned. One of these, under the command of Brigadier General John Forbes, was assigned to move against the French in the Ohio Country, with its first major goal the capture of Fort Duquesne.[69] Forbes was to lead an army of 2,000 regulars augmented by 5,000 provincials raised from Pennsylvania southward.[70]

text: Diplomacy and military politics[edit]

text: The Virginia Burgesses voted to raise a second regiment of 1,000 men in addition to Washington's, both of which would participate in the Forbes expedition under Washington's overall command.[71] Forbes was apparently already aware of Washington's reputation, writing that he was "a good and knowing Officer in the Back Country."[71] Washington, as he had with other army commanders, hoped for notice and sponsorship, and asked General John Stanwix to "[m]ention me in favorable terms to General Forbes."[72] Forbes ordered the Virginia troops to gather at Winchester while the army began cutting a new road from Carlisle, Pennsylvania toward Fort Duquesne. Based in part on advice from Washington, Forbes spent much of the spring and summer negotiating with the Ohio Indians for their support.[71] A preliminary agreement was reached in August in which many of those Indians, led by chief Teedyuscung, agreed to abandon their alliance with the French.[73] Washington and his troops were first given the task of improving the road between Fort Frederick and Fort Cumberland, and did not join with the main army at Fort Bedford until late summer.[74]

text: At this point Forbes was faced with a choice of routes. He could cut a new road directly across western Pennsylvania, or he could go south and pick up Braddock's route. Washington extensively lobbied Forbes and other British officers to use Braddock's route, which would have been more advantageous to Virginia interests.[75] Forbes and others took a dim view of this activity, suspecting personal and provincial financial motivation. In response to a letter in which Washington bemoaned "our Enterprize [is] Ruind", and blamed Colonel Henry Bouquet for his advocacy of the Pennsylvania route, Forbes angrily wrote, "I am now at the bottom, of their Scheme against this new road" and chastized Washington, writing that his heavy-handed advocacy "was a shame for any officer to be Concerned in."[76] Forbes ultimately chose the Pennsylvania route for pragmatic military reasons: the army, was expected to occupy and hold Fort Duquesne, and would require a reliable supply route, and the Pennsylvania route was superior for this purpose.[77] However, as the expedition pushed west and Forbes learned that the last ridge to cross would prove particularly difficult, he granted that Washington and other advocates of the Virginia route may have been correct in their assessment of the chosen route's problems.[78]

text: Advance on Fort Duquesne[edit]

text: In early September, troops under Henry Bouquet's command began construction of a fort near present-day Loyalhanna Township that eventually came to be known as Fort Ligonier.[79] Bouquet was handling the forward activities of the expedition because Forbes was sick with dysentery.[80] On September 11, Bouquet authorized Major James Grant to lead a reconnaissance in force to investigate the strength of Fort Duquesne's defenses. Grant took this opportunity to launch an assault on the fort, and was decisively beaten and taken prisoner along with one third of his 800-strong detachment.[81] Although Washington was not involved, men from his regiment acquitted themselves well in the debacle; 62 of them died in the battle, and others were among the prisoners.[82] The French at Fort Duquesne, whose supply line had been cut by the British victory in the August Battle of Fort Frontenac, made an unsuccessful attack against Fort Ligonier in the hopes of either stopping the expedition or at least acquiring some of its supplies.[83]

text: On November 12, in response to rumors that the French had sent out a raiding force, Forbes sent out a detachment of the Virginia regiment to investigate reports of a French raiding expedition. When sounds of gunfire reached the British camp, Forbes sent a second detachment. Primary sources are unclear on which detachment Washington led; the other was led by Lieutenant Colonel George Mercer. In the dimming light of early evening and the haze of musket smoke the two detachments mistook each other for the enemy; the friendly fire incident resulted in 40 casualties. Washington claimed to have interceded, "knocking up with his sword the presented pieces", but Captain Thomas Bullitt, the only other officer to leave an account, held Washington responsible for the incident, noting that his opinion was shared by "several of the officers."[84] The incident appeared to leave an emotional scar on Washington, who did not speak or write of it for many years.[84]

text: A beneficial result of the incident was that several prisoners were taken; Forbes learned from them that Fort Duquesne was about to be abandoned.[85] This prompted Forbes to accelerate the expedition's advance, and it was soon in a position of strength about 10 miles (16 km) from Fort Duquesne. On November 23 they heard a large explosion from the direction of the fort; its commander, François-Marie Le Marchand de Lignery, had blown it up.[86] Forbes assigned Washington command of one of the brigades that advanced to find the smoking remains of the French fort the next day.[87] General Forbes, still weak from illness, only briefly visited the site. He completed the return trip to Philadelphia in a litter, and died in March 1759.[88] Washington was back home in Virginia by the end of December; the expedition was his last military activity of the war.[89]

text: End of service[edit]

text: Upon his return to Williamsburg, Washington, to the surprise of many, tendered his resignation from the Virginia militia.[88] Many of his officers showered him with praise, including the critical Captain Thomas Bullitt. Washington was lauded for his "punctual Obervance" of his duties, the "Frankness, Sincerity, and a certain Openness of Soul", and the "mutual Regard that has always subsisted between you and your Officers."[90] Biographer James Ferling characterizes as their highest tribute the statements that Washington "heightened our natural Emulation, and our Desire to excel" and "In you we place the most implicit confidence."[90]

text: Lessons learned[edit]

text: Although Washington never gained the commission in the British army he yearned for, in these years the young man gained valuable military, political, and leadership skills,[91] and received significant public exposure in the colonies and abroad.[19][92] He closely observed British military tactics, gaining a keen insight into their strengths and weaknesses that proved invaluable during the Revolution. He demonstrated his toughness and courage in the most difficult situations, including disasters and retreats. He developed a command presence—given his size, strength, stamina, and bravery in battle, he appeared to soldiers to be a natural leader and they followed him without question.[93][94] Washington gained connections because of his popularity, which would serve him well later in the Revolution. His involvement in the war, given the circumstances, was just enough for him to be able to craft his own idea of what a leader looked like. Washington learned to organize, train, and drill, and discipline his companies and regiments. From his observations, readings and conversations with professional officers, he learned the basics of battlefield tactics, as well as a good understanding of problems of organization and logistics.[95] Historian Ron Chernow is of the opinion that his frustrations in dealing with government officials during this conflict led him to advocate the advantages of a strong national government and a vigorous executive agency that could get results;[96] other historians tend to ascribe Washington's position on government to his later American Revolutionary War service.[97] His dealings also gave him the diplomatic skills necessary to negotiate with officials at the local and provincial levels.[96] He developed a very negative idea of the value of militia, who seemed too unreliable, too undisciplined, and too short-term compared to regulars.[98] On the other hand, his experience was limited to command of about 1,000 men, and came only in remote frontier conditions that were far removed from the urban situations he faced during the revolution at Boston, New York, Trenton and Philadelphia.[99]

text: Later life[edit]

text: On January 6, 1759, Washington married Martha Dandridge Custis, a wealthy Virginia widow.[100] He had already won election to the Virginia House of Burgesses during the summer of 1758.[101] For the next 16 years he lived the life of a Virginia plantation owner and politician.[102] As tensions rose between the British parliament and the colonies, he gradually adopted positions in opposition to the parliament's policies.[103] When the American Revolutionary War broke out in April 1775, Washington arrived at the Second Continental Congress in a military uniform, and was chosen as Commander-in-chief of the Continental Army.[104] After leading American forces to victory, he chaired the Constitutional Convention that drafted the United States Constitution, and was then elected the first President of the United States, serving two terms.[105] He briefly saw additional military service during a threatened war with France in 1798, and died in December 1799.[106] He is widely recognized as the "Father of his country".[107]


document_title: Dutch colonization of the Americas

question_text: when did the dutch come to north america

root

text: Dutch colonization of the Americas

text: Mainland In North America[edit]

text: In 1602, the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands chartered a young and eager Dutch East India Company (Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie or "VOC") with the mission of exploring North America's Rivers and Bays for a direct passage through to the Indies. Along the way, Dutch explorers were charged to claim any uncharted areas for the United Provinces, which led to several significant expeditions and, over time, Dutch explorers founded the province of New Netherland. By 1610, the VOC had already commissioned English explorer Henry Hudson who, in an attempt to find the so-called northwest passage to the Indies, discovered and claimed for the VOC parts of the present-day United States and Canada. Hudson entered the Upper New York Bay by sailboat, heading up the Hudson River, which now bears his name.

tag: p

text: On March 27, 1614 the States General would move away from traditional monopolistic endeavors and take a new and freer approach to exploration and commercial development of the New World; the issuance of the General Charter for Those who Discover Any New Passages, Havens, Countries, or Places stated that "the said undertaking to be laudable, honorable, and serviceable for the prosperity of the United Provinces and wishing that the experiment be free and open to all and every of the inhabitants of this country, have invited and do hereby invite all and every of the inhabitants of the United Netherlands to the aforesaid search."[1]

text: In 1614, Adriaen Block led an expedition to the lower Hudson River in the Tyger, and then explored the East River aboard the Onrust, becoming the first known European to navigate the Hellegat in order to gain access to Long Island Sound. Block Island and Block Island Sound are befittingly named in his honor. Upon his return to Amsterdam in 1614, Block compiled a map, and applied the name 'New Netherland' for the first time to the area between English Virginia and French Canada, where he was later granted exclusive trading rights by the Dutch government. Block quickly ascended and became Manhattan's first monopolist.

text: After some early trading expeditions, the first Dutch settlement in the Americas was founded in 1615: Fort Nassau, on Castle Island along the Hudson, near present-day Albany. The settlement served mostly as an outpost for trading in fur with the native Lenape tribespeople, but was later replaced by Fort Orange. Both forts were named in honor of the House of Orange-Nassau.

text: By 1621, the United Provinces had charted a new company, a trading monopoly in the Americas and West Africa: the Dutch West India Company (Westindische Compagnie or WIC). The WIC sought recognition as founders of the New World – which they ultimately did as founders of a new Province in 1623, New Netherland. That year, another Fort Nassau was built on the Delaware River near Gloucester City, New Jersey.

text: In 1624, the first colonists, mostly Walloons and their slaves-bound servants, arrived to New Netherland by the shipload, landing at Governors Island and initially dispensed to Fort Orange, Fort Wilhelmus and Kievets Hoek. In 1626, Director of the WIC Peter Minuit purchased the island of Manhattan from the Lenape natives and started construction of Fort Amsterdam, which grew to become the main port and capital, New Amsterdam. The colony expanded to outlying areas at Pavonia, Brooklyn, Bronx, and Long Island.

text: On the Connecticut River, Fort Huys de Goede Hoop was completed in 1633 at present day Hartford. By 1636, the English from Newtown (now Cambridge, Massachusetts) settled on the north side of the Little River. In the Treaty of Hartford, the border of New Netherland was retracted to western Connecticut and by 1653, the English had overtaken the Dutch trading post.

text: Expansion along the Delaware River beyond Fort Nassau did not begin until the 1650s, after the takeover of a Swedish colony, obviously called New Sweden which had been established at Fort Christina in 1638. Settlements at Fort Nassau and the short-lived Fort Beversreede were abandoned and consolidated at Fort Casimir. By 1655 Fort Christina, sitting in what is today Wilmington, had already been renamed Fort Altena.

text: Not all inhabitants of New Netherlands, Manahattan's first European colonizers, were ethnically Dutch, but in reality came from many European countries. Along with the large number of African native peoples—originally brought over bound by the shackles of slavehood—many New Netherlanders were Walloons, Huguenots, Germans, Scandinavian and English relocated from New England.[citation needed]

text: In 1664, an English naval expedition ordered by Prince James, Duke of York and of Albany (later King James II & VII) sailed in the harbor at New Amsterdam, threatening to attack. Being greatly outnumbered, Director-General Peter Stuyvesant surrendered after negotiating favorable articles of capitulation. The Province then took a new name, New York (from James's English title). Fort Orange was renamed Fort Albany (from James's Scottish title). The region between the lower Hudson and the Delaware was deeded to proprietors and called New Jersey.

text: The loss of New Netherland led to the Second Anglo–Dutch War during 1665–1667. This conflict ended with the Treaty of Breda, which stipulated that the Dutch give up their claim to New Netherlands in exchange for Suriname.

text: From 1673 to 1674, the territories were once again briefly captured by the Dutch in the Third Anglo–Dutch War, only to be returned to England at the Treaty of Westminster. In 1674, Dutch navy captain Jurriaen Aernoutsz also briefly captured two forts in the French colony of Acadia, which he claimed as Dutch territory the new colony of New Holland. However, Aernoutsz's appointed administrator, John Rhoades, quickly lost control of the territory after Aernoutsz himself left for Curaçao to seek out new settlers, and with effective control of Acadia remaining in the hands of France, Dutch sovereignty existed only on paper until the Netherlands surrendered their claim in the Treaties of Nijmegen.

text: Caribbean Sea[edit]

text: Netherlands (Dutch) Antilles[edit]

text: Dutch colonization in the Caribbean started in the 1634 on St. Croix and Tobago (1628), followed in 1631 with settlements on Tortuga (now Île Tortue) and Sint Maarten. When the Dutch lost Sint Maarten (and Anguilla where they had built a fort shortly after arriving in Sint Maarten) to the Spanish, they settled Curaçao and Sint Eustatius. They regained half of Sint Maarten in 1648, from then on sharing the island with France. The border between the two portions of the island continued to be modified periodically, before being set for good in 1816

text:
Sint Maarten in 1618
Bonaire in 1634
Curaçao in 1634
Sint Eustatius in 1636
Aruba in 1637
Saba in 1640
Tortola, Virgin Gorda, Jost van Dyke before 1640

tag: ul

text: Until deep into the 19th century, the now Venezuelan islands of Aves, the Aves archipelago, Los Roques and La Orchila were also considered by the Dutch government to be part of the Dutch West Indies.

text: The Netherlands Antilles remained an overseas territory of the Netherlands. It was granted self-rule in 1954. In 1986, Aruba was granted autonomy, separately from the other islands. On October 10, 2010 the Netherlands Antilles was dismantled. Like Aruba, the islands Curaçao and Sint Maarten became constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Bonaire, Saba, and Sint Eustatius became special municipalities of the Netherlands.

text: Tobago[edit]

text: The Netherlands made numerous attempts to colonize Tobago (Nieuw-Walcheren) in the 17th century. Each time, the settlements were destroyed by rival European powers. Dutch settlements on Tobago:[2]

text:
1628 – 1 Jan 1637: Fort Vlissingen; massacred by the Spanish
Sept 1654 – Jan 1666: Forts Lampsinsberg, Beveren, and Bellavista; conquered by British, destroyed by French
1667 – 18 Dec 1672: Nieuw-Vlissingen; destroyed by British
1 Sept 1676 – 6 Dec 1677: Fort Sterreschans; destroyed by French

text: Virgin Islands[edit]

text: As a group, the islands are known as the Maagdeneilanden in Dutch. The Dutch established a base on St. Croix (Sint-Kruis) in 1625, the same year that the British did. French Protestants joined the Dutch but conflict with the British colony led to its abandonment before 1650. The Dutch established a settlement on Tortola (Ter Tholen) before 1640 and later on Anegada, Saint Thomas (Sint-Thomas) and Virgin Gorda. The British took Tortola in 1672 and Anegada and Virgin Gorda in 1680.

text: South America[edit]

text: Brazil[edit]

text: From 1630 onward, the Dutch Republic gained control of a large portion of northeastern Brazil from the Portuguese. The Dutch West India Company set up their headquarters in Recife. The governor, Johan Maurits, invited artists and scientists to the colony to help promote migration to the new South-American colony. However, the Portuguese fought back and won a significant victory at the Second Battle of Guararapes in 1649. On January 26, 1654, the Dutch Republic surrendered and signed a capitulation returning control of all the northeastern Brazil colony to the Portuguese. After the end of the First Anglo–Dutch War in May 1654, the Dutch Republic demanded that New Holland (Dutch Brazil) be returned to Dutch control. Under threat of an occupation of Lisbon and a reoccupation of northeastern Brazil, the Portuguese, already involved in a war against Spain, acceded to the Dutch demand. However, the new Dutch political leader Johan de Witt deemed commerce more important than territory, and saw to it that New Holland was sold back to Portugal on August 6, 1661 through the Treaty of the Hague.[3]

text: Chile[edit]

text: In 1600, the Chilean city of Valdivia was conquered by the Dutch pirate Sebastian de Cordes.[4] He left the city after a few months. In 1642, the VOC and WIC sent a fleet to Chile to conquer Valdivia and its supposed gold mines. This expedition was led by Hendrik Brouwer, a Dutch admiral. In 1643, Brouwer died before effecting the conquest of the Chiloé Archipelago; his lieutenant Elias Herckmans succeeded in capturing the ruins of the city, which he refortified and named Brouwershaven.[5][6] Finding no gold but many hostile natives, the Dutch soon abandoned the outpost.

text: The second emigration from the Netherlands to Chile was in 1895. Under the so-called "Inspector General of Colonization and Immigration Chilean", a dozen Dutch families settled between 1895 and 1897 in Chiloé, particularly in Mechaico, Huillinco and Chacao. In the same period Hageman Egbert arrived in Chile.[7] with his family, 14 April 1896, settling in Rio Gato, near Puerto Montt. In addition, family Wennekool which inaugurated the Dutch colonization of Villarrica.[8]

text: In the early twentieth century, there arrived in Chile a large group of Dutch people from South Africa, which had been established where they worked mainly in construction of the railway. When the Boer War, which would eventually lead to the British annexation of both republics in 1902. These emigrants decided to emigrate to Chile with the help of the Chilean government.

text: On 4 May 1903, a group of over 200 Dutch emigrants sailed on the steamship "Oropesa" shipping company "Pacific Steam Navigation Company, from La Rochelle (La Pallice) in France. The majority of migrants were born in the Netherlands: 35% was from North Holland and South Holland, 13% of North Brabant, 9% of Zeeland and equal number of Gelderland.

text: On June 5, arrived by train to their final destination, the city of Pitrufquén, located south of Temuco, near the hamlet of Donguil. Another group of Dutchmen arrived shortly after to Talcahuano, in the "Oravi" and the "Orissa". The Netherlands colony in Donguil was christened "New Transvaal Colony. There were established more than 500 families in order to start a new life. Between 7 February 1907 and February 18, 1909 above the last group of families Boers.

text: It is currently estimated at about 50,000 descendants of Dutch, mostly located in Malleco, Gorbea, Pitrufquén, Faja Maisan and around Temuco and Osorno.[9][10]

text: Guyanas[edit]

text: The Dutch West Indian Company built a fort in 1616 on the Essequibo River. The Dutch traded with the Indian peoples and, as in Suriname, established sugar plantations worked by African slaves. While the coast remained under Dutch control, the English established plantations west of the Suriname River. Conflict between the two countries meant parts of the region changed hands a number of times, but by 1796 Britain had control of the region. The Netherlands ceded the colonies of Essequibo, Demerara, and Berbice to Britain in 1814.

text: The colony in Suriname had originally been founded in the 1650s by Lord Francis Willoughby, the British governor of Barbados. It was captured by the Dutch under Abraham Crijnsen during the Second Anglo–Dutch War. On July 31, 1667, under the Treaty of Breda the Dutch offered New Netherland (including New Amsterdam, modern-day New York City) in exchange for their sugar factories on the coast of Suriname. In 1683 Suriname was sold to the Dutch West India Company. The colony developed an agricultural economy based on African slavery. England controlled Suriname during the Napoleonic Wars from 1799 until 1816, when it was returned to the Dutch. The Netherlands abolished slavery in 1863 and later imported indentured labor from the British Raj and the Dutch East Indies to keep the economy going. Internal self governance was granted in 1954 and full independence in 1975. The prospect of independence prompted many to migrate to the Netherlands, especially from the large Hindustani minority. Political instability and economic decline after independence resulted in even more migration to the Netherlands. The Surinamese community in the Netherlands is now almost as large as the population in the country itself (about 450,000).


document_title: Punjab

question_text: why is punjab called the land of five rivers

text: Punjab

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The region was originally called Sapta Sindhu,[4] the vedic land of the seven rivers flowing into the ocean.[5] The later name of the region, Punjab, is a compound of two Persian words,[1][6] Panj (five) and āb (water), introduced to the region by the Turko-Persian conquerors[7] of India, and more formally popularised during the Mughal Empire.[8][9] Punjab thus means "The Land of Five Waters", referring to the rivers Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, and Beas.[10] All are tributaries of the Indus River, the Chenab being the largest.

text: Physical geography[edit]

text: There are two main definitions of the Punjab region: the 1947 definition and the older 1846–1849 definition. A third definition incorporates both the 1947 and the older definitions but also includes northern Rajasthan on a linguistic basis and ancient river movements.

text: 1947 definition[edit]

text: The 1947 definition defines the Punjab region with reference to the dissolution of British India whereby the then British Punjab Province was partitioned between India and Pakistan. In Pakistan, the region now includes the Punjab province and Islamabad Capital Territory. In India, it includes the Punjab state, Chandigarh, Haryana,[11] and Himachal Pradesh.

text: Using the 1947 definition, the Punjab borders the Balochistan and Pashtunistan regions to the west, Kashmir to the north, the Hindi Belt to the east, and Rajasthan and Sindh to the south. Accordingly, the Punjab region is very diverse and stretches from the hills of the Kangra Valley to the plains and to the Cholistan Desert.

text: Present day maps[edit]

text:
Punjab, Pakistan

Punjab, India, 2014

Haryana, India

Himachal Pradesh, India

text: Major cities[edit]

text:
Badshahi Mosque, Lahore

Golden Temple, Amritsar

Clock Tower, Faisalabad

Aerial view of Multan Ghanta Ghar chawk

Open Hand monument, Chandigarh

Faisal Masjid (Margalla Hills)

text: Using the 1947 definition of the Punjab region, some of the major cities of the area include Lahore, Faisalabad and Ludhiana.

text: The older definition of the Punjab region focuses on the collapse of the Sikh Empire and the creation of the British Punjab province between 1846 and 1849. According to this definition, the Punjab region incorporates, in Pakistan, Azad Kashmir including Bhimber and Mirpur[12] and parts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (especially Peshawar[13][14] known in the Punjab region as Pishore).[15] In India the wider definition includes parts of Delhi and Jammu Division.[16][17]

text: Using the older definition of the Punjab region, the Punjab region covers a large territory and can be divided into five natural areas:[1]

text:
the eastern mountainous region including Jammu Division and Azad Kashmir;
the trans-Indus region including Peshawar;
the central plain with its five rivers;
the north-western region, separated from the central plain by the Salt Range between the Jhelum and the Indus rivers;
the semi-desert to the south of the Sutlej river.

text: The formation of the Himalayan Range of mountains to the east and north-east of the Punjab is the result of a collision between the north-moving Indo-Australian Plate and the Eurasian Plate. The plates are still moving together, and the Himalayas are rising by about 5 millimetres (0.2 in) per year.

text: The upper regions are snow-covered the whole year. Lower ranges of hills run parallel to the mountains. The Lower Himalayan Range runs from north of Rawalpindi through Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and further south. The mountains are relatively young, and are eroding rapidly. The Indus and the five rivers of the Punjab have their sources in the mountain range and carry loam, minerals and silt down to the rich alluvial plains, which consequently are very fertile.[18]

text: Major cities[edit]

text: According to the older definition, some of the major cities include Jammu, Peshawar and parts of Delhi.

text:
Bahu Fort, Jammu, India

Peshawar Museum

Jama Masjid, Delhi

City view, Mirpur

text: Greater Punjab[edit]

text: The third definition of the Punjab region adds to the definitions cited above and includes parts of Rajasthan[19][20][21][22] on linguistic lines and takes into consideration the location of the Punjab rivers in ancient times. In particular, the Sri Ganganagar and Hanumangarh districts are included in the Punjab region.[23]

text:
Anupgarh fort in Anupgarh city

Bhatner fort in Hanumangarh city

text: Climate[edit]

text: The climate is a factor contributing to the economy of the Punjab. It is not uniform over the whole region, with the sections adjacent to the Himalayas receiving heavier rainfall than those at a distance.[24]

text: There are three main seasons and two transitional periods. During the hot season, from about mid April to the end of June, the temperature may reach 49 °C (120 °F). The monsoon season, from July to September, is a period of heavy rainfall, providing water for crops in addition to the supply from canals and irrigation systems. The transitional period after the monsoon is cool and mild, leading to the winter season, when the temperature in January falls to 5 °C (41 °F) at night and 12 °C (54 °F) by day. During the transitional period from winter to the hot season, sudden hailstorms and heavy showers may occur, causing damage to crops.[25]

text: History[edit]

text: The Punjab region of India and Pakistan has a historical and cultural link to Indo-Aryan peoples as well as partially to various indigenous communities. As a result of several invasions from Central Asia and the Middle East, many ethnic groups and religions make up the cultural heritage of the Punjab.

text: In prehistoric times, one of the earliest known cultures of South Asia, the Indus Valley civilisation was located in the region.

text: The epic battles described in the Mahabharata are described as being fought in what is now the State of Haryana and historic Punjab. The Gandharas, Kambojas, Trigartas, Andhra, Pauravas, Bahlikas (Bactrian settlers of the Punjab), Yaudheyas and others sided with the Kauravas in the great battle fought at Kurukshetra.[26] According to Dr Fauja Singh and Dr L. M. Joshi: "There is no doubt that the Kambojas, Daradas, Kaikayas, Andhra, Pauravas, Yaudheyas, Malavas, Saindhavas and Kurus had jointly contributed to the heroic tradition and composite culture of ancient Punjab".[27]

text: In 326 BCE, Alexander the Great invaded Pauravas and defeated King Porus. His armies entered the region via the Hindu Kush in northwest Pakistan and his rule extended up to the city of Sagala (present-day Sialkot in northeast Pakistan). In 305 BCE the area was ruled by the Maurya Empire. In a long line of succeeding rulers of the area, Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka stand out as the most renowned. The Maurya presence in the area was then consolidated in the Indo-Greek Kingdom in 180 BCE. Menander I Soter "The Saviour" (known as Milinda in Indian sources) is the most renowned leader of the era, he conquered the Punjab and made Sagala the capital of his Empire.[28] Menander carved out a Greek kingdom in the Punjab and ruled the region till his death in 130 BCE.[29] The neighbouring Seleucid Empire rule came to an end around 12 BCE, after several invasions by the Yuezhi and the Scythian people.

text: In 711–713 CE, the 18-year-old Arab general Muhammad bin Qasim of Taif, a city in what is now Saudi Arabia, came by way of the Arabian Sea with Arab troops to defeat Raja Dahir. Bin Qasim then led his troops to conquer the Sindh and Punjab regions for the Islamic Umayyad Caliphate, making him the first to bring Islam to the region.

text: During the establishment and consolidation of the Muslim Turkic Mughal Empire prosperity, growth, and relative peace were established, particularly under the reign of Jahangir. Muslim empires ruled the Punjab for approximately 1,000 years. The period was also notable for the emergence of Guru Nanak (1469–1539), the founder of Sikhism.

text: In 1758, Punjab came under the rule of Marathas, who captured the region by defeating the Afghan forces of Ahmad Shah Abdali. Abdali's Indian invasion weakened the Maratha influence, but he could not defeat the Sikhs. After the death of Ahmad Shah, the Punjab was freed from the Afghan yoke by Sikhs between 1773 and 1818. At the time of the formation of the Dal Khalsa in 1748 at Amritsar, the Punjab had been divided into 36 areas and 12 separate Sikh principalities, called misl. From this point onward, the beginnings of a Punjabi Sikh Empire emerged. Out of the 36 areas, 22 were united by Maharaja Ranjit Singh. The other 14 accepted British sovereignty. After Ranjit Singh's death, assassinations and internal divisions severely weakened the empire. Six years later the British East India Company was given an excuse to declare war, and in 1849, after two Anglo-Sikh wars, the Punjab was annexed by the British.

text: In the Indian Rebellion of 1857 the Sikh rulers backed the East India Company, providing troops and support,[30] but in Jhelum 35 British soldiers of HM XXIV regiment were killed by the local resistance, and in Ludhiana a rebellion was crushed with the assistance of the Punjab chiefs of Nabha and Malerkotla.

text: The British Raj had political, cultural, philosophical, and literary consequences in the Punjab, including the establishment of a new system of education. During the independence movement, many Punjabis played a significant role, including Madan Lal Dhingra, Sukhdev Thapar, Ajit Singh Sandhu, Bhagat Singh, Udham Singh, Kartar Singh Sarabha, Bhai Parmanand, Muhammad Iqbal, Chaudhary Rehmat Ali, and Lala Lajpat Rai.

text: At the time of partition in 1947, the province was split into East and West Punjab. East Punjab (48%) became part of India, while West Punjab (52%) became part of Pakistan.[31] The Punjab bore the brunt of the civil unrest following the end of the British Raj, with casualties estimated to be in the millions.[citation needed]

text: Timeline[edit]

text:
3300–1500 BCE: Harappan civilisation
1500–1000 BCE: (Rigvedic) Vedic civilisation
1000–500 BCE: Middle and late Vedic Period
599 BCE: Birth of Mahavira
567–487 BCE: Time of Gautama Buddha
550 BCE – 600 CE: Buddhism remained prevalent
326 BCE: Alexander's Invasion of Punjab
322–298 BCE: Chandragupta I, Maurya period
273–232 BCE: Reign of Ashoka
125–160 BCE: Rise of the Sakas
2 BCE: Beginning of Rule of the Sakas
45–180: Rule of the Kushans
320–550: Gupta Empire
500: Hunnic Invasion
510–650: Vardhana's Era
711–713: Muhammad bin Qasim conquers Sindh and small part of Punjab region
713–1200: Rajput states, Kabul Shahi & small Muslim kingdoms
1206–1290: Mamluk dynasty established by Mohammad Ghori
1290–1320: Khalji dynasty established by Jalal ud din Firuz Khalji
1320–1413: Tughlaq dynasty established by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq
1414–1451: Sayyid dynasty established by Khizr Khan
1451–1526: Lodhi dynasty established by Bahlul Khan Lodhi
1469–1539: Guru Nanak
1526–1707: Mughal rule

1526–1530: Zaheeruddin Muhammad Babur
1530–1540: Nasiruddin Muhammad Humayun
1540–1545: Sher Shah Suri of Afghanistan
1545–1554: Islam Shah Suri
1555–1556: Nasiruddin Muhammad Humayun
1556–1556: Hem Chandra Vikramaditya
1556–1605: Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar
1605–1627: Nooruddin Muhammad Jahangir
1627–1658: Shahaabuddin Muhammad Shah Jahan
1658–1707: Mohiuddin Muhammad Aurangzeb Alamgir

1539–1675: Period of 8 Sikh Gurus from Guru Angad Dev to Guru Tegh Bahadur
1675–1708: Guru Gobind Singh (10th Sikh Guru)
1699: Birth of the Khalsa
1708–1713: Conquests of Banda Bahadur
1722: Birth of Ahmed Shah Durrani, either in Multan in Mughal Empire or Herat in Afghanistan
1714–1759: Sikh chiefs (Sardars) war against Afghans & Mughal Governors
1739: Invasion by Nader Shah and defeat of weakened Mughal Empire
1747–1772: Durrani Empire led by Ahmad Shah Durrani
1756–1759: Sikh and Maratha Empire cooperation in the Punjab
1761: The Third Battle of Panipat, between the Durrani Empire against the Maratha Empire.
1762: 2nd massacre (Ghalughara) from Ahmed Shah's 2nd invasion
1765–1801: Rise of the Sikh Misls which gained control of significant swathes of Punjab
1801–1839: Sikh Empire also known as Sarkar Khalsa, Rule by Maharaja Ranjit Singh
1845–1846: First Anglo-Sikh War
1846: Jammu joined with the new state of Jammu and Kashmir
1848–1849: Second Anglo-Sikh War
1849: Complete annexation of Punjab into British India
1849–1947: British rule
1901: Peshawar and adjoining districts separated from the Punjab Province
1911: Parts of Delhi separated from Punjab Province
1947: The Partition of India divided Punjab into two parts. The Eastern part (with two rivers) became the Indian Punjab and the Western part (three rivers) the Pakistan Punjab
1966: Indian Punjab divided into three parts: Punjab, Haryana, and Himachal Pradesh
1973–1995: Punjab insurgency

text: People of the Punjab[edit]

text: Ethnic background[edit]

text: Ethnic ancestries of modern Punjabis include a mixture of Indo-Aryan and Indo-Scythian. Semitic ancestries can also be found in lesser numbers. With the advent of Islam, settlers from Turkestan, Afghanistan, and Kashmir have also integrated into the Muslim Punjabi society. However, the majority of Punjab is still made up of the Ahirs, Arains, Dalits (mostly Chamars), Gujjars, Jats, Khatris, Tarkhans, Brahmins, Bhats, Awan, Punjabi Shaikh, Kamboh, Kumhar, Rajputs, Rors and Saini.[citation needed] In the past, the most densely populated area has been the Majha region of Punjab.

text:
[show]

v
t
e

Ethnic groups, social groups and tribes of the Punjab

Agrawal

Bansal

Arains

Mian
Mehar
Dhankhar

Brahmins

Punjabi Brahmins
Saraswat Brahmins
Bali
Chhibber
Datt
Mohan
Mohyal

Scheduled Castes

Ad-Dharmi
Balmiki
Bazigar
Chamar
Khateek
Mazhabi Sikh
Mochi
Mirasi
Nat
Ramdasia Sikh
Ravidasi

Ahirs

Yaduvanshi Ahirs
Ahirs
Harals
Ghosi
Hindu Ghosi
Bhurtiya
Aharwar
Ranghar

Gurjars

Gurjar Parihar
Bhati
Baisla

Jats

Aulakh
Bajwa
Chaudhary
Chohan
Dhankhar
Gill
Kharal
Khokhar
Khullar
Randhawa
Sandhu
Sidhu
Sial
Sodhi
Sohal
Virk

Labana

Labana

Khatris

Ahuja
Babbar
Bedi
Bhasin
Chopra
Khukhrain
Kohli
Malhotra
Malik
Oberoi
Roshan
Sabharwal
Sahni
Sethi
Sodhi
Vohra

Rajputs

Manhas
Bais
Butta
Bhatti
Chib
Janjua
Parmar
Ranial
Shaktawat
Sohlan
Mair

Tarkhans

Panesar
Ramgharia
Sohal

Arora
Bagga
Bakarwal
Bania
Kamboj
Kumhar
Sansi
Sayyid

tag: table

text: Languages[edit]

text: The major language spoken in the Punjab is Punjabi. In the Indian Punjab this is written in the Gurmukhi script. Pakistan uses the Shahmukhi script, that is closer to Urdu script. Hindi, written in the Devanagri script, is used widely in the Indian states of Himanchal Pradesh and Haryana. Several dialects of Punjabi are spoken in the different regions. The Majhi dialect is considered to be textbook Punjabi and is shared by both countries.

text: Religions[edit]

text: The vast majority of Pakistani Punjabis are Sunni Muslim by faith, but also include large minority faiths mostly Shia Muslim, Ahmadi Muslim and Christians.

text: The Indian states of Haryana and Himachal Pradesh are mostly Hindu-majority. Sikhism, founded in the late 15th century, is the main religion practised in the post-1966 Indian Punjab state. About 60% of the population of Punjab state is Sikh, 37% is Hindu, and the rest are Muslims, Christians, and Jains.[32] However, due to large scale migration from Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar, Bengal and Odisha the demographics have become more skewed than reported earlier. Punjab state contains the holy Sikh cities of Amritsar, Anandpur Sahib, Tarn Taran Sahib, Fatehgarh Sahib and Chamkaur Sahib.

text: The Punjab was home to several Sufi saints.[33] Sufism is a concept in Islam. Also, Kirpal Singh revered the Sikh Gurus as saints.[34]

text:
Population trends for major religious groups in the Punjab Province of British India (1881–1941)[35]

Religious
group
Population
% 1881
Population
% 1891
Population
% 1901
Population
% 1911
Population
% 1921
Population
% 1931
Population
% 1941

Islam
47.6%
47.8%
49.6%
51.1%
51.1%
52.4%
53.2%

Hinduism
43.8%
43.6%
41.3%
35.8%
35.1%
30.2%
29.1%

Sikhism
8.2%
8.2%
8.6%
12.1%
12.4%
14.3%
14.9%

Christianity
0.1%
0.2%
0.3%
0.8%
1.3%
1.5%
1.5%

Other religions / No religion
0.3%
0.2%
0.2%
0.2%
0.1%
1.6%
1.3%

text: Punjabi festivals[edit]

text: Punjabis celebrate the following cultural, seasonal and religious festivals:

text:
Maghi
Lohri
Holi
Vaisakhi
Teeyan
Raksha Bandhan
Shab-e-Miraj
Gurpurab
Hola Mohalla
Mela Chiraghan
Bandi Chhor Divas
Dussehra
Karwa Chauth
Eid
Christmas
Navratri

text: Punjabi clothing[edit]

text: Traditional Punjabi clothing includes the following:

text:
Salwar (Punjabi) Suit
Patiala salwar
Punjabi Tamba and Kurta
Phulkari
Punjabi Ghagra
Shalwar kameez
Kurta

text: Economy[edit]

text: The historical region of Punjab is considered to be one of the most fertile regions on Earth. Both east and west Punjab produce a relatively high proportion of India and Pakistan's food output respectively.

text: The region has been used for extensive wheat farming, in addition rice, cotton, sugarcane, fruit, and vegetables are also grown.

text: The agricultural output of the Punjab region in Pakistan contributes significantly to Pakistan's GDP. Both Indian and Pakistani Punjab are considered to have the best infrastructure of their respective countries. Indian Punjab has been estimated to be the second richest state in India.[36] Pakistani Punjab produces 68% of Pakistan's food grain production.[37] Its share of Pakistan's GDP has historically ranged from 51.8% to 54.7%.[38]

text: Called "The Granary of India" or "The Bread Basket of India", Indian Punjab produces 1% of the world's rice, 2% of its wheat, and 2% of its cotton.[39] In 2001, it was recorded that farmers made up 39% of Indian Punjab's workforce.

text: Photo gallery[edit]

text: This section contains what may be an unencyclopedic or excessive gallery of images. Galleries containing indiscriminate images of the article subject are discouraged; please improve or remove the section accordingly. (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
The Mughal era Badshahi Mosque, Lahore

The fort at Bathinda

The main gate of the Qila Mubarak, Patiala

The Golden Temple in Amritsar

The Baradari of Ranjit Singh, built in the Hazuri Bagh

The Samadhi of Ranjit Singh

The Alamgiri Gate, built in 1673, is the main entrance to the Lahore Fort.

The Phuara Chowk (lit. Fountain Crossing) in Patiala

The memorial to the Jallianwala Bagh massacre

Jalandhar railway station reception block

Irrigated land in the Punjab

The tomb of Shah Rukn-e-Alam

The Shalimar Gardens in Lahore

Mohindra College in Patiala at night

The Wazir Khan Mosque in Lahore

The Hiran Minar in Sheikhupura, a tribute to Jahangir's favourite antelope

The tomb of Nur Jahan in Lahore

The tomb of Jahangir in Lahore

The Noor Mahal (Palace of Light) in Bahawalpur

The Jhelum River, one of the major rivers of the Punjab

The Mankiala stupa near Islamabad

The Open Hand monument in Chandigarh

Closer view of Amar Mahal Museum, Jammu

Ghainta ghar, Peshawar

Dakhni Sarai, Nakodar (gate)

Shrine Baba Budda Ji Nakodar