document_title: Rainforest

question_text: what type of animals are in the tropical rain forest

text: Rainforest

text: Tropical

text: Tropical rainforests are characterized by a warm and wet climate with no substantial dry season: typically found within 10 degrees north and south of the equator. Mean monthly temperatures exceed 18 °C (64 °F) during all months of the year.[5] Average annual rainfall is no less than 168 cm (66 in) and can exceed 1,000 cm (390 in) although it typically lies between 175 cm (69 in) and 200 cm (79 in).[6]

text: Many of the world's tropical forests are associated with the location of the monsoon trough, also known as the intertropical convergence zone.[7] The broader category of tropical moist forests are located in the equatorial zone between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn. Tropical rainforests exist in Southeast Asia (from Myanmar (Burma) to the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and Sri Lanka; also in Sub-Saharan Africa from the Cameroon to the Congo (Congo Rainforest), South America (e.g. the Amazon rainforest), Central America (e.g. Bosawás, the southern Yucatán Peninsula-El Peten-Belize-Calakmul), Australia, and on Pacific Islands (such as Hawaiʻi). Tropical forests have been called the "Earth's lungs", although it is now known that rainforests contribute little net oxygen addition to the atmosphere through photosynthesis.[8][9]

text: Temperate

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Tropical forests cover a large part of the globe, but temperate rainforests only occur in few regions around the world. Temperate rainforests are rainforests in temperate regions. They occur in North America (in the Pacific Northwest in Alaska, British Columbia, Washington, Oregon and California), in Europe (parts of the British Isles such as the coastal areas of Ireland and Scotland, southern Norway, parts of the western Balkans along the Adriatic coast, as well as in Galicia and coastal areas of the eastern Black Sea, including Georgia and coastal Turkey), in East Asia (in southern China, Highlands of Taiwan, much of Japan and Korea, and on Sakhalin Island and the adjacent Russian Far East coast), in South America (southern Chile) and also in Australia and New Zealand.[10]

text: Layers

text: A tropical rainforest typically has a number of layers, each with different plants and animals adapted for life in that particular area. Examples include the emergent, canopy, understory and forest floor layers.

text: Emergent layer

text: The emergent layer contains a small number of very large trees called emergents, which grow above the general canopy, reaching heights of 45–55 m, although on occasion a few species will grow to 70–80 m tall.[11][12] They need to be able to withstand the hot temperatures and strong winds that occur above the canopy in some areas. Eagles, butterflies, bats and certain monkeys inhabit this layer.

text: Canopy layer

text: The canopy layer contains the majority of the largest trees, typically 30 metres (98 ft) to 45 metres (148 ft) tall. The densest areas of biodiversity are found in the forest canopy, a more or less continuous cover of foliage formed by adjacent treetops. The canopy, by some estimates, is home to 50 percent of all plant species. Epiphytic plants attach to trunks and branches, and obtain water and minerals from rain and debris that collects on the supporting plants. The fauna is similar to that found in the emergent layer, but more diverse. A quarter of all insect species are believed to exist in the rainforest canopy. Scientists have long suspected the richness of the canopy as a habitat, but have only recently developed practical methods of exploring it. As long ago as 1917, naturalist William Beebe declared that "another continent of life remains to be discovered, not upon the Earth, but one to two hundred feet above it, extending over thousands of square miles." True exploration of this habitat only began in the 1980s, when scientists developed methods to reach the canopy, such as firing ropes into the trees using crossbows. Exploration of the canopy is still in its infancy, but other methods include the use of balloons and airships to float above the highest branches and the building of cranes and walkways planted on the forest floor. The science of accessing tropical forest canopy using airships or similar aerial platforms is called dendronautics.[13]

text: Understory layer

text: The understory or understorey layer lies between the canopy and the forest floor. It is home to a number of birds, snakes and lizards, as well as predators such as jaguars, boa constrictors and leopards. The leaves are much larger at this level and insect life is abundant. Many seedlings that will grow to the canopy level are present in the understory. Only about 5% of the sunlight shining on the rainforest canopy reaches the understory. This layer can be called a shrub layer, although the shrub layer may also be considered a separate layer.

text: Forest floor

text: The forest floor, the bottom-most layer, receives only 2% of the sunlight. Only plants adapted to low light can grow in this region. Away from riverbanks, swamps and clearings, where dense undergrowth is found, the forest floor is relatively clear of vegetation because of the low sunlight penetration. It also contains decaying plant and animal matter, which disappears quickly, because the warm, humid conditions promote rapid decay. Many forms of fungi growing here help decay the animal and plant waste.

text: Flora and fauna

text: More than half of the world's species of plants and animals are found in the rainforest.[14] Rainforests support a very broad array of fauna, including mammals, reptiles, birds and invertebrates. Mammals may include primates, felids and other families. Reptiles include snakes, turtles, chameleons and other families; while birds include such families as vangidae and Cuculidae. Dozens of families of invertebrates are found in rainforests. Fungi are also very common in rainforest areas as they can feed on the decomposing remains of plants and animals. Many rainforest species are rapidly disappearing due to deforestation, habitat loss and pollution of the atmosphere.[15]

text: Soils

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (December 2008)

text: Despite the growth of vegetation in a tropical rainforest, soil quality is often quite poor. Rapid bacterial decay prevents the accumulation of humus. The concentration of iron and aluminium oxides by the laterization process gives the oxisols a bright red colour and sometimes produces mineral deposits such as bauxite. Most trees have roots near the surface, because there are insufficient nutrients below the surface; most of the trees' minerals come from the top layer of decomposing leaves and animals. On younger substrates, especially of volcanic origin, tropical soils may be quite fertile. If rainforest trees are cleared, rain can accumulate on the exposed soil surfaces, creating run-off and beginning a process of soil erosion. Eventually streams and rivers form and flooding becomes possible.

text: Effect on global climate

text: A natural rainforest emits and absorbs vast quantities of carbon dioxide. On a global scale, long-term fluxes are approximately in balance, so that an undisturbed rainforest would have a small net impact on atmospheric carbon dioxide levels,[16] though they may have other climatic effects (on cloud formation, for example, by recycling water vapour). No rainforest today can be considered to be undisturbed.[17] Human-induced deforestation plays a significant role in causing rainforests to release carbon dioxide,[18][19] as do other factors, whether human-induced or natural, which result in tree death, such as burning and drought.[20] Some climate models operating with interactive vegetation predict a large loss of Amazonian rainforest around 2050 due to drought, forest dieback and the subsequent release of more carbon dioxide.[21] Five million years from now, the Amazon rainforest may long since have dried and transformed itself into savannah, killing itself in the progress (changes such as this may happen even if all human deforestation activity ceases overnight).[22] The descendants of our known animals may adapt to the dry savannah of the former Amazonian rainforest and thrive in the new, warmer temperatures.[22]

text: Human uses

text: Tropical rainforests provide timber as well as animal products such as meat and hides. Rainforests also have value as tourism destinations and for the ecosystem services provided. Many foods originally came from tropical forests, and are still mostly grown on plantations in regions that were formerly primary forest.[23] Also, plant-derived medicines are commonly used for fever, fungal infections, burns, gastrointestinal problems, pain, respiratory problems, and wound treatment.[24]

text: Native peoples

text: On January 18, 2007, FUNAI reported also that it had confirmed the presence of 67 different uncontacted tribes in Brazil, up from 40 in 2005. With this addition, Brazil has now overtaken the island of New Guinea as the country having the largest number of uncontacted tribes.[25] The province of Irian Jaya or West Papua in the island of New Guinea is home to an estimated 44 uncontacted tribal groups.[26] The tribes are in danger because of the deforestation, especially in Brazil.

text: Central African rainforest is home of the Mbuti pygmies, one of the hunter-gatherer peoples living in equatorial rainforests characterised by their short height (below one and a half metres, or 59 inches, on average). They were the subject of a study by Colin Turnbull, The Forest People, in 1962.[27] Pygmies who live in Southeast Asia are, amongst others, referred to as “Negrito”.

text: Deforestation

text: Tropical and temperate rainforests have been subjected to heavy logging and agricultural clearance throughout the 20th century and the area covered by rainforests around the world is shrinking.[28] Biologists have estimated that large numbers of species are being driven to extinction (possibly more than 50,000 a year; at that rate, says E. O. Wilson of Harvard University, a quarter or more of all species on Earth could be exterminated within 50 years)[29] due to the removal of habitat with destruction of the rainforests.

text: Another factor causing the loss of rainforest is expanding urban areas. Littoral rainforest growing along coastal areas of eastern Australia is now rare due to ribbon development to accommodate the demand for seachange lifestyles.[30]

text: Forests are being destroyed at a rapid pace.[31][32][33] Almost 90% of West Africa's rainforest has been destroyed.[34] Since the arrival of humans, Madagascar has lost two thirds of its original rainforest.[35] At present rates, tropical rainforests in Indonesia would be logged out in 10 years and Papua New Guinea in 13 to 16 years.[36] According to Rainforest Rescue, an important reason for the increasing deforestation rate, especially in Indonesia, is the expansion of oil palm plantations to meet growing demand for cheap vegetable fats and biofuels. In Indonesia, palm oil is already cultivated on nine million hectares and, together with Malaysia, the island nation produces about 85 percent of the world’s palm oil.[37][unreliable source?]

text: Several countries,[38] notably Brazil, have declared their deforestation a national emergency.[39] Amazon deforestation jumped by 69% in 2008 compared to 2007's twelve months, according to official government data.[40] Deforestation could wipe out or severely damage nearly 60% of the Amazon Rainforest by 2030, says a 2007 report from WWF.[41]

text: However, a January 30, 2009 New York Times article stated, "By one estimate, for every acre of rain forest cut down each year, more than 50 acres of new forest are growing in the tropics..." The new forest includes secondary forest on former farmland and so-called degraded forest.[42]


document_title: Fido (dog)

question_text: where does the dog name fido come from

question_tokens: where does the dog name fido come from

root

text: Fido (dog)

text: Early life[edit]

text: Fido probably began life sometime in the autumn of 1941 as an independent street dog in Luco di Mugello, a small town in the municipality of Borgo San Lorenzo, in the Tuscan Province of Florence, Italy. One night in November 1941, a brick kiln worker in Borgo San Lorenzo named Carlo Soriani, on his way home from the bus stop, found the dog lying injured in a roadside ditch. Not knowing who the dog belonged to, Soriani took him home and nursed him back to health. Soriani and his wife decided to adopt the dog, naming him Fido ("faithful", from Latin fidus).

tag: p

text: Adulthood[edit]

text: After Fido recovered, he followed Soriani to the bus stop in the central square of Luco di Mugello and watched him board the bus for his job. When the bus returned in the evening, Fido found and greeted Soriani with obvious great joy and followed him home again. This pattern repeated every workday for two years: Fido would stay in the square, avoiding all others, waiting and sniffing the air until excitedly greeting Soriani and enthusiastically following him home.

text: Vigil[edit]

text: This was during the Second World War, and on December 30, 1943, Borgo San Lorenzo was subjected to a violent allied bombardment: many factories were hit, and many workers, including Soriani, perished. That evening, Fido showed up as usual at the bus stop, but did not see his beloved master disembark. Fido later returned home, but for fourteen years thereafter (more than 5,000 times)[2] until the day of his death, he went daily to the stop, watching and sniffing the air, waiting in vain for Soriani to get off the bus.

text: Media interest in Fido grew during his lifetime. Italian magazines Gente and Grand Hotel published the story of the dog, which also appeared in several newsreels of the Istituto Luce.[3][4][5] Many readers were struck by the extraordinary faithfulness of Fido, including the mayor of Borgo San Lorenzo, who, on November 9, 1957, awarded him a gold medal in the presence of many citizens including Soriani's moved widow. Time magazine wrote an article about Fido in April 1957.[1]

text: Death[edit]

text: Fido died still waiting for his master on June 9, 1958. The news of his death was announced to the public by the newspaper on a four-column front-page story in La Nazione.[6] On 22 June, La Domenica del Corriere commemorated Fido with a poignant cover story. The cover painting by Walter Molino shows Fido dying on the roadside, with the bus waiting in the background. Fido was buried outside the cemetery of Luco di Mugello beside his master, Carlo Soriani.

text: Memorials[edit]

text: At the end of 1957, when Fido was still alive, the Comune of Borgo San Lorenzo commissioned the sculptor Salvatore Cipolla to create a monument of the dog as a testimony of that exemplary story of love and fidelity. The work, entitled "Monument to the dog Fido", was placed in Piazza Dante in Borgo San Lorenzo, next to the municipal palace. Under the statue depicting the dog is the dedication: A FIDO, ESEMPIO DI FEDELTÀ (TO FIDO, EXAMPLE OF LOYALTY).[7] The monument was inaugurated by the mayor of Borgo San Lorenzo, in presence of Fido and Soriani's widow.[8] Originally, the statue was realized in majolica, but a few months after the inauguration some vandals destroyed it. Consequently, the mayor of Borgo San Lorenzo commissioned to Salvatore Cipolla a new statue, this time in bronze, which replaced the first one and that is still today in Piazza Dante.[9]

text: Similar stories[edit]

text: Fido is not the only dog to have become famous for public acts of extreme dedication to an individual person. Other dogs with very similar stories have captured the collective imagination, including the Japanese dog Hachikō, the American Shep, and the Scottish Greyfriars Bobby.


document_title: Pallet

question_text: how wide are the slats on a pallet

question_tokens: how wide are the slats on a pallet

text: Pallet

text: Overview[edit]

text: Containerization for transport has spurred the use of pallets because shipping containers have the smooth, level surfaces needed for easy pallet movement. Many pallets can handle a load of 1,000 kg (2,205 lb). Today, over half a billion pallets are made each year and about two billion pallets are in use across the United States alone.

text: Pallets make it easier to move heavy stacks. Loads with pallets under them can be hauled by forklift trucks of different sizes, or even by hand-pumped and hand-drawn pallet jacks. Movement is easy on a wide, strong, flat floor: concrete is excellent. The greatest investment needed for economical pallet use is in the construction of commercial or industrial buildings. Passage through doors and buildings must be possible. To help this issue, some later pallet standards (the europallet and the U.S. Military 35 in × 45.5 in or 889 mm × 1,156 mm) are designed to pass through standard doorways.

text: Organizations using standard pallets for loading and unloading can have much lower costs for handling and storage, with faster material movement than businesses that do not.  The exceptions are establishments that move small items such as jewelry or large items such as cars.  But even they can be improved.  For instance, the distributors of costume jewelry normally use pallets in their warehouses and car manufacturers use pallets to move components and spare parts.

text: The lack of a single international standard for pallets causes substantial continuing expense in international trade.  A single standard is difficult because of the wide variety of needs a standard pallet would have to satisfy: passing doorways, fitting in standard containers, and bringing low labor costs.  For example, organizations already handling large pallets often see no reason to pay the higher handling cost of using smaller pallets that can fit through doors.

text: Due to cost and a need to focus on core business, pallet pooling becomes more and more common. Some pallet suppliers supply users with reusable pallets, sometimes with integral tracking devices. A pallet management company can help supply, clean, repair, and reuse pallets.

text: Heavy duty pallets are a form of reusable packaging and are designed to be used multiple times.  Light weight pallets are designed for a single use.   In the UK, government legislation relating to the Waste Framework Directive requires the reuse of packaging items above recycling and disposal.

text: Standardization and regulation[edit]

text: Dimensions[edit]

text: Wooden pallets typically consist of three or four stringers that support several deckboards, on top of which goods are placed.[1] In a pallet measurement, the first number is the stringer length and the second is the deckboard length. Square or nearly square pallets help a load resist tipping.

text: Two-way pallets are designed to be lifted by the deckboards. The standard 48x40 North American pallet, or GMA pallet, has stringers of 48 inches and deckboards of 40 inches, and was standardized by the Grocery Manufacturers Association.[2] A standard wooden pallet (48 in × 40 in × 6 in or 122 cm × 102 cm × 15 cm) with a static load bearing capacity of 3 short tons (2.7 long tons; 2.7 t) and a 1-short-ton (0.89-long-ton; 0.91 t) dynamic capacity, will weigh approximately 33 to 48 lb (15 to 22 kg) Lightweight plastic pallets can weigh as little as 3 to 15 pounds (1.4 to 6.8 kg), while heavier models may weight up to 30 pounds (14 kg).[3] Standard GMA pallets can hold up to 4,600 pounds (2,100 kg). GMA pallets typically weighs 37 pounds (17 kg), and are 6 1⁄2 inches (170 mm) tall. Their deck boards measure 3 1⁄4 inches (83 mm) wide and are 5⁄16 inch (7.9 mm) thick each.[4] Other dimensions of pallets have different weight capacities.[5][6]

text: Heavy duty IPPC two-way entry wooden pallets from Germany (DE) are approximately 44 inches (1,118 mm) wide by 48 inches (1,219 mm) long, have three wood stringers that are a nominal 4 inches (102 mm) high by 3 inches (76 mm) wide timber, and weigh about 80 pounds (36 kg). Their deck is fully covered by 30 mm (1.18 in) plywood, and has a heavy metal "Z" clip at the middle edge of each side.

text: Four-way pallets, or pallets for heavy loads (or general-purpose systems that might have heavy loads) are best lifted by their more rigid stringers. These pallets are usually heavier, bigger and more durable than two-way pallets.

text: Pallet users want pallets to easily pass through buildings, to stack and fit in racks, to be accessible to forklifts and pallet jacks and to function in automated warehouses.  To avoid shipping air, pallets should also pack tightly inside intermodal containers and vans.

text: No universally accepted standards for pallet dimensions exist.  Companies and organizations utilize hundreds of different pallet sizes around the globe.[7]  While no single dimensional standard governs pallet production, a few different sizes are widely used.

text: ISO pallets[edit]

text: The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) sanctions six pallet dimensions,[8] detailed in ISO Standard 6780: Flat pallets for intercontinental materials handling—Principal dimensions and tolerances:[9]

text:
Dimensions  (W × L) millimetres

Dimensions  (W × L) inches

Wasted floor, ISO container

Region most used in

1016 × 1219

40.00 × 48.00

3.7% (20 pallets in 40 ft ISO)

North America

1000 × 1200

39.37 × 47.24

6.7%

Europe, Asia; similar to 40" × 48".

1165 × 1165

45.9 × 45.9

8.1%

Australia

1067 × 1067

42.00 × 42.00

11.5%

North America, Europe, Asia

1100 × 1100

43.30 × 43.30

14%

Asia

800 × 1200

31.50 × 47.24

15.2%

Europe; fits many doorways

tag: table

text: North American pallets[edit]

text: Of the top pallets used in North America, the most commonly used by far is the Grocery Manufacturers Association (GMA) pallet, which accounts for 30% of all new wood pallets produced in the United States.[10] The ISO also recognizes the GMA pallet footprint as one of its six standard sizes.

text:
Dimensions, mm (W × L)

Dimensions, in (W × L)

Production Rank

Industries Using

1016 × 1219

40 × 48

1

Grocery, many others

1067 ×1067

42 × 42

2

Telecommunications, Paint

1219 × 1219

48 × 48

3

Drums

1219 × 1016[further explanation needed]

48 × 40

4

Military,[11] Cement

1219 × 1067

48 × 42

5

Chemical, Beverage

1016 × 1016

40 × 40

6

Dairy

1219 × 1143

48 × 45

7

Automotive

1118 × 1118

44 × 44

8

Drums, Chemical

914 × 914

36 × 36

9

Beverage

1219 × 914

48 × 36

10

Beverage, Shingles, Packaged Paper

889 × 1156

35 × 45.5

Unknown

Military 1⁄2 ISO container, fits 36" standard doors[12]

1219 × 508

48 × 20

Unknown

Retail

text: European pallets[edit]

text:
EURO pallet type

Dimensions (W × L)

ISO pallet alternative

EUR, EUR 1

800 mm × 1,200 mm × 145 mm

31.50 in × 47.24 in × 5.71 in

ISO1, same size as EUR. The pallet weight is between 20 and 25 kg. Weight of a load: 2490 kg.

EUR 2

1,200 mm × 1,000 mm × 144 mm

47.24 in × 39.37 in × 5.67 in

ISO2. The pallet weight is 33 kg. Weight of a load: 1470 kg.

EUR 3

1,000 mm × 1,200 mm × 144 mm

39.37 in × 47.24 in × 5.67 in

The pallet weight is 29 kg. Weight of a load of 1920 kg.

EUR 6

800 mm × 600 mm × 144 mm

31.50 in × 23.62 in × 5.67 in

ISO0, half the size of EUR. The pallet weight is 9.5 kg. Weight of the safe load: 500 kg.

600 mm × 400 mm

23.62 in × 15.75 in

quarter the size of EUR

400 mm × 300 mm

15.75 in × 11.81 in

one-eighth the size of EUR

text: Australian standard pallets[edit]

text: The Australian standard pallet is a pallet size commonly found in Australia but found rarely elsewhere. It is a square pallet originally made of hardwood 1,165 mm × 1,165 mm (45.87 in × 45.87 in) in size which fits perfectly in the RACE container of the Australian Railway. They are ill-suited for the standard 20 feet (6.1 m) and 40 feet (12 m) ISO shipping containers used around the globe.[1] Australian standard pallets are usually manufactured in hardwood, but 1165 × 1165 mm pallets can also be manufactured using lighter timber suitable for use as disposable pallets using 16 millimetre boards. Extensively used in storage and warehousing, they are popular pallets for racking, with the right shape and size to be removed from transport and directly onto warehouse racking for storage.

text: The Australian Standard Pallet dates back to World War II, while ISO containers date to the late 1950s.  Although the pallet's dimensions pre-date the ISO containers, it requires less dunnage, is square, and leaves less wasted space than other pallets, including the GMA pallet. In 2010, Australia adopted the globally accepted ISPM 15 wood packaging material regulations (before this time it was hardwood and more expensive).[13]

text: Standard-setting organizations[edit]

text: A number of different organizations and associations around the world work towards establishing and promulgating standards for pallets.  Some strive to develop universal standards for pallet dimensions, types of material used in construction, performance standards, and testing procedures.  Other organizations choose to focus on pallet standards for a specific industry (such as groceries) or type of material (such as wood).

text: ISO Technical Committee 51: Pallets for unit load method of materials handling[edit]

text: ISO TC 51 states its scope of work entailing the "standardization of pallets in general use in the form of platforms or trays on which goods may be packed to form unit loads for handling by mechanical devices".[14]  The Technical Committee works in conjunction with other Technical Committees focused on transportation infrastructure to develop interrelated standards.  TC 51 is responsible for developing ISO Standard 6780: Flat pallets for intercontinental materials handling—Principal dimensions and tolerances as well as sixteen other standards related to pallet construction and testing.

text: National Wood Pallet and Container Association[edit]

text: The National Wood Pallet and Container Association (NWPCA) is a trade organization based in the United States representing the interests of wood pallet and container manufacturers.[15]

text: U.S. DOD, Dept. of Navy, Naval Sea Systems Command[edit]

text: This organization maintains MIL-STD-1660, the standard description of palletized unit loads for the U.S. Military and some allies.[16]

text: DOD Unit loads generally use 40 in × 48 in (1,016 mm × 1,219 mm) pallets, are less than 4,000 lb (1,814 kg), weatherproof, and stack 16 ft (4.88 m) high.  They often use steel pallets, steel straps with notched seals, outdoor plywood, and plastic film.  The standard describes tests for stacking, transport, sling, forklift and pallet jack, impact, drop tests, tip, water-retention, and disassembly.

text: European Committee for Standardization (Comité Européen de Normalisation)[edit]

text: In addition to the other standards it publishes, the European Committee for Standardization, also known as the Comité Européen de Normalisation (CEN), produces standards for pallets.  While the standards are voluntary in nature, many companies and organizations involved in transportation have adopted them.  The major standard for pallets produced by CEN is ICS: 55.180.20 General purpose pallets[17]

text: Phytosanitary compliance[edit]

text: Due to the International Plant Protection Convention (abbreviated IPPC), most pallets shipped across national borders must be made of materials that are incapable of being a carrier of invasive species of insects and plant diseases.  The standards for these pallets are specified in ISPM 15.

text: Pallets made of raw, untreated wood are not compliant with ISPM 15.  To be compliant the pallets (or other wood packaging material) must meet debarked standards,[18] and must be treated by either of the following means under the supervision of an approved agency:

text:
Heat treatment The wood must be heated to achieve a minimum core temperature of 56 °C (132.8 °F) for at least 30 minutes.  Pallets treated via this method bear the initials HT near the IPPC logo.
Chemical fumigation The wood must be fumigated with methyl bromide. Pallets treated via this method bear the initials MB near the IPPC logo. From 19 March 2010 the use of methyl bromide as a treatment according to ISPM15[19] has now been banned within all EU member states. This is due to causing potential harm to the Earth's stratospheric ozone layer.

tag: ul

text: Treated wood pallets must be stamped on two opposite sides indicating either HT for heat treated or MB for methyl bromide treatment.

text: Pallets made of non-wood materials such as steel, aluminum, plastic, or engineered wood products, such as plywood, oriented strand board, or corrugated fiberboard do not need IPPC approval, and are considered to be exempt from ISPM 15 regulations.

text: Pallet construction[edit]

text: Types[edit]

text: Although pallets come in all manner of sizes and configurations, all pallets fall into two very broad categories: "stringer" pallets and "block" pallets.  Various software packages exist to assist the pallet maker in designing an appropriate pallet for a specific load, and to evaluate wood options to reduce costs.

text: Stringer pallet[edit]

text: Stringer pallets use a frame of three or more parallel pieces of timber (called stringers).  The top deckboards are then affixed to the stringers to create the pallet structure.  Stringer pallets can have a notch cut into them allowing "four-way" entry. Forklifts can lift a stringer pallet from all four directions, though lifting by the stringers is more secure.[20]

text: Block pallet[edit]

text: Block pallets  are typically stronger than stringer pallets. Block pallets utilize both parallel and perpendicular stringers to better facilitate efficient handling. A block pallet is also known as a "four-way" pallet, since a pallet-jack may be used from any side to move it.

text: Flush pallet[edit]

text: Flush pallets are pallets with deck boards that are flush with the stringers and stringer boards along the ends and sides of the pallet. [21]

text: Perimeter base pallet[edit]

text: All stringer and some block pallets have "unidirectional bases," i.e. bottom boards oriented in one direction.  While automated handling equipment can be designed for this, often it can operate faster and more effectively if the bottom edges of a pallet have bottom boards oriented in both directions.  For example, it may not need to turn a pallet to rack it, and operation is less sensitive to pallet orientation.

text: Quality improvements[edit]

text: The least expensive way to improve a pallet is usually to specify better nails. With non-wood pallets, a controlled coefficient of friction is often helpful to prevent the pallet from slipping from forks and racks. Stiffer pallets are more durable, and are handled more easily by automated equipment. If a pallet does not need to be lifted from all four sides, two-way pallets with unnotched stringers may be used, with the additional benefits of added rigidity and strength. Specifying tolerances on flatness and water content may help the supplier meet target requirements. Inspection of pallets, whether in person or by a third-party (such as "SPEQ" inspected pallets) offer additional assurance of quality.

text: Materials[edit]

text: The cheapest pallets are made of softwood and are often considered expendable, to be discarded as trash along with other wrapping elements, at the end of the trip. These pallets are simple stringer pallets, and liftable from two sides.

text: Slightly more complex hardwood block pallets, plastic pallets and metal pallets can be lifted from all four sides.  These costlier pallets usually require a deposit and are returned to the sender or resold as used.  Many "four way" pallets are color-coded according to the loads they can bear, and other attributes. Wood pallets can pose serious bio-hazard risks as they are susceptible to bacterial and chemical contamination, such as E. coli problems in food and produce transportation,[22] and even insect infestation, and thus the need for ISPM 15.

text: Wooden pallet construction specifications can depend on the pallet's intended use: general, FDA, storage, chemical, export; the expected load weight; type of wood desired: recycled, hard, soft, kiln dried or combo (new & recycle); and even the type of fasteners desired to hold the pallet together: staples or nails.

text: Paper pallets, also referred to as "ecopallets", are often used for light loads, but engineered paper pallets are increasingly used for loads that compare with wood. Paper pallets are also used where recycling and easy disposal is important.  New designs of ecopallets have been made from just two flat pieces of corrugated board (no glue/staples) and weigh just 4.5 kg (9.9 lb), offering dramatic freight savings.  Ecopallets are also ISPM 15 exempt, negating fumigation and barrier "slip" sheets. They are cleaner, safer, and provide a cost-saving eco-friendly alternative to other pallet materials. Some engineered Corrugated pallets offer a significant reduced height, providing substantial freight cost reduction. Low profile hand pallet trucks allow picking up pallets as low as 25 mm.

text: Steel pallets are strong and are used for heavy loads, high-stacking loads, long term dry storage, and loads moved by abusive logistic systems. They are often used for military ammunition.[23] Metal pallets make up less than 1% of the market. Materials include carbon steel, stainless steel, and aluminum. Of these, carbon steel offers excellent durability at the lowest cost. Stainless steel doesn’t require a paint coating, and is preferred for such applications as clean room environments. Carbon steel units are expensive compared to wood, and stainless and aluminum cost about 2–3 times that of carbon steel. Long term costs, however, can be lower than wood. General advantages of metal pallets are high strength and stiffness, excellent durability, bug free, no splinters, sanitary, and recyclable. Disadvantages include a higher initial price, significant weight, low friction, and susceptibility to rusting (carbon steel). Metal is primarily used in captive or closed loop environments where durability and product protection are key performance requirements. Metal units today are increasingly price competitive and lighter in weight. Primary industries that use metal pallets include automotive, pharmaceutical, lawn tractors, motorcycles, and tires.[24]

text: Aluminum pallets are stronger than wood or plastic, lighter than steel, and resist weather, rotting, plastic creep and corrosion.  They are sometimes used for air-freight, long-term outdoor or at-sea storage, or military transport.

text: Plastic[edit]

text: Plastic pallets are often made of new HDPE or recycled PET (drink bottles). They are usually extremely durable, lasting for a hundred trips or more,[25] and resist weathering, rot, chemicals and corrosion.  The benefits of plastic pallets over wood pallets include the ability to be easily sanitized, resistance to odor, fire retardancy, longer service life span, durability and better product protection, non-splintering, and lighter weight, thus saving on transportation and labor costs and making them safer and more environmentally friendly.They often stack.  Plastic pallets are exempt by inspection for biosafety concerns, and easily sanitize for international shipping.  HDPE is impervious to most acids and toxic chemicals clean from them more easily.  Some plastic pallets can collapse from plastic creep if used to store heavy loads for long periods.  Plastic pallets cannot easily be repaired, and can be ten times as expensive as hardwood,[25] so they are often used by logistics service providers who can profit from their durability and stackability.  The large supply chains have increased the use of plastic pallets as many organisations seek to reduce costs through waste, transport and health & safety.  Pallets and dollies can be combined (for example the Pally)[26] ,eliminating pallet instability and the need for additional lifting equipment along with creating valuable space in busy operating environments. They also deliver significant time and cost savings by reducing supply chain handling. Plastics' reusability has contributed to an increase in usage of plastic pallets.[27]

text: Plastic pallets are produced and used widely in the U.S. and Europe, spurred by the adoption of the ISPM 15. A full comparison of wood vs plastic can be made by a life cycle analysis.[28] Plastic pallets can cost 10 times as much as hardwood pallets[25] and even more expensive compared to cheap expendable softwood pallets.  RFID chips can be molded into the pallets to monitor locations and track inventory.[29]

text: Manufacture[edit]

text: There are six main types of plastic processes that are used to manufacture pallets:[30]

text:
High pressure injection molding
Structural foam molding
Thermoforming
Compression molding
Rotational molding
Profile extrusion

text: History[edit]

text: Skids date back to Ancient Egypt and Ancient Mesopotamia, at least as far back as the 1st millennium B.C.[31]

text: The development of the forklift and the needs of World War II logistics operations led to substantial use of pallets.[32]

text: References to the early modern pallets types are slim with a string of patents showing parts of the development. The earliest may be a U.S. patent on a skid from 1924 describing Howard T. Hallowell's "Lift Truck Platform".[33] In the late 1930s, pallets became more commonplace with the newer forklift types. George Raymond filed for a patent in 1938 (granted US Patent 2178646 in 1939 [34]) for a pallet designed to complement a new pallet jack design; the essential features of both are still in common use today. A 1939 patent from Carl Clark shows type of pallet with steel stringers. War time developments were often just patented after the war, so there is a patent from Robert Braun on a four-way pallet in 1945, and a patent from Norman Cahners (a U.S. Navy Supply Officer) shows a disposable pallet type in 1949. The complete construction principle of a modern four-way pallet is described by Darling Graeme in 1949.[35]

text: Alternative uses[edit]

text: Old and discarded wooden pallets can be used in pallet crafts and various furniture pieces.[36]

text: Discarded wooden pallets should not be used for firewood or crafts unless it has been determined that the wood in these pallets has not been treated with wood preservatives, fungicides and/or pesticides.  Various pyrethrins and propiconazole are common treatments for wooden pallets.  In addition, imported palletized goods are routinely fumigated with highly toxic pesticides.  During use, harmful materials or chemicals also may spill on the pallet wood and be absorbed.

text: Craft publications have advised readers to use pallets to build a skateboarding obstacle called a manual pad, barricades during amateur paintball games, or other sport-related items.  Other publications have suggested using pallet wood for small animal cages or fences. Pallet wood has been recycled for use as furniture wood by at least one company.

text: The acoustic guitar maker Taylor Guitars once produced a high quality "pallet guitar"[37] made from pallet wood, in order to demonstrate the importance of construction technique versus expensive exotic woods.

text: I-Beam Design, an architecture and interior design firm based in New York, NY won an award in a 1999 competition sponsored by Architecture for Humanity for their submission of “The Pallet House”, a design solution to house the returning refugees of Kosovo. Full-scale prototypes of The Pallet House were featured in the "Casa per Tutti" Exhibit at the Milan Triennale and the Earth Awards in HRH Prince Charles’ Royal Gardens as part of The Prince’s Charities Foundation’s Conference on a Sustainable Future organized in collaboration with IBM and The Financial Times. The Pallet House is an affordable transitional home that can become permanent over time. It can be used as refugee housing or as affordable housing as well. Due to the nature of the Pallet module, the wall cavity can be insulated with a variety of materials that are accessible to the user.

text: The two Austrian students Andreas Claus Schnetzer and Gregor Pils from the University of Vienna created a home entitled Pallet house and as the name suggests, reused pallets to form a modular, energy efficient and affordable housing. The idea was born in 2008 during a competition and the Pallet house has been exhibited in several European cities including Venice, Vienna, Linz and Grenoble. It could become a clever approach to low income housing.[38]

text: Denver, Colorado was host to an Inaugural Pallet-Fest festival that showcased the versatility of pallets and included large art structures made with upcycled materials, a pallet maze, a pallet amphitheater with live musical performances, sustainable living demonstrations, an upcycled fashion show, vendors and artists selling upcycled goods, and a parkour course. The event was crowdfunded and organized by Upcycle Events.

text: Items made from pallet wood are likely to be durable and demonstrate good weather resistance due to these treatments.  However, close contact with pallet wood or inhalation of dusts from sanding or sawing can be a source of exposure to pesticide and fungicide chemicals. It is likely that the January, 2010 recall of Johnson and Johnson Tylenol and other drugs was due to their being stored on wooden pallets that had been treated with the fungicide/pesticide 2,4,6-tribromophenol. This chemical can be degraded by molds to produce 2,4,6-tribromoanisole whose strong, musty odor caused consumers to complain.[39] There is no acute or chronic health data on 2,4,6-tribromoanisole,[40] but it is believed that the contaminated drugs caused nausea and other health effects in some people.

text: Fire hazards[edit]

text: Both wood and plastic pallets are possible fire hazards.  The National Fire Protection Association requires that both types "shall be stored outside or in a detached structure" unless protected by fire sprinklers.[41]

text: Food safety risks[edit]

text: Wood pallets used to transport food can possibly harbor pathogens such as E. coli and Listeria.

text: A release by the National Consumers League announced the testing of 70 wood pallets and 70 plastic pallets that have been loaded with perishable products and shipped to an end user was shipped overnight to an independent microbiology lab for testing. The results came back with 10 percent of the wood pallets (7 pallets) positive for E. coli and 1.4 percent (1 pallet) positive on the plastic pallets.[42]

text: Pallet boxes[edit]

text: Pallet boxes are pallets with four pallet walls on top and possibly a lid. Unlike pallets, pallet boxes can be stacked when they are fully loaded. They may also be fitted with a lid during stacking for stability reasons.

text: By stacking pallet boxes on each other space can be used more efficiently, thus are able to save warehouse space and truck load capacity.

text: Another advantage of pallet boxes is that the goods are stored safely and are not easily damaged during logistic movements and transport.

text: Furthermore, there are collapsible pallet boxes from which the pallet walls can be laid flat on the pallet. In this way, less space is required during empty return transport.


document_title: Chapters and verses of the Bible

question_text: why were chapters and verses added in the bible

text: Chapters and verses of the Bible

text: History[edit]

text: Chapters[edit]

text: Early manuscripts of the biblical texts did not contain the chapter and verse divisions in the numbered form familiar to modern readers. In antiquity Hebrew texts were divided into paragraphs (parashot) that were identified by two letters of the Hebrew alphabet. Peh פ indicated an "open" paragraph that began on a new line, while Samekh ס indicated a "closed" paragraph that began on the same line after a small space.[1] These two letters begin the Hebrew words open (patuach) and closed (sagoor), and are, themselves, open פ and closed ס. The earliest known copies of the Book of Isaiah from the Dead Sea Scrolls used parashot divisions, although they differ slightly from the Masoretic divisions.[2] (This is different from the use of consecutive letters of the Hebrew alphabet to structure certain poetic compositions, known as acrostics, such as several of the Psalms and most of the Book of Lamentations.)

text: The Hebrew Bible was also divided into some larger sections. In Israel the Torah (its first five books) were divided into 154 sections so that they could be read through aloud in weekly worship over the course of three years. In Babylonia it was divided into 53 or 54 sections (Parashat ha-Shavua) so it could be read through in one year.[2] The New Testament was divided into topical sections known as kephalaia by the fourth century. Eusebius of Caesarea divided the gospels into parts that he listed in tables or canons. Neither of these systems corresponds with modern chapter divisions.[3] (See fuller discussions below.)

text: Chapter divisions, with titles, are also found in the 9th century Tours manuscript, Paris Bibliothèque Nationale MS Lat. 3, the so-called Bible of Rorigo.[4]

text: Archbishop Stephen Langton and Cardinal Hugo de Sancto Caro developed different schemas for systematic division of the Bible in the early 13th century. It is the system of Archbishop Langton on which the modern chapter divisions are based.[5][6][7]

text: While chapter divisions have become nearly universal, editions of the Bible have sometimes been published without them. Such editions, which typically use thematic or literary criteria to divide the biblical books instead, include John Locke's Paraphrase and Notes on the Epistles of St. Paul (1707),[8] Alexander Campbell's The Sacred Writings (1826),[9] Daniel Berkeley Updike’s fourteen-volume The Holy Bible Containing the Old and New Testaments and the Apocrypha, Richard Moulton's The Modern Reader's Bible (1907),[10] Ernest Sutherland Bates's The Bible Designed to Be Read as Living Literature (1936),[11] The Books of the Bible (2007) from the International Bible Society (Biblica), Adam Lewis Greene’s five-volume Bibliotheca (2014),[12][13] and the six-volume ESV Reader's Bible[14] (2016) from Crossway Books.

text: Verses[edit]

text: Since at least 916 the Tanakh has contained an extensive system of multiple levels of section, paragraph, and phrasal divisions that were indicated in Masoretic vocalization and cantillation markings. One of the most frequent of these was a special type of punctuation, the sof passuq, symbol for a full stop or sentence break, resembling the colon (:) of English and Latin orthography. With the advent of the printing press and the translation of the Bible into English, Old Testament versifications were made that correspond predominantly with the existing Hebrew full stops, with a few isolated exceptions. Most attribute these to Rabbi Isaac Nathan ben Kalonymus's work for the first Hebrew Bible concordance around 1440.[6]

text: The first person to divide New Testament chapters into verses was Italian Dominican biblical scholar Santi Pagnini (1470–1541), but his system was never widely adopted.[15] His verse divisions in the New Testament were far longer than those known today.[16] Robert Estienne created an alternate numbering in his 1551 edition of the Greek New Testament[17] which was also used in his 1553 publication of the Bible in French. Estienne's system of division was widely adopted, and it is this system which is found in almost all modern Bibles. Estienne produced a 1555 Vulgate that is the first Bible to include the verse numbers integrated into the text. Before this work, they were printed in the margins.[16]

text: The first English New Testament to use the verse divisions was a 1557 translation by William Whittingham (c. 1524–1579). The first Bible in English to use both chapters and verses was the Geneva Bible published shortly afterwards in 1560. These verse divisions soon gained acceptance as a standard way to notate verses, and have since been used in nearly all English Bibles and the vast majority of those in other languages. (Nevertheless, some Bibles have removed the verse numbering, including the ones noted above that also removed chapter numbers; a recent example of an edition that removed only verses, not chapters, is The Message: The Bible in Contemporary Language by Eugene H. Peterson.)[18]

text: Jewish tradition[edit]

text: The Hebrew Masoretic text of the Bible notes several different kinds of subdivisions within the biblical books:

text: Verse endings[edit]

text: Most important are the verse endings. According to the Talmudic tradition, the division of the text into verses is of ancient origin.[19] In Masoretic versions of the Bible, the end of a verse is indicated by a small mark in its final word called a silluq (which means "stop"). Less formally, verse endings are usually also indicated by two horizontal dots following the word with a silluq.

text: Parashiyot[edit]

text: The Masoretic textual tradition also contains section endings called parashot, which are usually indicated by a space within a line (a "closed" section) or a new line beginning (an "open" section). The division of the text reflected in the parashot is usually thematic. Unlike chapters, the parashot are not numbered, but some of them have special titles.

text: In early manuscripts (most importantly in Tiberian Masoretic manuscripts, such as the Aleppo codex), an "open" section may also be represented by a blank line, and a "closed" section by a new line that is slightly indented (the preceding line may also not be full). These latter conventions are no longer used in Torah scrolls and printed Hebrew Bibles. In this system, the one rule differentiating "open" and "closed" sections is that "open" sections must always start at the beginning of a new line, while "closed" sections never start at the beginning of a new line.

text: Sedarim[edit]

text: Another division of the biblical books found in the Masoretic text is the division of the sedarim. This division is not thematic, but is almost entirely based upon the quantity of text. For the Torah, this division reflects the triennial cycle of reading that was practiced by the Jews of the Land of Israel.

text: Christian versions[edit]

text: The Byzantines also introduced a concept roughly similar to chapter divisions, called kephalaia (singular kephalaion, literally meaning heading).[20] This system, which was in place no later than the 5th century, is not identical to the present chapters. Unlike the modern chapters, which tend to be of roughly similar length, the distance from one kephalaion mark to the next varied greatly in length both within a book and from one book to the next. For example, the Sermon on the Mount, comprising three chapters in the modern system, has but one kephalaion mark, while the single modern chapter 8 of the Gospel of Matthew has several, one per miracle. Moreover, there were far fewer kephalaia in the Gospel of John than in the Gospel of Mark, even though the latter is the shorter text. In the manuscripts, the kephalaia with their numbers, their standard titles (titloi) and their page numbers would be listed at the beginning of each biblical book; in the book's main body, they would be marked only with arrow-shaped or asterisk-like symbols in the margin, not in the text itself.

text: The titles usually referred to the first event or the first theological point of the section only, and some kephalaia are manifestly incomplete if one stops reading at the point where the next kephalaion begins (for example, the combined accounts of the miracles of the Daughter of Jairus and of the healing of the woman with a haemorrhage gets two marked kephalaia, one titled of the daughter of the synagogue ruler at the beginning when the ruler approaches Jesus and one titled of the woman with the flow of blood where the woman enters the picture – well before the ruler's daughter is healed and the storyline of the previous kephalaion is thus properly concluded). Thus the kephalaia marks are rather more like a system of bookmarks or links into a continuous text, helping a reader to quickly find one of several well-known episodes, than like a true system of chapter divisions.

text: Cardinal Hugo de Sancto Caro is often given credit for first dividing the Latin Vulgate into chapters in the real sense, but it is the arrangement of his contemporary and fellow cardinal Stephen Langton who in 1205 created the chapter divisions which are used today. They were then inserted into Greek manuscripts of the New Testament in the 16th century. Robert Estienne (Robert Stephanus) was the first to number the verses within each chapter, his verse numbers entering printed editions in 1551 (New Testament) and 1571 (Hebrew Bible).[21]

text: The division of the Bible into chapters and verses has received criticism from some traditionalists and modern scholars. Critics state that the text is often divided in an incoherent way, or at inappropriate rhetorical points, and that it encourages citing passages out of context. Nevertheless, the chapter and verse numbers have become indispensable as technical references for Bible study.

text: Several modern publications of the Bible have eliminated numbering of chapters and verses. Biblica published such a version of the NIV in 2007 and 2011. In 2014, Crossway published the ESV Reader's Bible and Bibliotheca published a modified ASV.[22] Projects such as Icthus[23] also exist which strip chapter and verse numbers from existing translations.

text: Protestant Bible statistics[edit]

text: The number of words can vary depending upon aspects such as whether the Hebrew alphabet in Psalm 119, the superscriptions listed in some of the Psalms, and the subscripts traditionally found at the end of the Pauline epistles, are included. Except where stated, the following apply to the King James Version of the Bible in its modern 66-book Protestant form including the New Testament and the protocanonical Old Testament, not the deuterocanonical books.

text: Chapters[edit]

text:
There are 929 chapters in the Old Testament.

187 chapters in the Pentateuch
249 chapters in the Historical books
243 chapters in the Poetic books ("Wisdom")
183 chapters in the Major prophets
67 chapters in the Minor prophets

There are 260 chapters in the New Testament.

89 chapters in the Gospels
28 chapters in Acts
87 chapters in the Pauline Epistles (excluding Hebrews)
34 chapters in the General Epistles (including Hebrews)
22 chapters in Revelation

This gives a total of 1,189 chapters (on average, 18 per book).
Psalm 117, the shortest chapter, is also the middle chapter of the Bible, being the 595th Chapter.[24]
Psalm 117 is the shortest chapter of the Bible.
Psalm 119 is the longest chapter of the Bible.
Five books are a single chapter: Obadiah, Philemon, 2 & 3 John, Jude. In many printed editions, the chapter number is omitted for these books, and references just use the verse numbers.

text:
Old Testament - 929 chapters[25]

Book / Division
Chapters

Pentateuch (or the Law)
187

Genesis
50

Exodus
40

Leviticus
27

Numbers
36

Deuteronomy
34

Historical Books
249

Joshua
24

Judges
21

Ruth
4

1 Samuel
31

2 Samuel
24

1 Kings
22

2 Kings
25

1 Chronicles
29

2 Chronicles
36

Ezra
10

Nehemiah
13

Esther
10

Books of Wisdom (or "Poetry")
243

Job
42

Psalms
150

Proverbs
31

Ecclesiastes
12

Song of Solomon
8

Major Prophets
183

Isaiah
66

Jeremiah
52

Lamentations
5

Ezekiel
48

Daniel
12

Minor Prophets
67

Hosea
14

Joel
3

Amos
9

Obadiah
1

Jonah
4

Micah
7

Nahum
3

Habakkuk
3

Zephaniah
3

Haggai
2

Zechariah
14

Malachi
4

text:
New Testament - 260 chapters[25]

Book / Division
Chapters

Gospels
89

Matthew
28

Mark
16

Luke
24

John
21

History
28

Acts
28

Pauline Epistles
87

Romans
16

1 Corinthians
16

2 Corinthians
13

Galatians
6

Ephesians
6

Philippians
4

Colossians
4

1 Thessalonians
5

2 Thessalonians
3

1 Timothy
6

2 Timothy
4

Titus
3

Philemon
1

General Epistles
34

Hebrews
13

James
5

1 Peter
5

2 Peter
3

1 John
5

2 John
1

3 John
1

Jude
1

Apocalyptic Writings
(Prophecy)

22

Revelation
22

text: Verses[edit]

text:
There are 23,145 verses in the Old Testament and 7,957 verses in the New Testament. This gives a total of 31,102 verses,[25] which is an average of a little more than 26 verses per chapter.
Contrary to popular belief, Psalm 118 does not contain the middle verse of the Bible. The King James Version has an even number of verses (31,102), with the two middle verses being Psalm 103:1–2.[26]
John 11:35 ("Jesus wept") is the shortest verse in most English translations. Some translations — including the New International Version, New Living Translation, New Life Version, Holman Christian Standard Bible and New International Reader's Version — render Job 3:2 as "He said". However, that is a translators' condensation of the Hebrew which literally translated is: "And Job answered and said."
The shortest verse in the Greek New Testament is Luke 20:30 ("και ο δευτερος", "And the second") with twelve letters, according to the Westcott and Hort text. In the Textus Receptus, the shortest verse is 1 Thessalonians 5:16 ("παντοτε χαιρετε", "Rejoice always") with fourteen letters,[27] since Stephanus' rendering of Luke 20:30 includes some additional words.[28]
Isaiah 10:8 ("Dicet enim") is the shortest verse in the Latin Vulgate.[29]
Esther 8:9 is the longest verse in the Masoretic Text. The discovery of several manuscripts at Qumran (in the Dead Sea Scrolls) has reopened what is considered the most original text of 1 Samuel 11; if one believes that those manuscripts better preserve the text, several verses in 1 Samuel 11 surpass Esther 8:9 in length.


document_title: History of the Seventh-day Adventist Church

question_text: when was the name seventh day adventist adopted

text: Foundations, 1798–1820s[edit]

text: The Second Great Awakening, a revival movement in the United States, took place in the early 19th century. The Second Great Awakening was stimulated by the foundation of the many Bible Societies which sought to address the problem of a lack of affordable Bibles. The spread of Bibles allowed many who had not had one to be able to purchase and study it themselves rather than just hear it preached, and led to the establishment of many reform movements designed to remedy the evils of society before the anticipated Second Coming of Jesus Christ.[1] Many religious minority movements formed out of the Congregational, Presbyterian, and the Baptist and Methodist churches. Some of these movements held beliefs that would later be adopted by the Seventh-day Adventists.

text: An interest in prophecy was kindled among some Protestants groups following the arrest of Pope Pius VI in 1798 by the French General Louis Alexandre Berthier. Forerunners of the Adventist movement believed that this event marked the end of the 1260-day prophecy from the Book of Daniel.[2][3][4] Certain individuals began to look at the 2300 day prophecy found in Daniel 8:14.[2] Interest in prophecy also found its way into the Roman Catholic church when an exiled Jesuit priest by the name of Manuel de Lacunza published a manuscript calling for renewed interest in the Second Coming of Christ. His publication created a stirring but was later condemned by Pope Leo XII in 1824.[2]

text: As a result of a pursuit for religious freedom, many revivalists had set foot in the United States, aiming to avoid persecution.[citation needed][5]

text: Millerite roots, 1831–44[edit]

text: The Seventh-day Adventist Church formed out of the movement known today as the Millerites. In 1831, a Baptist convert, William Miller, was asked by a Baptist to preach in their church and began to preach that the Second Advent of Jesus would occur somewhere between March 1843 and March 1844, based on his interpretation of Daniel 8:14. A following gathered around Miller that included many from the Baptist, Methodist, Presbyterian and Christian Connection churches. In the summer of 1844, some of Miller's followers promoted the date of October 22. They linked the cleansing of the sanctuary of Daniel 8:14 with the Jewish Day of Atonement, believed to be October 22 that year. By 1844, over 100,000 people were anticipating what Miller had called the "Blessed Hope". On October 22 many of the believers were up late into the night watching, waiting for Christ to return and found themselves bitterly disappointed when both sunset and midnight passed with their expectations unfulfilled. This event later became known as the Great Disappointment.

text: Pre-denominational years, 1844–60[edit]

text: Edson and the Heavenly Sanctuary[edit]

text: After the disappointment of October 22 many of Miller's followers were left upset and disillusioned. Most ceased to believe in the imminent return of Jesus. Some believed the date was incorrect. A few believed that the date was right but the event expected was wrong. This latter group developed into the Seventh-day Adventist Church. One of the Adventists, Hiram Edson (1806–1882) wrote "Our fondest hopes and expectations were blasted, and such a spirit of weeping came over us as I never experienced before. It seemed that the loss of all earthly friends could have been no comparison. We wept, and wept, till the day dawn."[6] On the morning of October 23, Edson, who lived in Port Gibson, New York was passing through his grain field with a friend. He later recounted his experience:

text: Edson shared his experience with many of the local Adventists who were greatly encouraged by his account. As a result, he began studying the bible with two of the other believers in the area, O.R.L. Crosier and Franklin B. Hahn, who published their findings in a paper called Day-Dawn. This paper explored the biblical parable of the Ten Virgins and attempted to explain why the bridegroom had tarried. The article also explored the concept of the day of atonement and what the authors called "our chronology of events".[8][9]

text: The findings published by Crosier, Hahn and Edson led to a new understanding about the sanctuary in heaven. Their paper explained how there was a sanctuary in heaven, that Christ, the High Priest, was to cleanse. The believers understood this cleansing to be what the 2300 days in Daniel was referring to.[10]

text: George Knight wrote, "Although originally the smallest of the post-Millerite groups, it came to see itself as the true successor of the once-powerful Millerite movement."[11] This view was endorsed by Ellen White. However, Seeking a Sanctuary sees it more as an offshoot of the Millerite movement.

text: The "Sabbath and Shut Door" Adventists were disparate, but slowly emerged. Only Joseph Bates had had any prominence in the Millerite movement.[12]

text: Adventists viewed themselves as heirs of earlier outcast believers such as the Waldenses, Protestant Reformers including the Anabaptists, English and Scottish Puritans, evangelicals of the 18th century including Methodists, Seventh Day Baptists, and others who rejected established church traditions.[13]

text: Sabbath observance develops and unites[edit]

text: A young Seventh Day Baptist layperson named Rachel Oakes Preston living in New Hampshire was responsible for introducing Sabbath to the Millerite Adventists. Due to her influence, Frederick Wheeler, a local Methodist-Adventist preacher, began keeping the seventh day as Sabbath, probably in the early spring of 1844. Several members of the Washington, New Hampshire church he occasionally ministered to also followed his decision. These included William and Cyrus Farnsworth. T. M. Preble soon accepted it either from Wheeler or directly from Oakes. These events were shortly followed by the Great Disappointment.

text: Preble promoted Sabbath through the February 28, 1845 issue of the Hope of Israel. In March he published his Sabbath views in tract form. Although he returned to observing Sunday in the next few years, his writing convinced Joseph Bates and J. N. Andrews. These men in turn convinced James and Ellen White, as well as Hiram Edson and hundreds of others.[14]

text: Bates proposed that a meeting should be organised between the believers in New Hampshire and Port Gibson. At this meeting, which occurred sometime in 1846 at Edson's farm, Edson and other Port Gibson believers readily accepted Sabbath and at the same time forged an alliance with Bates and two other folk from New Hampshire who later became very influential in the Adventist church, James and Ellen G. White. Between April 1848, and December 1850 twenty-two "Sabbath conferences" were held in New York and New England. These meetings were often seen as opportunities for leaders such as James White, Joseph Bates, Stephen Pierce and Hiram Edson to discuss and reach conclusions about doctrinal issues.[15]

text: While initially it was believed that Sabbath started at 6 pm, by 1855 it was generally accepted that Sabbath begins at Friday sunset.[16]

text: The Present Truth (see below) was largely devoted to Sabbath at first. J. N. Andrews was the first Adventist to write a book-length defense of Sabbath, first published in 1861.

text: Trinitarianism[edit]

text: At the formation of the church in the 19th century, many of the Adventist leaders held to an antitrinitarian view. Ellen G. White never entered into debate on this issue. One study, however, sees early Adventism as well as Ellen White to espouse a materialist rather than an Arian theology.[17]

text: In 1876, James White compared Seventh-day Adventist doctrine with Seventh Day Baptists. He observed: "The principal difference between the two bodies is the immortality question. The S. D. Adventists hold the divinity of Christ so nearly with the trinitarian, that we apprehend no trial here..."[18]

text: Post-tribulation Premillennialism[edit]

text: Beginning with William Miller's teachings, Adventists have played a key role in introducing the Bible doctrine of premillennialism in the United States. They believe the saints will be received or gathered by Christ into the Kingdom of God in heaven at the end of the Tribulation at the Second Coming before the millennium. In the appendix to his book "Kingdom of the Cults" where Walter Martin explains why Seventh-day Adventists are accepted as orthodox Christians (see pg 423) Martin also summarizes the key role that Adventists played in the advancement of premillennialism in the 19th century.

text: "From the beginning, the Adventists were regarded with grave suspicion by the great majority of evangelical Christians, principally because Seventh-day Adventists were premillennial in their teaching. That is they believed that Christ would come before the millennium...Certain authors of the time considered premillennarians to be peculiar... and dubbed as 'Adventist' all who held that view of eschatology"

text: However the unique contribution of Seventh-day Adventists to this doctrine does not stop there. Seventh-day Adventists are post-tribulation premillennialists who accept the Bible teaching on a literal 1000 years in Revelation 20 that immediately follows the literal second coming of Christ described in Revelation 19. In contrast to almost all premillennialist groups they do not believe in a 1000-year kingdom on earth during the millennium. In Adventist eschatology Christ's promise to take the saints to His Father's house in John 14:1–3 is fulfilled at the 2nd coming where both the living and the dead saints are taken up in the air to meet the Lord (see 1Thess 4:13–18 ). John, the author of Revelation, calls this moment the "first resurrection" in Revelation 20:5–6. Instead of a Millennial Kingdom on earth, Adventists teach that there is only a desolated earth for 1000 years and during that time the saints are in heaven with Christ (See Jeremiah 4:23–29).[19]

text: Adventist publishing work begins with The Present Truth[edit]

text: On November 18, 1848, Ellen White had a vision in which God told her that her husband should start a paper. In 1849, James, determined to publish this paper, went to find work as a farm-hand to raise sufficient funds. After another vision, she told James that he was to not worry about funds but to set to work on producing the paper to be printed. James readily obeyed, writing from the aid "of a pocket Bible, Cruden's Condensed Concordance, and an abridged dictionary with one of its covers off." Thanks to a generous offer by the printer to delay charges, the group of Advent believers had 1000 copies of the first publication printed. They sent the publication, which was on the topic of Sabbath, to friends and colleagues they believe would find it of interest.[20][21] Eleven issues were published in 1849 and 1850.

text: Formal organization and further growth, 1860–80[edit]

text: Choosing a name and a constitution[edit]

text: In 1860, the fledgling movement finally settled on the name, Seventh-day Adventist, representative of the church's distinguishing beliefs. Three years later, on May 21, 1863, the General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists was formed and the movement became an official organization.

text: Annual regional camp meetings[edit]

text: The first annual regional camp meeting took place September 1868.[22] Since then, the annual regional camp meeting has become a pattern among Seventh-day Adventists and is still practiced today.

text: Influence of Ellen G. White[edit]

text: Ellen G. White (1827–1915), while holding no official role, was a dominant personality. She, along with her husband, James White, and Joseph Bates, moved the denomination to a concentration on missionary and medical work. Mission and medical work continues to play a central role in the 21st century.

text: Under White's guidance the denomination in the 1870s turned to missionary work and revivals, tripling its membership to 16,000 by 1880; rapid growth continued, with 75,000 members in 1901. By this time operated two colleges, a medical school, a dozen academies, 27 hospitals, and 13 publishing houses.

text: By 1945, the church reported 226,000 members in the US and Canada, and 380,000 elsewhere; the budget was $29 million and enrollment in church schools was 40,000.[23] In 1960 there were 1,245,125 members worldwide with an annual budget of over $99,900,000. Enrollment in church schools from elementary to college was 290,000 students.[24] As of the year 2000 there were 11,687,229 members worldwide. The global budget was $28,610,881,313. And the enrollment in schools was 1,065,092 students.[25] In 2008 the global membership was 15,921,408 with a budget of $45,789,067,340. The number of students in SDA run universities, secondary and primary schools was 1,538,607.[26]

text: Political views[edit]

text: Seventh-day Adventists participated in the Temperance Movement of the late 1800s and early 1900s. During this same time, they became actively involved in promoting Religious Liberty. They had closely followed American politics, matching current events to the predictions in the Bible.

text: "Seventh-day" means the observance of the original Sabbath, Saturday, is still a sacred obligation. Adventists argued that just as the rest of the Ten Commandments had not been revised, so also the injunction to "remember the Sabbath day to keep it holy" remained in full force. This theological point turned the young group into a powerful force for religious liberty. Growing into its full stature in the late 19th century and early 20th century, these Adventists opposed Sunday laws on every side. Many were arrested for working on Sunday. In fighting against the real threat of a legally established National Day of worship, these Sabbatarians had to fight for their liberty on a daily basis. Soon, they were fighting for religious liberty on a broader, less parochial basis.

text: Worldwide mission[edit]

text: Adventist effort for a world-wide proclamation of their message began with the mailing of publications. In 1874 J. N. Andrews became the first official Adventist missionary to travel overseas. Working in Switzerland, he sought to organize the Sabbath-keeping companies under one umbrella.[27][28] During the 1890s Adventists began to enthusiastically promote a world-wide mission effort.[29]

text: A world vision and growing pains, 1880–1915[edit]

text: 1888 General Conference[edit]

text: In 1888, a General Conference Session occurred in Minneapolis. This session involved a discussion between the then General Conference president, G. I. Butler; editor of the review, Uriah Smith; and a group led by E. J. Waggoner and A. T. Jones about the meaning of "Righteousness by Faith" and the meaning of the law in Romans and Galatians. Ellen G. White also addressed the conference.

text: Organizational Developments[edit]

text: From the early 1860s the church had three levels of government: the local church, the conference, and the General Conference. As ideas developed, organizations came into existence to move forward the ideas; i.e. Sabbath Schools, health reform and medical work, printing, distribution of literature, religious liberty, missions, etc. All moved forward under the societies formed to do so.[30] As the work progressed, the managing of all these societies became quite cumbersome.

text: As conferences developed in far off lands, it became obvious that the General Conference could not oversee the day-to-day needs of the conferences. This led to the development of Union conferences in Australia and Europe in the late 1890s and to the development of districts in the United States.

text: The 1901 and 1903 General Conference sessions reorganized the church's structure to include union conferences which managed a group of local conferences in their domain. By the end of 1904, the various societal interests became incorporated as departments in each conference's structure.[30]

text: Christ's Object Lessons and Adventist Schools[edit]

text: Ellen White relates how her book Christ's Object Lessons came to be linked to the financial support of Adventist schools,

text: "I am so thankful for the work that Christ’s Object Lessons has accomplished and is still accomplishing. When this book was in preparation, I expected to use the means coming from the sale of this book in preparing and publishing several other books. But the Lord put it into my mind to give this book to our schools, to be used in freeing them from debt. I asked our publishing houses to unite with me in this gift by donating the expense of the publication. This they willingly agreed to do. A fund was raised to pay for the materials used in printing the book, and canvassers and people have sold the book without commission.

text: "Thus the book has been circulated in all parts of the world. It has been received with great favor everywhere. Ministers of all denominations have written testimonials recommending it. The Lord has prepared the way for its reception so that no fewer than 200,000 have already been sold. The means thus raised has gone far toward freeing our schools from the debts that have been accumulating for many years.

text: "Our publishing houses have printed 300,000 copies, free of cost, and these have been distributed to the different tract societies, to be sold by our people.

text: "The Lord has made the sale of this book a means of teaching our people how to come in touch with those not of their faith, and how to impart to them a knowledge of the truth for this time. Many have been converted by reading this book."[31]

text: In 1902, those affiliated with Healdsburg College, now Pacific Union College, dedicated a week to sell Christ's Object Lessons. They first read the book together. Then each student was given six books to sell. Territories were assigned and for a week the school suspended classes in order to sell the books. The College Church took the territory immediately surrounding the church while the students were given territory further away from the school.[32]

text: Message to the world[edit]

text: After John Andrews venture into Europe, others also went out. Some[who?] to Africa, others to Asia and others to Australasia.[citation needed]

text: Early 20th century, 1915–1930[edit]

text: Fundamentalism and progress[edit]

text: Ellen G. White died in 1915, and Adventist leaders participated in a number of prophetic conferences during and soon after World War I. The 1919 Bible Conference looked at how Adventists interpreted Bible prophecy and the legacy of Ellen White's writings. It also had a polarizing influence on Adventist theology with leaders such as A. G. Daniells and W. W. Prescott questioning some of the traditional views held by others like Benjamin G. Wilkinson, J. S. Washburn, and Claude Holmes.

text: Fundamentalism was dominant in the church in the early 20th century.[33] George Knight dates it from 1919 to 1950. The edited transcripts of the 1952 Bible Conference were published as Our Firm Foundation.[34]

text: Mid-20th century[edit]

text: World War II

text: In Southern Europe, as soon as the war broke out, most of the church's workers of military age were drafted. The church lost union and local conference presidents, pastors, evangelists, and institutional workers.[35]

text: When the Nazis occupied France they dissolved the conference and all the churches, confiscated church buildings, and prohibited church work. In Croatia all Adventist churches were closed, and the conference was dissolved. All church and evangelistic work was strictly forbidden. Over in Rumania, where there were more than 25,000 Adventists, the union conference, the six local conferences, and all the churches were likewise dissolved. Over three hundred Adventist chapels, the publishing house in Bucharest, and the school at Brasov were all taken from the church. All church funds were taken. Three thousand Adventists were put in prison. They were tortured and abused.[35]

text: The work of the church went forward under creative cover. People baptized were reported as students graduating and receiving their diplomas. One minister reported on life insurance policies sold. Another reported on the harvest of 253 baskets of fruit.[35]

text: Late 20th century[edit]

text: In the mid-1970s, two distinct factions were manifest within Seventh day Adventism. Defending many pre-1950 Adventist positions was conservative wing, while the more liberal Adventism emphasized beliefs of Evangelical Christianity.

text: During the 1970s, what is now the Adventist Review carried articles by editor Kenneth Wood and associate editor Herbert Douglass wrote articles on the Questions on Doctrine issue, and articles arguing for a final perfect generation.[36] Kenneth Wood and Herbert Douglass, editors of the Review and Herald, began to emphasize views which had been the traditional views in the church before Questions on Doctrine such as sinless perfection of a final generation, which was opposed by many Progressive Adventists[37]

text: The General Conference addressed this controversy over "righteousness by faith" by holding a conference in Palmdale, California in 1976.[36] Ford was the "center of attention", and the resulting document known as the "Palmdale statement"DjVu.[38]

text: The 1980 General Conference session, held in Dallas, produced the church's first official declaration of beliefs voted by the world body, called the 27 Fundamental Beliefs. (This list of beliefs has since been expanded to the present 28 Fundamentals).

text: Firing of Desmond Ford[edit]

text: The year 1980 also saw a minor crisis over the investigative judgment teaching, known as the Glacier View controversy. This precipitated a controversy within the church, but the mainstream believe in the doctrine and the church reaffirmed its basic position on the doctrine,[39] although some in the church's more liberal wing continued the controversy into the 21st century.[40] Ford expressed questions on the Judgment and later requested that his membership with the Seventh-day Adventist Church be discontinued for other than doctrinal differences.

text: Ordination of women[edit]

text: The year 1990 saw ordination of women reviewed at the General Conference Session in Indianapolis and 1995 at General Conference Session in Utrecht, but turned down. In 2012, 16 women pastors were approved for ordination in the Columbia Union Conference. Also in that year, a Theology of Ordination Study Committee was created by the General Conference to study the issue of women's ordination. In 2015, at the General Conference Business Session in San Antonio, Texas, a majority of delegates voted down a proposal to allow divisions to ordain women. [41]

text: Early 21st century[edit]

text: In the new century, Adventists membership continued to increase, and worldwide, members began to use YouTube and other Internet media to communicate. These communications included video addresses from the then-president of the United States George W. Bush, and Hillary Clinton to Adventists.[42]

text: A review of membership revealed an average of about 2,900 people were joining the Seventh-day Adventist Church every day, which show the denomination now has 16.6 million adult baptized members according to church statistics. Denominational membership showed strong growth and membership audits showed for 2009 as the seventh consecutive year the church had a net gain of more than one million members.[43] However, David Trim, director of the Archives, Statistics and Research department, who felt the numbers were "not entirely accurate," said the record keeping system was not perfect and audits, would most likely result in a lower overall membership number than the 16.5 million.[44]

text: Spiritual Formation[edit]

text: In the second decade of the 21st century, retired pastor Rick Howard brought what he considered the dangers of Spiritual Formation to the attention of the Adventist church. Other Adventists such as Pastor Hal Mayer, and Derek Morris raised concerns as well. The official church paper, the Adventist Review, published articles[45] outlining the effects of spiritualism coming into the Christian Church through the teachings of Spiritual Formation.[46] Howard wrote The Omega Rebellion in which he warned of the dangers associated with the “emerging church” movement. He identified the teachings of Spiritual formation, contemplative prayer, postmodern spirituality, the meditation steeped in Eastern mysticism as dangerous.[47] In his July 2010 keynote sermon, Ted N.C. Wilson, newly elected President of the Seventh-Day Adventist church counseled, “Stay away from non-biblical spiritual disciplines or methods of spiritual formation that are rooted in mysticism such as contemplative prayer, centering prayer, and the emerging church movement in which they are promoted.” Instead, he said, believers should "look within the Seventh-day Adventist Church, to humble pastors, evangelists, Biblical scholars, leaders, and departmental directors who can provide evangelistic methods and programs that are based on solid Biblical principles and The Great Controversy theme."

text: Church members were also cautioned to use discernment in worship styles: "Use Christ-centered, Bible-based worship and music practices in church services," Wilson said. "While we understand that worship services and cultures vary throughout the world, don't go backwards into confusing pagan settings where music and worship become so focused on emotion and experience that you lose the central focus on the Word of God. All worship, however simple or complex should do one thing and one thing only: lift up Christ and put down self."[48]