document_title: List of Medal of Honor recipients

question_text: how many service members received the medal of honor during the war in iraq

text: List of Medal of Honor recipients

text: 19th century[edit]

text: American Civil War[edit]

text: The American Civil War (1861–1865) was a war between the United States (the Union) and the Southern states of the newly formed Confederate States of America under Jefferson Davis. The Medal of Honor was established during this conflict; 1523 were awarded (33 posthumously) for acts of bravery and gallantry in combat.[9] Most awards were granted after the end of the Civil War with two late awards to Andrew Jackson Smith and Alonzo Cushing in 2001 and 2014.[5]

text: Indian Wars[edit]

text:
The term Indian Wars is the name generally used in the United States to describe a series of conflicts between colonial or federal governments and the American Indian population resident in North America before the arrival of white settlers.[10] During this conflict the Medal of Honor was presented to 426 soldiers, 13 posthumously for acts of bravery and gallantry in combat.[9]
Some 20 Medal of Honor recipients were involved in the Wounded Knee Massacre.

text: Korean Expedition[edit]

text: The United States expedition to Korea in 1871, also known as Sinmiyangyo (Western Disturbance of the Year Sinmi year), was the first American military action in Korea. It took place predominantly on and around the Korean island of Ganghwa. The reason for the presence of the American military expeditionary force in Korea was to support an American diplomatic delegation sent to establish trade and diplomatic relations with Korea and to ascertain the fate of the General Sherman merchant ship. The isolationist nature of the Joseon Dynasty government and the assertiveness of the Americans led to an armed conflict between the two parties. Eventually, the United States failed to secure its objectives.[11]

text:
Image

Name

Service

Rank

Place of action

Date of action

Unit

Notes[12]

—

John Andrews

Navy

Ordinary Seaman

aboard USS Benicia

Jun 9, 1871 – Jun 10, 1871

USS Benicia

Stood on the gunwale on the Benicia's launch, lashed to the ridgerope and remained unflinchingly in this dangerous position and gave his soundings with coolness and accuracy under a heavy fire.

 (Brown at right)

Charles Brown

Marine Corps

Corporal

aboard USS Colorado

June 11, 1871

USS Colorado

Assisted in capturing the Korean flag from the citadel of the fort

—

John Coleman

Marine Corps

Private

aboard USS Colorado

June 11, 1871

USS Colorado

For hand-to-hand combat and saving the life of Alexander McKenzie

—

James Dougherty

Marine Corps

Private

aboard USS Carondelet

June 11, 1871

USS Carondelet

Returned to duty after being wounded several times

—

Frederick Franklin

Navy

Quartermaster

aboard USS Colorado

June 11, 1871

USS Colorado

For assuming command of Company D, after Lt. McKee was wounded, and handling the company until relieved

—

Patrick H. Grace

Navy

Chief Quartermaster

aboard USS Benicia

Jun 10, 1871 – Jun 11, 1871

USS Benicia

Carrying out his duties with coolness, Grace set forth gallant and meritorious conduct throughout this action

 (Hayden at left)

Cyrus Hayden

Navy

Carpenter

aboard USS Colorado

June 11, 1871

USS Colorado

Serving as color bearer of the battalion, Hayden planted his flag and protected it under heavy fire

William F. Lukes

Navy

Landsman

Ganghwa Island

Jun 9, 1871 – Jun 10, 1871

USS Colorado

Fighting the enemy inside the fort, Lukes received a severe cut over the head

—

Alexander McKenzie

Navy

Boatswain's Mate

aboard USS Colorado

June 11, 1871

USS Colorado

Fighting at the side of Lt. McKee during this action, McKenzie was struck by a sword and received a severe cut in the head from the blow.

—

Michael McNamara

Marine Corps

Private

aboard USS Benicia

June 11, 1871

USS Benicia

For taking a match-lock from the hands of the enemy while advancing to the parapet

—

James F. Merton

Navy

Landsman

Ganghwa Island

Jun 9, 1871 – Jun 10, 1871

USS Colorado

Merton was severely wounded in the arm while trying to force his way into the fort

—

Michael Owens

Marine Corps

Private

aboard USS Colorado

June 11, 1871

USS Colorado

Fighting courageously in hand-to-hand combat, Owens was badly wounded by the enemy during this action

 (Purvis in center)

Hugh Purvis

Marine Corps

Private

aboard USS Alaska

June 11, 1871

USS Alaska

Braving the enemy fire, Purvis was the first to scale the walls of the fort and capture their flag

—

Samuel F. Rogers

Navy

Quartermaster

aboard USS Colorado

June 11, 1871

USS Colorado

Fighting courageously at the side of Lt. McKee during this action, Rogers was wounded by the enemy

—

William Troy

Navy

Ordinary Seaman

aboard USS Colorado

June 11, 1871

USS Colorado

Fighting at the side of Lt. McKee, by whom he was especially commended, Troy was badly wounded by the enemy

text: Spanish–American War[edit]

text: The Spanish–American War (Spanish: Guerra Hispano-Estadounidense, desastre del 98, Guerra Hispano-Cubana-Norteamericana or Guerra de Cuba) was a military conflict between Spain and the United States that began in April 1898. Hostilities halted in August of that year, and the Treaty of Paris was signed in December. The war began after the American demand for Spain's peacefully resolving the Cuban fight for independence was rejected, though strong expansionist sentiment in the United States may have motivated the government to target Spain's remaining overseas territories: Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, Guam and the Caroline Islands.[13]

text: Riots in Havana by pro-Spanish "Voluntarios" gave the United States reason to send in the warship USS Maine. This action by the U.S. indicated high national interest. Tension among the American people was raised because of the explosion of USS Maine, and "yellow journalism" that accused Spain of extensive atrocities, agitating American public opinion. The war ended after decisive naval victories for the United States in the Philippines and Cuba. The Treaty of Paris ended the conflict 109 days after the outbreak of war giving the United States ownership of the former Spanish colonies of Puerto Rico, the Philippines and Guam.[14] 111 people received the Medal of Honor from the Spanish–American War.

text: Samoan Civil War[edit]

text: The Samoan Civil War is a Western definition of political activity in the Samoa Islands of the South Pacific in the late 19th century. By this non-Samoan definition, the Samoan Civil Wars were a series of wars between Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States, ending in the partitioning of the island chain in 1899. The concluding event was the Second Samoan Civil War. The first Samoan Civil War lasted for eight years. The warring Samoan parties were supplied arms, training and sometimes even combat troops by Germany, Britain and the United States. These three powers valued Samoa as a refueling station for coal fired shipping. In addition, these countries sought to gain more power in Europe and wanted Samoa due to the scarcity of unclaimed territory from 1870 onwards.[15]

text:
Image

Name

Service

Rank

Place of action

Date of action

Unit

Notes[16]

—

Frederick T. Fisher

Navy

Gunner's Mate First Class

aboard USS Philadelphia, Samoa

April 1, 1899

USS Philadelphia

For distinguishing himself by his conduct in the presence of the enemy

—

Bruno A. Forsterer

Marine Corps

Sergeant

Samoa

April 1, 1899

Unknown

For distinguished conduct in the presence of the enemy.

Henry L. Hulbert

Marine Corps

Private

Samoa

April 1, 1899

Unknown

For distinguished conduct in the presence of the enemy. Subsequently, awarded the Navy Cross and the Distinguished Service Cross for actions during World War I.

—

Michael J. McNally

Marine Corps

Sergeant

Samoa

April 1, 1899

Unknown

For distinguished conduct in the presence of the enemy

text: Philippine–American War[edit]

text: The Philippine–American War[n 1] was an armed military conflict between the United States and the First Philippine Republic, fought between 1899 and at least 1902, which arose from a Filipino political struggle against U.S. occupation of the Philippines. While the conflict was officially declared over on July 4, 1902,[17][18][19] American troops continued hostilities against remnants of the Philippine Army and other resistance groups until 1913, and some historians consider these unofficial extensions part of the war.[19]

text: Eighty-six men were awarded the Medal of Honor for their actions in the Philippine–American War: 70 from the Army, 10 from the Navy, and 6 from the Marine Corps. Four of the awards were posthumous. Among the recipients were Webb Hayes, the son of former U.S. President Rutherford B. Hayes, and two prominent Marine Corps officers, Hiram I. Bearss and David Dixon Porter. Bearss became known for leading long-range reconnaissance patrols behind enemy lines and was later wounded as a colonel in World War I. Porter was from a distinguished military family and rose to become a major general. José B. Nísperos, a member of the Philippine Scouts who was honored for continuing to fight after being wounded, was the first Asian recipient of the Medal of Honor.[20]

text: Boxer Rebellion[edit]

text: The Boxer Movement or Boxer Rebellion, which occurred in China from November 1899 to September 7, 1901, was an uprising by members of the Chinese Society of Right and Harmonious Fists against foreign influence in areas such as trade, politics, religion and technology that occurred in China during the final years of the Manchu rule (Qing Dynasty). The members of the Society of Right and Harmonious Fists were simply called boxers by the Westerners due to the martial arts and calisthenics they practiced. The uprising began as an anti-foreign, anti-imperialist peasant-based movement in northern China. They attacked foreigners who were building railroads and violating Feng shui, as well as Christians, who were held responsible for the foreign domination of China. In June 1900, the Boxers invaded Beijing and killed 230 non-Chinese. Tens of thousands of Chinese Christians, Catholic and Protestant alike, were killed mostly in Shandong and Shanxi Provinces as part of the uprising. The government of Empress Dowager Cixi was not helpful, and diplomats, foreign civilians, soldiers and some Chinese Christians retreated to the legation quarter where they held out for fifty-five days until a multinational coalition rushed 20,000 troops to their rescue. The Chinese government was forced to indemnify the victims and make many additional concessions. Subsequent reforms implemented after the crisis of 1900 laid the foundation for the end of the Qing Dynasty and the establishment of the modern Chinese Republic.[21]

text: During the Boxer rebellion, 59 American servicemen received the Medal of Honor for their actions. Four of these were for Army personnel, twenty-two went to navy sailors and the remaining thirty-three went to Marines.  Harry Fisher was the first Marine to receive the medal posthumously and the only posthumous recipient for this conflict.[22]

text: 20th century[edit]

text: United States occupation of Veracruz, 1914[edit]

text: The United States occupation of the Mexican port of Veracruz lasted for six months in response to the Tampico Affair of April 9, 1914. The incident came in the midst of poor diplomatic relations between Mexico and the United States, related to the ongoing Mexican Revolution.[23]

text: Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels ordered that 56 Medals of Honor be awarded to participants in the occupation of Veracruz, the most for any single action before or since. In total 63 Medals of Honor were received for actions during the occupation; 1 Army, 9 to members of the United States Marine Corps and 53 to Navy personnel.[22]

text: Invasion and occupation of Haiti[edit]

text: The first United States occupation of Haiti began on July 28, 1915 and ended in mid-August 1934.

text:
Image

Name

Service

Rank

Place of action

Date of action

Unit

Notes[24][25]

Smedley Butler

Marine Corps

Major

Fort Riviere, Haiti

November 17, 1915

2nd Marines

Second award – previously awarded a Medal of Honor for action in the Mexican Campaign.

William R. Button

Marine Corps

Corporal

near Grande Riviere, Haiti

Oct 31, 1919 – Nov 1, 1919

7th Marines

For the assassination of rebel leader Charlemagne Péralte and the routing of his followers

Daniel Daly

Marine Corps

Gunnery Sergeant

near Fort-Liberté, Haiti

October 24, 1915

15th Company, 2nd Marines

Second award – previously awarded a Medal of Honor for action in the Boxer Rebellion

Herman H. Hanneken

Marine Corps

Sergeant

near Grande Riviere, Haiti

Oct 31, 1919 – Nov 1, 1919

7th Marines

For the assassination of rebel leader Charlemagne Péralte and the routing of his followers

Ross L. Iams

Marine Corps

Sergeant

Fort Riviere, Haiti

November 17, 1915

5th Company, 2nd Marines

Approaching a breach in the wall which was the only entrance to the fort, Sergeant Iams unhesitatingly jumped through the breach despite constant fire from the Cacos and engaged the enemy in a desperate hand-to-hand combat until the bastion was captured and Caco resistance neutralized.

—

Samuel Marguiles

Marine Corps

Private

Fort Riviere, Haiti

November 17, 1915

23rd Company, 2nd Marines

Served under the name Samuel Gross.

Edward A. Ostermann

Marine Corps

First Lieutenant

near Fort-Liberté, Haiti

October 24, 1915

15th Company, 2nd Marines

In command of one of the three squads which advanced in three different directions, led his men forward, surprising and scattering the Cacos, and aiding in the capture of Fort Dipitie.

William P. Upshur

Marine Corps

Captain

near Fort-Liberté, Haiti

October 24, 1915

15th Company, 2nd Marines

In command of the three squads which advanced in three different directions, led his men forward, surprising and scattering the Cacos, and aiding the capture of Fort Dipitie.

text: Occupation of the Dominican Republic[edit]

text: The United States occupied the Dominican Republic from 1916 to 1924. In May 1917, Rear Admiral William Caperton forced Arias to leave Santo Domingo by threatening the city with naval bombardment. U.S. Marines invaded and took control of the country within two months; in November that same year, the U.S. imposed a military government. The Marines restored order throughout most of the republic (with the exception of the eastern region); the country's budget was balanced, its debt was diminished, and economic growth resumed; infrastructure projects produced new roads that linked all the country's regions for the first time in its history; a professional military organization, the Dominican Constabulary Guard, replaced the partisan forces that had waged a seemingly endless struggle for power.[26]

text:
Image

Name

Service

Rank

Place of action

Date of action

Unit

Notes[27]

Joseph A. Glowin

Marine Corps

Corporal

Guayacanes, Dominican Republic

July 3, 1916

13th Company, Artillery Battalion, 1st Brigade

For action against a considerable force of rebels

—

Ernest C. Williams

Marine Corps

First Lieutenant

San Francisco de Macorís, Dominican Republic

November 29, 1916

1st Brigade

For leading the capture of a fort

Roswell Winans

Marine Corps

First Sergeant

Guayacanes, Dominican Republic

July 3, 1916

1st Brigade

For action against a considerable force of rebels

text: World War I[edit]

text: World War I, also known as the First World War and the Great War, was a global military conflict which took place primarily in Europe from 1914–1918. Over 40 million casualties resulted, including approximately 20 million military and civilian deaths.[28] Over 60 million European soldiers were mobilized from 1914–1918.[29] The immediate cause of the war was the June 28, 1914 assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, by Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb citizen of Austria-Hungary and member of the Black Hand. The retaliation by Austria-Hungary against Serbia activated a series of alliances that set off a chain reaction of war declarations. Within a month, much of Europe was in a state of open warfare.[30]

text: During this War, 126 men received the Medal of Honor for their actions with five marines receiving both the Army and Navy versions of the medal for the same action.[22]

text: Occupation of Nicaragua[edit]

text: The United States occupied Nicaragua from 1909 to 1933 and intervened in the country several times before that. The American interventions in Nicaragua were designed to prevent the construction of a trans-isthmian canal by any nation but the USA. Nicaragua assumed a quasi-protectorate status under the 1916 Chamorro-Bryan Treaty. The occupation ended as Augusto César Sandino, a Nicaraguan revolutionary, led guerrilla armies against US troops. Furthermore, the onset of the Great Depression made it costly for the USA to maintain occupation.[31]

text:
Image

Name

Service

Rank

Place of action

Date of action

Unit

Notes[32]

Christian F. Schilt

Marine Corps

First Lieutenant

Quilali, Nicaragua

Jan 6, 1928 – Jan 8, 1928

Observation Squadron 7-M

For evacuating wounded Marines by plane while under fire

Donald L. Truesdale

Marine Corps

Corporal

near Constancia, near Coco River, northern Nicaragua

April 24, 1932

a Guardia Nacional Patrol

Served under the name "Truesdale" before officially changing name to "Truesdell" on 25 July 1942.[33] Lost his hand while attempting to save his patrol from an accidentally activated grenade.

text: World War II[edit]

text: World War II, or the Second World War, was a global military conflict. The conflicts joined from two separate conflicts. The first began in Asia in 1937 as the Second Sino-Japanese War; the other began in Europe in 1939 with the German and Russian invasion of Poland.[n 2] This global conflict split the majority of the world's nations into two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis powers. It involved the mobilization of over 100 million military personnel, making it the most widespread war in history, and placed the participants in a state of "total war", erasing the distinction between civil and military resources. This resulted in the complete activation of a nation's economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities for the purposes of the war effort. Over 60 million people, the majority of them civilians, were killed, making it the deadliest conflict in human history.[34] The worldwide financial cost of the war is estimated at a trillion 1944 U.S. dollars,[35][36] making it the most costly war both in capital expenditures as well as loss of lives.

text: During this conflict 471 United States military personnel received the Medal of Honor, 273 of them posthumously.  A total of 42 Medals of Honor, representing 9% of all awarded during World War II, were presented for action in just two battles – 15 for actions during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, and 27 for actions during the Battle of Iwo Jima.  Also a total of 21 (4.5% of all World War II Medals of Honor) were awarded to members of the all-Japanese American 100th Infantry Battalion of the 442nd Regimental Combat Team, for actions in numerous battles across six different campaigns.[37]  Additionally, the only Medal of Honor ever presented to a member of the United States Coast Guard was received for actions during this war.[22]

text: Korean War[edit]

text: The Korean War was ignited by the 1950 invasion of South Korea when the North Korean Army moved south on June 25, 1950 to attempt to reunite the Korean peninsula, which had been formally divided since 1948. The conflict was then expanded by the United States, China's and the Soviet Union's involvement. The main hostilities were during the period from June 25, 1950, until the Korean Armistice Agreement was signed on July 27, 1953.

text: In South Korea, the war is often called "6•25", or the 6•25 War (Korean: 6•25 전쟁), from the date of the start of the conflict or, more formally, Hanguk Jeonjaeng literally "Korean War". In North Korea, while commonly known as the Korean War, it is formally called the Fatherland Liberation War. In the early days of the war, United States President Harry Truman called the United Nations response a "police action".[38] The war is sometimes called "The Forgotten War" because it is a major conflict of the 20th century that gets less attention than World War II, which preceded it, and the controversial Vietnam War, which succeeded it.[39] In China, the conflict was known as the War to Resist America and Aid Korea, but is today commonly called the "Korean War".[40]

text: During this war, 145 Medals of Honor were presented for bravery in action, 107 of them posthumously.[22]

text: Vietnam War[edit]

text:
The Vietnam War, also known as the Second Indochina War, and in Vietnam as the American War, occurred from 1959 to April 30, 1975. The term "Vietnam Conflict" is often used to refer to events which took place between 1959 and April 30, 1975. The war was fought between the Communist-supported Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) and the United States supported Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam).
During the Vietnam War and in the following twelve months, 234 Medals of Honor were received and since 1978 a further 26 awards have been presented. Of the total of 260 awards, 174 were to the US Army, 15 to the US Navy, 57 to the USMC and 14 to the USAF.[22][22] The first medal of the war was presented to Roger Donlon for rescuing and administering first aid to several wounded soldiers and leading a group against an enemy force.[41] The first African American recipient of the war was Milton L. Olive, III who sacrificed himself to save others by smothering a grenade with his body.[42] Riley L. Pitts was killed after attacking an enemy force with rifle fire and grenades and was the first African American commissioned officer of the war to receive the medal.[43] Thomas Bennett was a conscientious objector who received the medal for his actions as a medic;[44] three chaplains received the medal, including Vincent R. Capodanno, who served with the Marine Corps and was known as the Grunt Padre.[45]

text: USS Liberty incident[edit]

text: The USS Liberty incident was an attack on a neutral United States Navy technical research ship, USS Liberty, by Israeli jet fighter planes and motor torpedo boats on June 8, 1967, during the Six-Day War. The combined air and sea attack killed 34 and wounded more than 170 crew members, and damaged the ship severely.[46]

text:
Image

Name

Service

Rank

Place of action

Date of action

Unit

Notes[47]

William L. McGonagle

Navy

Commander

Eastern Mediterranean Sea

June 8–9, 1967

USS Liberty (AGTR-5)

Continued to lead his ship despite being severely wounded

text: Post-Vietnam[edit]

text: Since the end of the Vietnam War, also known as the Vietnam Conflict and Second Indochina War,[48][49] the United States was involved in a number of smaller conflicts during the end of the Cold War, including in Grenada, Panama, and elsewhere.[50] In the Post-Cold War, the United States was involved in conflicts in the Middle East, Africa, the Caribbean, and in the Balkans.[51] No Medals of Honor have been awarded for any of the aforementioned conflicts so far either proactively or retroactively.[52]

text: Somalia[edit]

text: On October 3, 1993, during the Battle of Mogadishu, members of the U.S. Army Rangers and SOCOM's Delta Force executed a mission to capture members of Gen. Mohamed Farrah Aidid's forces. In the ensuing battle, two UH-60 Blackhawk helicopters were shot down. As the second Blackhawk, containing Chief Warrant Officer Michael Durant, was hit and crashed, Master Sergeant Gary I. Gordon and Sergeant First Class Randall D. Shughart were in a nearby Blackhawk monitoring radio traffic. Gordon and Shughart were part of a sniper team for Delta Force that was assigned to watch over the operation, engaging targets from their position in the Blackhawk. As they monitored the downing of the second Blackhawk, it became evident that ground forces would not be available to secure the crash site and protect the critically injured crew of four, all of whom survived the crash. Gordon, the sniper team leader, requested that they be inserted at the 2nd crash site. His request was denied twice before finally being approved on the third request. The snipers were armed only with their sniper rifles and pistols.

text: Upon reaching the downed Blackhawk, which was under intense enemy fire, Gordon and Shughart pulled the crew from the wreckage and proceeded to set up a defensive perimeter. The snipers, assisted by the severely injured Durant, began to engage the attacking Somalis from the opposite side of the wreckage using assault rifles stored on the Blackhawk. Shughart and Gordon were eventually mortally wounded after nearly exhausting all available ammunition; Durant, the only survivor, was taken hostage. According to Durant's account, 25 Somalis were killed and many more were wounded.

text: On Monday, May 23, 1994, President Clinton presented the Medal of Honor to the widows of Gordon and Shughart.[53] They are the only snipers to have received the Medal of Honor.[54] The film Black Hawk Down, based on the book of the same name, includes a narrative of the events.

text: 21st century[edit]

text: War in Afghanistan[edit]

text: The War in Afghanistan, which began on October 7, 2001, was launched by the United States, the United Kingdom, and NATO allies in response to the September 11, 2001 attacks. It was the beginning of the War on Terrorism. The stated purpose of the invasion was to capture Osama bin Laden, destroy al-Qaeda, and remove the Taliban regime which had provided support and safe harbor to al-Qaeda.[55] Since 2001, 14 American service-members have received the Medal of Honor for actions in Afghanistan, three of them posthumously. Army Sergeant First Class Jared C. Monti received his medal for attempting to rescue a wounded soldier at the cost of his own life. Navy Lieutenant Michael P. Murphy received his for actions against insurgent forces and for sacrificing his life to call for help when his team had been overwhelmed by a much larger enemy force.[56] Army Staff Sergeant Robert James Miller's surviving family was presented with his medal on October 6, 2010.[57] The fourth recipient, Salvatore Giunta received his for his actions in 2007 when he risked his life to save a wounded comrade. He is the first living recipient since the Vietnam War. A second living recipient, Sergeant First Class Leroy Petry, received the medal from President Obama during a July 12, 2011, ceremony.[58] Marine Corps Corporal Dakota Meyer became the third living recipient awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions during the Battle of Ganjgal.[59][60]  An additional eight living individuals have been awarded the Medal since Meyer.

text: Iraq War[edit]

text: The Iraq War,[61] Operation Iraqi Freedom (US),[62] Operation TELIC (UK)[63] or the occupation of Iraq,[64] was a conflict which began on March 20, 2003 with the United States-led invasion of Iraq by a multinational coalition composed of U.S. and U.K. troops supported by smaller contingents from Australia, Poland, and other nations.[65] Four service members have received the Medal of Honor for actions in Iraq; two from the Army, one from the Marine Corps and one from the Navy. Paul R. Smith was the first to receive it for his actions on April 4, 2003 when he held enemy forces back, allowing other wounded soldiers to be evacuated to safety. The other three, Corporal Jason Dunham of the Marine Corps, Specialist Ross A. McGinnis of the Army and Master-at-Arms Second Class Michael A. Monsoor of the Navy received it after being killed while using their own bodies to smother grenades to protect their comrades.[66]

text: Peacetime[edit]

text: Before World War II, the Medal of Honor could be received for actions not involving direct combat with the enemy and 193 men earned the medal in this way.[22] Most of these medals were presented to members of the United States Navy for rescuing or attempting to rescue someone from drowning.[22] One of those awarded the Medal of Honor for rescuing others was Fireman Second Class Telesforo Trinidad, who as of 2010 has been the only Asian American Sailor to be awarded the Medal of Honor.[67] In addition to the medals that were presented for lifesaving acts, one Medal of Honor was presented to William Halford who sailed in a small boat for 31 days to get help for the other members of USS Saginaw who had been stranded on an island.[68] Three explorers were also presented with the medal by special acts of Congress. Charles Lindbergh received the medal for flying the first solo non-stop flight across the Atlantic Ocean as well as Floyd Bennett and Richard Evelyn Byrd who received it for their participation in what was thought to be the first successful heavier-than-air flight to the North Pole and back. One recipient, Adolphus W. Greely received his for a lifetime of military service.[69]

text: Foreign[edit]

text: No individual serving as a member of a foreign force has been awarded the Medal of Honor. Current law,10 U.S.C. § 6241 explicitly states that recipients must be serving in the U.S. Armed Forces at the time of performing a valorous act that warrants the award. However, the Medal of Honor has been presented to five First World War unknown soldiers of allied countries: the British Unknown Warrior in the United Kingdom by General Pershing on October 17, 1921;  the Romanian Unknown Soldier, the French Unknown Soldier (entombed under the Arc de Triomphe), the Belgian Unknown Soldier, and the Italian Unknown Soldier (entombed in the Monument of Vittorio Emanuele II). Each of the countries reciprocally awarded medals to the U.S. Unknown Soldier.[70]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ This conflict is also known as the Philippine Insurrection. This name was historically the most commonly used in the U.S., but Filipinos and some American historians refer to these hostilities as the Philippine-American War, and, in 1999, the U.S. Library of Congress reclassified its references to use this term.

Jump up ^ Official military histories in Commonwealth nations refer to the conflict as the Second World War, while the United States' official histories refer to the conflict as World War II. English translations of the official histories of other nations tend to resolve into English as Second World War also, for example zweite weltkrieg in German. See C.P. Stacey Official History of the Canadian Army in the Second World War, for example. "Official" usage of these terms is giving way to popular usage and the two terms are becoming interchangeable even in formal military history.


document_title: Nick Bottom

question_text: who did nick bottom play in pyramus and thisbe

root

text: Nick Bottom

text: Overview[edit]

text: While they are in the woods rehearsing, the fairy Puck, a mischievous sprite and minion of Oberon, king of the fairies, happens upon their rehearsal. He decides to have some fun with them, carrying out part of Oberon's orders in the process, and when Bottom exits the stage, he transforms his head into a donkey's. When Bottom returns, unaware of his own transformation, his fellow actors run away from him with Quince screaming, "We are haunted!" Bottom believes they are playing a prank on him, proclaiming, "This is to make an ass of me, to fright me if they could." So he stays in the forest by himself and sings loudly to show them he isn't afraid. The Fairy Queen Titania is awakened by Bottom's song. She has been enchanted by a love potion, which will cause her to fall in love with the first living thing that she sees when she wakes (no matter who, or what it is), made from the juice of a rare flower, once hit by Cupid's arrow, that her husband, Oberon, King of the Fairies, spread on her eyes in an act of jealous rage. During his enchantment over her, he utters "Wake when some vile thing is near." The first thing she sees when she wakes is the transformed Bottom, and she immediately falls in love with him. She even commands her fairy minions to serve and wait upon him. Later, Oberon finally releases Titania from her enchantment. After being confronted with the reality that her romantic interlude with the transformed Bottom was not just a dream, she is disgusted with the very image of him and also seems very suspicious of how "these things came to pass." After Oberon instructs Puck to return Bottom's head to his human state, which Puck reluctantly does, the fairies leave him sleeping in the woods, nearby the four Athenian lovers, Demetrius, Helena, Hermia, and Lysander.

tag: p

text: He wakes up after the lovers leave. His first thought is that he has fallen asleep in the woods during rehearsal and has missed his cue. He quickly realises he has had "a most rare vision". He is amazed by the events of this dream, and soon begins to wonder if it was in fact a dream at all. He quickly decides that he will "get Peter Quince to write a ballad of this dream", and that "it shall be called 'Bottom's Dream,' because it hath no Bottom". Upon being reunited with his friends, he is not even able to utter what has happened and says "For if I tell you, I am no true Athenian".

text: Theseus ends up choosing Pyramus and Thisbe as the performance for his amusement, now also the wedding day of the young Athenian lovers. The play is poorly written and poorly acted, though obviously performed with a great deal of passion. Bottom performs the famous Pyramus death scene in the play within the play, ironically one of the most comedic moments in the play.

text: In performance, Bottom, like Horatio in Hamlet is the only major part that can't be doubled, i.e. that can't be played by an actor who also plays another character, since he is present in scenes involving nearly every character.

text: Analysis[edit]

text: Bottom's discussion of his dream is considered by Ann Thompson to have emulated two passages from Chaucer's The Book of the Duchess.[1]

text: Critics have commented on the profound religious implications of Bottom's speech on his awakening without the ass's head in act 4 of A Midsummer Night's Dream:

text:
"[. . .] The eye of
man hath not heard, the ear of man hath not seen,
man's hand is not able to taste, his tongue to conceive,
nor his heart to report, what my dream was. I
will get Peter Quince to write a ballad of this
dream: it shall be called 'Bottom's Dream', because
it hath no bottom; and I will sing it in the latter end
of a play, before the Duke. Peradventure, to make it the
more gracious, I shall sing it at her death." (4.1.209–216)

text: This speech seems to be a comically jumbled evocation of a passage from the New Testament's 1 Corinthians 2.9–10:

text:
"The things which
eye hathe not sene, nether eare hath heard,
nether came into man's heart, are, which
God hathe prepared for them that love him.
But God hathe reveiled them unto us by
his Spirit: for the Spirit searcheth all
things, yea, the deepe things of God."

text: Steven Doloff also suggests that Bottom's humorous and foolish performance at the end of "A Midsummer Night's Dream" mimics a passage from the previous chapter of Corinthians:

text:
"For seing the worlde by wisdome knewe
not God in the wisdome of God, it pleased
God by the foolishnes of preaching
to save them that believe:
Seing also that the Jewes require a signe,
and the Grecians seke after wisdome.
But we preache Christ crucified : unto
the Jewes, even a stombling blocke, & unto
the Grecians, foolishnes:
But unto them which are called, bothe
of the Jewes & Grecias we preache Christ,
the power of GOD, and the wisdome of God.
For the foolishnes of God is wiser the men [. . .]." (1 Corinthians 1.21–25)

text: This passage's description of the sceptical reception Christ was given by his Greek audience appears to be alluded to in Bottom's performance. Just as Christ's preaching is regarded as "foolishnes," Bottom's audience perceives his acting (as well as the entirety of the play he is a part of) as completely without value, except for the humor they can find in the actors' hopelessly flawed rendering of their subject matter. Doloff writes that this allusion is especially likely because, in both texts, the sceptical audience of the "foolish" material is composed of Greeks, as the spectators of Bottom et al. are Theseus, the duke of Athens, and his court.[2]

text: Scholarly debates[edit]

text: The origin of Bottom's farewell to Peter Quince in Act I, scene ii has become the topic of some disagreement among Shakespeare scholars. Parting with Quince, Bottom instructs his fellow actor to be at the next rehearsal, saying: "Hold or cut bowstrings." The debate is centred on whether this phrase arose from military or civilian life.

text: George Capell is the first to have offered an explanation of the origin of this phrase. He states that it is a proverbial saying and "was born in the days of archery". When an archery contest was planned, 'assurance of meeting was given in the words of that phrase'. If an archer did not keep the promised meeting, then the other archers might cut his bowstring, that is, 'demolish him for an archer'. From this 'particular usage, the phrase had an easy transition among the vulgar to that general application which Bottom makes of it.'[3]

text: However, W.L. Godshalk refutes this theory, stating that no subsequent scholars have been able to confirm Capell's ideas. Godshalk also states that it is unlikely that this was a common civilian phrase, as there are no other examples of this exact form of the phrase in the work of any author besides Shakespeare.

text: Godshalk further cites the work of George Steevens, who was able to find two vaguely parallel examples in seventeenth-century drama.[4] In George Chapman's The Ball, Scutilla asks Lady Lucina, 'have you devices / To jeer the rest?' Lucina answers, 'All the regiment of 'em, or I'll break my bow-strings' (II.ii.127-9).[5] Godshalk argues that the context implied by 'regiment' is important, as it implies that the breaking (or cutting) of bowstrings should be seen in terms of military rather than civilian archery. Steeven's other example is from Anthony Brewer's The Covntrie Girle: A Comedie: 'Fidler, strike. / I strike you else; – and cut your begging bowstrings'.[6] Godshalk writes that "the first 'strike' means 'to play upon' the fiddle; the second 'strike' may again suggest a military context for the cutting of bowstrings, though any reference to military archery is comic since the 'bow' in this case is the fiddler's bow."

text: Godshalk argues that, just as these examples indicate a military context, this must also be done with Bottom's "hold or cut bow-strings." He further cites Jean Froissart's account of the Battle of Crecy, which supports the military origin of Bottom's line: "When the Genoese felt the arrows piercing through their heads, arms, and breasts, many of them cast down their crossbows, and cut their strings, and resumed discomfited."[7] Archers would cut their bowstrings, thus destroying their weapons, in the midst of a retreat so that the enemy could not use their own instruments against them. It is the equivalent of striking artillery, rendering the equipment useless. With this understanding, Bottom's phrase can be interpreted as a military expression for "hold your position, or give up and retreat." In the context of the play, Bottom is being comically pretentious, saying: "Be present at the rehearsal, or quit the troupe."[8]

text: Notable interpretations[edit]

text: Some of the more successful interpretations of Nick Bottom are those of Samuel Phelps, Herbert Beerbohm Tree, Ralph Richardson, Stewart Wright, Andrew Blake, as well as Paul Rogers. Actors who have played the role on film include Paul Rogers, James Cagney and Kevin Kline. In the BBC Television Shakespeare version he is played by Brian Glover.

text: Cultural depictions[edit]

text: Bottom has been the subject of several paintings. German composer Hans Werner Henze has used Bottom twice as an inspiration: in the second sonata which comprises his Royal Winter Music and in his Eighth Symphony.

text: Nick Bottom is also the main character from Tony nominated musical Something Rotten! about Bottom competing as a playwright against William Shakespeare, his name being a reference to Shakespeare's play.


document_title: List of saints canonized by Pope Francis

question_text: who was the last person to be canonized

question_tokens: who was the last person to be canonized

text: This article contains a list of the 885 saints canonized by Pope Francis (2013–) during his pontificate.

text:
No.
Saint
Date of canonization
Place of canonization

1.
Antonio Primaldo & 812 Companions[1]
12 May 2013
Saint Peter's Square, Vatican City

2.
Laura Montoya Upegui[1]
12 May 2013
Saint Peter's Square, Vatican City

3.
Maria Guadalupe Garcia Zavala[2]
12 May 2013
Saint Peter's Square, Vatican City

4.
Angela of Foligno[3]
9 October 2013
Vatican City

5.
Peter Faber[4]
17 December 2013
Vatican City

6.
José de Anchieta[5]
3 April 2014
Vatican City

7.
Marie of the Incarnation[5]
3 April 2014
Vatican City

8.
Francis-Xavier de Montmorency-Laval[5]
3 April 2014
Vatican City

9.
Pope John XXIII[6]
27 April 2014
Saint Peter's Square, Vatican City

10.
Pope John Paul II[6]
27 April 2014
Saint Peter's Square, Vatican City

11.
Kuriakose Elias Chavara[7]
23 November 2014
Saint Peter's Square, Vatican City

12.
Nicola Saggio[7]
23 November 2014
Saint Peter's Square, Vatican City

13.
Euphrasia Eluvathingal[7]
23 November 2014
Saint Peter's Square, Vatican City

14.
Giovanni Antonio Farina[7]
23 November 2014
Saint Peter's Square, Vatican City

15.
Ludovico of Casoria[7]
23 November 2014
Saint Peter's Square, Vatican City

16.
Amato Ronconi[7]
23 November 2014
Saint Peter's Square, Vatican City

17.
Joseph Vaz[8]
14 January 2015
Galle Face Green, Colombo, Sri Lanka

18.
Émilie de Villeneuve[9]
17 May 2015
Saint Peter's Square, Vatican City

19.
Maria Cristina of the Immaculate Conception[9]
17 May 2015
Saint Peter's Square, Vatican City

20.
Mariam Baouardy[9]
17 May 2015
Saint Peter's Square, Vatican City

21.
Marie-Alphonsine Danil Ghattas[9]
17 May 2015
Saint Peter's Square, Vatican City

22.
Junípero Serra[10]
23 September 2015
Washington D.C., United States

23.
Louis Martin[11]
18 October 2015
Saint Peter's Square, Vatican City

24.
Marie-Azélie Guérin Martin[11]
18 October 2015
Saint Peter's Square, Vatican City

25.
Vincenzo Grossi[11]
18 October 2015
Saint Peter's Square, Vatican City

26.
María de la Purísima Salvat Romero[11]
18 October 2015
Saint Peter's Square, Vatican City

27.
Stanisław Papczyński[12]
5 June 2016
Saint Peter's Square, Vatican City

28.
Maria Elizabeth Hesselblad[12]
5 June 2016
Saint Peter's Square, Vatican City

29.
Teresa of Calcutta[13]
4 September 2016
Saint Peter's Square, Vatican City

30.
José Gabriel del Rosario Brochero[14]
16 October 2016
Saint Peter's Square, Vatican City

31.
José Sánchez del Río[14]
16 October 2016
Saint Peter's Square, Vatican City

32.
Manuel González García[14]
16 October 2016
Saint Peter's Square, Vatican City

33.
Elizabeth of the Trinity[14]
16 October 2016
Saint Peter's Square, Vatican City

34.
Alfonso Maria Fusco[14]
16 October 2016
Saint Peter's Square, Vatican City

35.
Lodovico Pavoni[14]
16 October 2016
Saint Peter's Square, Vatican City

36.
Salomone Leclercq[14]
16 October 2016
Saint Peter's Square, Vatican City

37.
Francisco Marto[15]
13 May 2017
Fátima, Portugal

38.
Jacinta Marto[15]
13 May 2017
Fátima, Portugal

39.
Manuel Míguez González[16]
15 October 2017
Saint Peter's Square, Vatican City

40.
Luca Antonio Falcone[16]
15 October 2017
Saint Peter's Square, Vatican City

41.
André de Soveral & 29 Companions[16]
15 October 2017
Saint Peter's Square, Vatican City

42.
Cristobal & 2 Companions[16]
15 October 2017
Saint Peter's Square, Vatican City

tag: table


document_title: John Bradford

question_text: who said except for the grace of god there go i

text: John Bradford

text: Life[edit]

text: Bradford was born in Blackley, Manchester in 1510. Owing to his financially stable family, he was educated at a good grammar school. Talented with numbers and money, he later served under John Harrington of Exton in Rutland as a servant. Through his good influence and abilities in auditing and writing, he gained favour and trust with his employer and at the Siege of Montreuil in 1544, occupied the office of paymaster of the English army during the wars of Henry VIII. Later, he became a law student at the Inner Temple in London. Through the contact and preachings of a fellow student, he became acquainted with and converted to the Protestant faith. This caused him to abandon his legal studies and in 1548, he took up theology at Catharine Hall (now St Catharine's College), University of Cambridge. In 1549 he was awarded his MA and in that same year was appointed to a fellowship at Pembroke College, Cambridge.[1][2]

text: At this institution he was often referred to with the nickname "Holy Bradford" not from malice but out of respect for his dedication to God and his unselfish attitude.[5] In August 1550 he was ordained deacon by Bishop Nicholas Ridley and appointed as his personal chaplain. He began preaching in churches in London under the mentorship of Ridley and Hugh Latimer.[6] His gifts in preaching the Biblical faith led to his appointment in 1551 as Chaplain to King Edward VI and Prebendary of St Paul's Cathedral. He continued as a Fellow of Pembroke and as a roving preacher, mainly in London, Lancashire and Cheshire.

text: Following the death of Edward in 1553, Mary Tudor ascended to the throne bringing the threat of reprisals against opponents of Catholicism. In the first month of the new monarch's reign, Bradford was arrested and imprisoned on the seemingly trivial charge of "trying to stir up a mob" and committed to the Tower of London. Although seemingly trivial, at the time ‘stirring up a mob’ was a serious and dangerous act, leading to riot & possible death, certainly major disturbance to society. During his time in prison, he continued to write religious works and preach to all who would listen. For a time whilst in the Tower, Bradford was put in a cell with three other reformers, Archbishop Thomas Cranmer, Ridley, and Latimer. Their time was spent in careful study of the New Testament.

text: Death[edit]

text: On 31 January 1555, Bradford was tried and condemned to death. Bradford was taken to Newgate Prison to be burned at the stake on 1 July. Bradford was give a special "Shirt of Flame" by a Mrs. Marlet, for whom he had written a devotional work. This was a clean shirt that was sewn specifically for the burning, made in the style of a wedding shirt. "This clothing with a new shirt to wear at the stake became a common feature at the burnings, a way of signaling support for and honouring the victim, as though he were being dressed as a bridegroom for a wedding." Also, the ceremonial donning of the shirt of flame could be seen as similar to the priest donning his vestments, thus subverting Catholic ritual. "...and so the martyr might pray over and kiss the shirt before putting it on... underlining their oneness with Christ and the fact they were willing to die..." [7]

text: A large crowd delayed the execution, which had been scheduled for 4 o'clock in the morning, as many who admired Bradford came to witness his death. He was chained to the stake at Smithfield with a young man, John Leaf. Before the fire was lit, he begged forgiveness of any he had wronged, and offered forgiveness to those who had wronged him. He then turned to Leaf and said, "Be of good comfort brother; for we shall have a merry supper with the Lord this night!"[5] A century later, in his Worthies of England, Thomas Fuller wrote that he endured the flame "as a fresh gale of wind in a hot summer's day, confirming by his death the truth of that doctrine he had so diligently and powerfully preached during his life."[8] Bradford is commemorated at the Marian Martyrs' Monument in Smithfield, London.[9] He is also commemorated with one of the six statues on the exterior of Manchester Town Hall marking people important in the early history of the city.[10]

text: Phrase attribution[edit]

text: There is a 19th-century tradition tracing to Bradford the idiomatic "There but for the grace of God go I" as an expression of humility and reliance on God's grace rather than his own morality. The editor of The Writings of John Bradford, Aubrey Townsend, notes this in his preface:[11]

text: The familiar story, that, on seeing evil-doers taken to the place of execution, he was wont to exclaim, "But for the grace of God there goes John Bradford", is a universal tradition which has overcome the lapse of time.

text: The tradition of attribution of the phrase to Bradford dates to at least the early 19th century, as it is found in A treatise on prayer by Edward Bickersteth (1822):

text: The pious Martyr Bradford, when he saw a poor criminal led to execution, exclaimed, "there, but for the grace of God, goes John Bradford". He knew that the same evil principles were in his own heart which had brought the criminal to that shameful end.

text: While the phrase, or its attribution to Bradford, cannot be traced to before 1800, Townsend notes that there is a 17th-century attribution of a similar sentiment to Bradford, demonstrating how "by the sight of others' sins, men may learn to bewail their own sinfulness". According to this tradition, Bradford, "when he saw any drunk or heard any swear, &c., would railingly complain, 'Lord I have a drunken head; Lord, I have a swearing heart.'"[12]

text: But there are other attributions for the phrase "there but for the grace of God"; Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (in the voice of Sherlock Holmes) attributes the phrase to Richard Baxter (1615–1691) in The Boscombe Valley Mystery (1891):

text: Why does fate play such tricks with poor, helpless worms? I never hear of such a case as this that I do not think of Baxter's words, and say, "There, but for the grace of God, goes Sherlock Holmes."

text: The phrase has also been attributed to John Newton (1725–1807)[13] and in Catholic tradition to Philip Neri (1515–1595).[14]


document_title: Motte-and-bailey castle

question_text: where was the first motte and bailey castle built

text: Motte-and-bailey castle

text: Architecture

text: Structures

text: A motte-and-bailey castle was made up of two structures, a motte, a type of mound–often artificial–topped with a wooden or stone structure known as a keep; and at least one bailey, a fortified enclosure built next to the motte. The term "motte and bailey" is a relatively modern one, and is not medieval in origin.[2] The word "motte" is the French version of the Latin mota, and in France the word motte was initially an early word for a turf; it then became used to refer to a turf bank, and by the 12th century was used to refer to the castle design itself.[3] The word "bailey" comes from the Norman-French baille, or basse-cour, referring to a low yard.[4] In medieval sources, the Latin term castellum was used to describe the bailey complex within these castles.[5]

text: One contemporary account of these structures comes from Jean de Colmieu around 1130, describing the Calais region in northern France. De Colmieu described how the nobles would build "a mound of earth as high as they can and dig a ditch about it as wide and deep as possible. The space on top of the mound is enclosed by a palisade of very strong hewn logs, strengthened at intervals by as many towers as their means can provide. Inside the enclosure is a citadel, or keep, which commands the whole circuit of the defences. The entrance to the fortress is by means of a bridge, which, rising from the outer side of the moat and supported on posts as it ascends, reaches to the top of the mound."[6] At Durham Castle, contemporaries described how the motte-and-bailey superstructure arose from the "tumulus of rising earth" with a keep rising "into thin air, strong within and without" with a "stalwart house...glittering with beauty in every part".[7]

text: Motte

text: Mottes were made out of earth and flattened on top, and it can be very hard to determine whether a mound is artificial or natural without excavation.[8] Some were also built over older artificial structures, such as Bronze Age barrows.[9] The size of mottes varied considerably, with these mounds being 3 metres to 30 metres in height (10 feet to 100 feet), and from 30 to 90 metres (98 to 295 ft) in diameter.[10] This minimum height of 3 metres (9.8 feet) for mottes is usually intended to exclude smaller mounds which often had non-military purposes.[11] In England and Wales, only 7% of mottes were taller than 10 metres (33 feet) high; 24% were between 10 and 5 metres (33 and 16 ft), and 69% were less than 5 metres (16 feet) tall.[12] A motte was protected by a ditch around it, which would typically have also been a source of the earth and soil for constructing the mound itself.[13]

text: A keep and a protective wall would usually be built on top of the motte. Some walls would be large enough to have a wall-walk around them, and the outer walls of the motte and the wall-walk could be strengthened by filling in the gap between the wooden walls with earth and stones, allowing it to carry more weight; this was called a garillum.[14] Smaller mottes could only support simple towers with room for a few soldiers, whilst larger mottes could be equipped with a much grander building.[15] Many wooden keeps were designed with a bretasche, a square building that overhung from the upper floors of the building, enabling better defences and a more sturdy structural design.[16] The early 12th-century chronicler Lambert of Ardres described the wooden keep on top of the motte at the castle of Ardres, where the "first storey was on the surface of the ground, where were cellars and granaries, and great boxes, tuns, casks, and other domestic utensils. In the storey above were the dwelling and common living-rooms of the residents in which were the larders, the rooms of the bakers and butlers, and the great chamber in which the lord and his wife slept...In the upper storey of the house were garret rooms...In this storey also the watchmen and the servants appointed to keep the house took their sleep".[17] Wooden structures on mottes could be protected by skins and hides to prevent them being easily set alight during a siege.[15]

text: Bailey

text: The bailey was an enclosed courtyard overlooked by the motte and surrounded by a wooden fence called a palisade and another ditch.[18] The bailey was often kidney-shaped to fit against a circular motte, but could be made in other shapes according to the terrain.[18] The bailey would contain a wide number of buildings, including a hall, kitchens, a chapel, barracks, stores, stables, forges or workshops, and was the centre of the castle's economic activity.[19] The bailey was linked to the motte either by a flying bridge stretching between the two, or, more popularly in England, by steps cut into the motte.[20] Typically the ditch of the motte and the bailey joined, forming a figure of eight around the castle.[21] Wherever possible, nearby streams and rivers would be dammed or diverted, creating water-filled moats, artificial lakes and other forms of water defences.[22]

text: In practice, there was a wide number of variations to this common design.[23] A castle could have more than one bailey: at Warkworth Castle an inner and an outer bailey was constructed, or alternatively, several baileys could flank the motte, as at Windsor Castle.[24] Some baileys had two mottes, such as those at Lincoln.[24] Some mottes could be square instead of round, such as at Cabal Trump.[24] Instead of single ditches, occasionally double-ditch defences were built, as seen at Berkhamsted.[24] Local geography and the intent of the builder produced many unique designs.[25]

text: Construction and maintenance

text: Various methods were used to build mottes. Where a natural hill could be used, scarping could produce a motte without the need to create an artificial mound, but more commonly much of the motte would have to be constructed by hand.[20] Four methods existed for building a mound and a tower: the mound could either be built first, and a tower placed on top of it; the tower could alternatively be built on the original ground surface and then buried within the mound; the tower could potentially be built on the original ground surface and then partially buried within the mound, the buried part forming a cellar beneath; or the tower could be built first, and the mound added later.[26]

text: Regardless of the sequencing, artificial mottes had to be built by piling up earth; this work was undertaken by hand, using wooden shovels and hand-barrows, possibly with picks as well in the later periods.[27] Larger mottes took disproportionately more effort to build than their smaller equivalents, because of the volumes of earth involved.[27] The largest mottes in England, such as Thetford, are estimated to have required up to 24,000 man-days of work; smaller ones required perhaps as little as 1,000.[28] Contemporary accounts talk of some mottes being built in a matter of days, although these low figures have led to suggestions by historians that either these figures were an underestimate, or that they refer to the construction of a smaller design than that later seen on the sites concerned.[29] Taking into account estimates of the likely available manpower during the period, historians estimate that the larger mottes might have taken between four and nine months to build.[30] This contrasted favourably with stone keeps of the period, which typically took up to ten years to build.[31] Very little skilled labour was required to build motte and bailey castles, which made them very attractive propositions if forced peasant labour was available, as was the case after the Norman invasion of England.[20] Where the local workforce had to be paid – such as at Clones in Ireland, built in 1211 using imported labourers – the costs would rise quickly, in this case reaching £20.[32]

text: The type of soil would make a difference to the design of the motte, as clay soils could support a steeper motte, whilst sandier soils meant that a motte would need a more gentle incline.[15] Where available, layers of different sorts of earth, such as clay, gravel and chalk, would be used alternatively to build in strength to the design.[33] Layers of turf could also be added to stabilise the motte as it was built up, or a core of stones placed as the heart of the structure to provide strength.[34] Similar issues applied to the defensive ditches, where designers found that the wider the ditch was dug, the deeper and steeper the sides of the scarp could be, making it more defensive.[15] Although militarily a motte was, as Norman Pounds describes it, "almost indestructible", they required frequent maintenance.[35] Soil wash was a problem, particularly with steeper mounds, and mottes could be clad with wood or stone slabs to protect them.[20] Over time, some mottes suffered from subsidence or damage from flooding, requiring repairs and stabilisation work.[36]

text: Although motte-and-bailey castles are the best known castle design, they were not always the most numerous in any given area.[37] A popular alternative was the ringwork castle, involving a palisade being built on top of a raised earth rampart, protected by a ditch. The choice of motte and bailey or ringwork was partially driven by terrain, as mottes were typically built on low ground, and on deeper clay and alluvial soils.[38] Another factor may have been speed, as ringworks were faster to build than mottes.[39] Some ringwork castles were later converted into motte-and-bailey designs, by filling in the centre of the ringwork to produce a flat-topped motte.[40] The reasons for why this decision was taken are unclear; motte-and-bailey castles may have been felt to be more prestigious, or easier to defend; another theory is that like the terpen in Netherlands, or Vorburg and Hauptburg in Lower Rhineland, raising the height of the castle was done to create a drier site.[40]

text: History

text: Emergence of the design

text: The motte-and-bailey castle is a particularly northern European phenomenon, most numerous in Normandy and Britain, but also seen in Denmark, Germany, Southern Italy and occasionally beyond.[41] European castles first emerged in the 9th and 10th centuries, after the fall of the Carolingian Empire resulted in its territory being divided among individual lords and princes and local territories became threatened by the Magyars and the Norse.[42] Against this background, various explanations have been put forward to explain the origins and spread of the motte-and-bailey design across northern Europe; there is often a tension among the academic community between explanations that stress military and social reasons for the rise of this design.[43] One suggestion is that these castles were built particularly in order to protect against external attack – the Angevins, it is argued, began to build them to protect against the Viking raids, and the design spread to deal with the attacks along the Slav and Hungarian frontiers.[44] Another argument is that, given the links between this style of castle and the Normans, who were of Viking descent, it was in fact originally a Viking design, transported to Normandy and Angers.[45] The motte-and-bailey castle was certainly effective against assault, although as historian André Debord suggests, the historical and archaeological record of the military operation of motte-and-bailey castles remains relatively limited.[46]

text: An alternative approach focuses on the links between this form of castle and what can be termed a feudal mode of society. The spread of motte-and-bailey castles was usually closely tied to the creation of local fiefdoms and feudal landowners, and areas without this method of governance rarely built these castles.[47] Yet another theory suggests that the design emerged as a result of the pressures of space on ringworks, and that the earliest motte-and-baileys were converted ringworks.[48][nb 1] Finally, there may be a link between the local geography and the building of motte-and-bailey castles, which are usually built on low-lying areas, in many cases subject to regular flooding.[49] Regardless of the reasons behind the initial popularity of the motte-and-bailey design, however, there is widespread agreement that the castles were first widely adopted in Normandy and Angevin territory in the 10th and 11th centuries.[50]

text: Initial development, 10th and 11th centuries

text: The earliest purely documentary evidence for motte-and-bailey castles in Normandy and Angers comes from between 1020 and 1040, but a combination of documentary and archaeological evidence pushes the date for the first motte and bailey castle, at Vincy, back to 979.[3] The castles were built by the more powerful lords of Anjou in the late 10th and 11th centuries, in particular Fulk III and his son, Geoffrey II, who built a great number of them between 987 and 1060.[51] Many of these earliest castles would have appeared quite crude and rustic by later standards, belying the power and prestige of their builders.[52] William the Conqueror, as the Duke of Normandy, is believed to have adopted the motte-and-bailey design from neighbouring Anjou.[53] Duke William went on to prohibit the building of castles without his consent through the Consuetudines et Justicie, with his legal definition of castles centring on the classic motte-and-bailey features of ditching, banking and palisading.[54]

text: By the 11th century, castles were built throughout the Holy Roman Empire, which then spanned central Europe. They now typically took the form of an enclosure on a hilltop, or, on lower ground, a tall, free-standing tower (German Bergfried.)[55] The largest castles, known in German as Hohenburgen, had well-defined inner and outer courts, but no mottes.[56] The motte-and-bailey design began to spread into Alsace and the northern Alps from France during the first half of the 11th century, spreading further into Bohemia and Austria in the subsequent years.[57] This form of castle was closely associated with the colonisation of newly cultivated areas within the Empire, as new lords were granted lands by the emperor and built castles close to the local gród, or town.[58] Motte-and-bailey castle building substantially enhanced the prestige of local nobles, and it has been suggested that their early adoption was because they were a cheaper way of imitating the still more prestigious hohenburgen, but this is usually regarded as unlikely.[59] In many cases, bergfrieds were converted into motte and bailey designs by burying existing castle towers within the mounds.[59]

text: In England, William invaded from Normandy in 1066, resulting in three phases of castle building in England, around 80% of which were in the motte-and-bailey pattern.[60] The first of these was the establishment by the new king of royal castles in key strategic locations, including many towns.[61] These urban castles could make use of the existing town's walls and fortification, but typically required the demolition of local houses to make space for them.[62] This could cause extensive damage: records suggest that in Lincoln 166 houses were destroyed, with 113 in Norwich and 27 in Cambridge.[63] The second and third waves of castle building in the late-11th century were led by the major magnates and then the more junior knights on their new estates.[64] Some regional patterns in castle building can be seen – relatively few castles were built in East Anglia compared to the west of England or the Marches, for example; this was probably due to the relatively settled and prosperous nature of the east of England and reflected a shortage of unfree labour for constructing mottes.[65] In Wales, the first wave of the Norman castles were again predominantly made of wood in a mixture of motte-and-bailey and ringwork designs.[66] The Norman invaders spread up the valleys, using this form of castle to occupy their new territories.[67] After the Norman conquest of England and Wales, the building of motte-and-bailey castles in Normandy accelerated as well, resulting in a broad swath of these castles across the Norman territories, around 741 motte-and-bailey castles in England and Wales alone.[68]

text: Further expansion, 12th and 13th centuries

text: Having become well established in Normandy, Germany and Britain, motte-and-bailey castles began to be adopted elsewhere, mainly in northern Europe, during the 12th and 13th centuries. Conflict through the Low Countries encouraged castle building in a number of regions from the late 12th century to the 14th century.[69] In Flanders, the first motte and bailey castles began relatively early at the end of the 11th century.[70] The rural motte-and-bailey castles followed the traditional design, but the urban castles often lacked the traditional baileys, using parts of the town to fulfil this role instead.[71] Motte-and-bailey castles in Flanders were particularly numerous in the south along the Lower Rhine, a fiercely contested border.[72] Further along the coast in Friesland, the relatively decentralised, egalitarian society initially discouraged the building of motte and bailey castles, although terpen, raised "dwelling mounds" which lacked towers and were usually lower in height than a typical motte, were created instead.[73] By the end of the medieval period, however, the terpen gave way to hege wieren, non-residential defensive towers, often on motte-like mounds, owned by the increasingly powerful nobles and landowners.[73] On Zeeland the local lords had a high degree of independence during the 12th and 13th centuries, owing to the wider conflict for power between neighbouring Flanders and Friesland.[74] The Zeeland lords had also built terpen mounds, but these gave way to larger werven constructions–effectively mottes–which were later termed bergen.[75] Sometimes both terpen and werven are called vliedburg, or "refuge castles".[76] During the 12th and 13th centuries a number of terpen mounds were turned into werven mottes, and some new werven mottes were built from scratch.[77] Around 323 known or probable motte and bailey castles of this design are believed to have built within the borders of the modern Netherlands.[11]

text: In neighbouring Denmark, motte-and-bailey castles appeared somewhat later in the 12th and 13th centuries and in more limited numbers than elsewhere, due to the less feudal society.[78] Except for a handful of mote and bailey castles in Norway, built in the first half of the 11th century and including the royal residence in Oslo, the design did not play a role further north in Scandinavia.[79]

text: The Norman expansion into Wales slowed in the 12th century but remained an ongoing threat to the remaining native rulers. In response, the Welsh princes and lords began to build their own castles, frequently motte-and-bailey designs, usually in wood.[80] There are indications that this may have begun from 1111 onwards under Prince Cadwgan ap Bleddyn, with the first documentary evidence of a native Welsh castle being at Cymmer in 1116.[81] These timber castles, including Tomen y Rhodywdd, Tomen y Faerdre, Gaer Penrhôs, were of equivalent quality to the equivalent Norman fortifications in the area, and it can prove difficult to distinguish the builders of some sites from the archaeological evidence alone.[82]

text: Motte-and-bailey castles in Scotland emerged as a consequence of the centralising of royal authority in the 12th century.[83] David I encouraged Norman and French nobles to settle in Scotland, introducing a feudal mode of landholding and the use of castles as a way of controlling the contested lowlands.[84] The quasi-independent polity of Galloway, which had resisted the rule of David and his predecessors, was a particular focus for this colonisation.[85] The size of these Scottish castles, primarily wooden motte and bailey constructions, varied considerably, from larger designs such as the Bass of Inverurie to smaller castles like Balmaclellan.[86]

text: Motte-and-bailey castles were introduced to Ireland following the Norman invasion of Ireland that began between 1166 and 1171 under first Richard de Clare and then Henry II of England, with the occupation of southern and eastern Ireland by a number of Anglo-Norman barons.[87] The rapid Norman success depended on key economic and military advantages; their cavalry enabled Norman successes in battles, and castles enabled them to control the newly conquered territories.[88] The new lords rapidly built castles to protect their possessions; most of these were motte-and-bailey constructions, many of them strongly defended.[89] Unlike Wales, the indigenous Irish lords do not appear to have constructed their own castles in any significant number during the period.[90][nb 2] Between 350 and 450 motte-and-bailey castles are believed to remain today, although the identification of these earthwork remains can be contentious.[92]

text: A small number of motte-and-bailey castles were built outside of northern Europe. In the late-12th century, the Normans invaded southern Italy and Sicily; although they had the technology to build more modern designs, in many cases wooden motte-and-bailey castles were built instead for reasons of speed.[93] The Italians came to refer to a range of different castle types as motta, however, and there may not have been as many genuine motte-and-bailey castles in southern Italy as was once thought on the basis of the documentary evidence alone.[94] In addition, there is evidence of the Norman crusaders building a motte and bailey using sand and wood in Egypt in 1221 during the Fifth Crusade.[95]

text: Conversion and decline, 13th–14th centuries

text: Motte-and-bailey castles became a less popular design in the mid-medieval period. In France, they were not built after the start of the 12th century, and mottes ceased to be built in most of England after around 1170, although they continued to be erected in Wales and along the Marches.[96] Many motte-and-bailey castles were occupied relatively briefly; in England many had been abandoned or allowed to lapse into disrepair by the 12th century.[97] In the Low Countries and Germany, a similar transition occurred in the 13th and 14th centuries.

text: One factor was the introduction of stone into castle building. The earliest stone castles had emerged in the 10th century, with stone keeps being built on mottes along the Catalonia frontier and several, including Château de Langeais, in Angers.[98] Although wood was a more powerful defensive material than was once thought, stone became increasingly popular for military and symbolic reasons.[99] Some existing motte-and-bailey castles were converted to stone, with the keep and the gatehouse usually the first parts to be upgraded.[100] Shell keeps were built on many mottes, circular stone shells running around the top of the motte, sometime protected by a further chemise, or low protective wall, around the base. By the 14th century, a number of motte and bailey castles had been converted into powerful stone fortresses.[101]

text: Newer castle designs placed less emphasis on mottes. Square Norman keeps built in stone became popular following the first such construction in Langeais in 994. Several were built in England and Wales after the conquest; by 1216 there were around 100 in the country.[102] These massive keeps could be either erected on top of settled, well established mottes, or could have mottes built around them – so-called "buried" keeps.[103] The ability of mottes, especially newly built mottes, to support the heavier stone structures, was limited, and many needed to be built on fresh ground.[104] Concentric castles, relying on several lines of baileys and defensive walls, made increasingly little use of keeps or mottes at all.[105]

text: Across Europe, motte-and-bailey construction came to an end. At the end of the 12th century the Welsh rulers began to build castles in stone, primarily in the principality of North Wales and usually along the higher peaks where mottes were unnecessary.[81] In Flanders, decline came in the 13th century as feudal society changed.[70] In the Netherlands, cheap brick started to be used in castles from the 13th century onwards in place of earthworks, and many mottes were levelled, to help develop the surrounding, low-lying fields; these "levelled mottes" are a particularly Dutch phenomenon.[106] In Denmark, motte and baileys gave way in the 14th century to a castrum-curia model, where the castle was built with a fortified bailey and a fortified mound, somewhat smaller than the typical motte.[107] By the 12th century, the castles in Western Germany began to thin in number, due to changes in land ownership, and various mottes were abandoned.[108] In Germany and Denmark, motte-and-bailey castles also provided the model for the later wasserburg, or "water castle", a stronghold and bailey construction surrounded by water, and widely built in the late medieval period.[109]

text: Today

text: In England, motte-and-bailey earthworks were put to various uses over later years; in some cases, mottes were turned into garden features in the 18th century, or reused as military defences during the Second World War.[110] Today, almost no mottes of motte-and-bailey castles remain in regular use in Europe, with one of the few exceptions being that at Windsor Castle, converted for the storage of royal documents.[111] The landscape of northern Europe remains scattered with their earthworks, and many form popular tourist attractions as part of the European heritage industry.


document_title: 1996 FIFA World Player of the Year

question_text: who was named the best footballer in the world in 1996

text: 1996 FIFA World Player of the Year

text:
1996 FIFA World Player of the year

← 1995
1997 →

text: The 1996 FIFA World Player of the Year award was won by Ronaldo, the youngest player to ever win the award, aged 20.

text: Results[edit]

text:
Name
Club
Country
Total

1
Ronaldo
 PSV
 Barcelona
 Brazil
329

2
George Weah
 Milan
 Liberia
140

3
Alan Shearer
 Blackburn Rovers
 Newcastle United
 England
123

4
Matthias Sammer
 Borussia Dortmund
 Germany
109

5
Jürgen Klinsmann
 Bayern Munich
 Germany
54

6
Nwankwo Kanu
 Ajax
 Inter Milan
 Nigeria
32

7
Paolo Maldini
 Milan
 Italy
25

8
Davor Šuker
 Sevilla
 Real Madrid
 Croatia
24

9
Gabriel Batistuta
 Fiorentina
 Argentina
19

10
Romário
 Flamengo
 Valencia
 Brazil
13


document_title: Got You (Where I Want You)

question_text: who sings got you where i want you

question_tokens: who sings got you where i want you

text: Got You (Where I Want You)

text:
"Got You (Where I Want You)"

Single by The Flys

from the album Holiday Man / Disturbing Behavior soundtrack

B-side
"Damn"
"Gods of Basketball (Colossal Mix)"

Released
1998

Length
4:01

Label
Trauma

Songwriter(s)
Adam Paskowitz

Producer(s)
Chris Gross

The Flys singles chronology

"Got You (Where I Want You)"
(1998)
"She's So Huge"
(1999)

"Got You (Where I Want You)"
(1998)
"She's So Huge"
(1999)

text: "Got You (Where I Want You)" is the first single released from The Flys' second studio album, Holiday Man, as well as from the soundtrack to the 1998 film Disturbing Behavior. It reached a peak of No. 5 on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart on December 19, 1998. It is featured in the 2008 film Sex Drive, the song can be heard when Ian, played by Josh Zuckerman, is at work at the mall and staring at girls around him.

text: Chart History[edit]

text:
Chart
Peak position

Canadian Singles Chart[1]
13

US Alternative Songs (Billboard)[2]
5

US Adult Top 40 (Billboard)[3]
36