document_title: Vegetarianism by country

question_text: how much of the us population is vegetarian

text: Vegetarianism by country

text: Demographics[edit]

text: Reliable data is lacking due to a lack of polling and the varying definitions of vegetarianism and veganism used in the polls. For example, the latest US poll defines "vegan" according to diets that exclude meat, eggs and dairy, rather than following the accepted definition of veganism as avoiding all animal products as far as possible including honey and clothing. Other polls, like the latest Australian poll, place strict vegetarians and those who follow "almost" vegetarian diets in the same category, while this poll and many others measure only vegetarianism and neglect to include veganism in the poll. Many poll results are contradicted by other poll results from the same country despite similar publication dates, implying a wide margin of error.

text: A study from 2010[2] estimated that there are 1,450 million vegetarians of necessity and another 75 million of choice. They make approximately 21.8% of the world’s population.

text:
Country
Vegetarian diet (%) (includes vegan diet)
Approx. no. of individuals
Data set year
Vegan diet (%)
Approx. no. of individuals
Data set year
Note

 Australia
7001110000000000000♠11%
2,100,000
2016[3] 2010[4]

As of March 2016, 11.2% of people living in Australia agreed that "The food I eat is all, or almost all, vegetarian."

 Austria
7000900000000000000♠9%
765,000
2013[5]

 Brazil
7000760000000000000♠7.6%
15,200,000
2012[6]

Adult population

 Canada
7000800000000000000♠8%
2,820,000
2015[7]

Based on a survey and the population is a estimation

 Czech Republic
7000150000000000000♠1.5%
235,000
2003[8]

 China
7000400000000000000♠4% - 7000500000000000000♠5%
54,428,000 - 68,035,000
2013[9]

 Denmark
7000400000000000000♠4%
220,000
2011[10]

 Finland
7000200000000000000♠2%
108,000 - 329,000
2011[11] 2015[12]
0.5%
27,000
2013[13]
% of vegans only an estimation

 France
7000150000000000000♠1.5%
1,988,000 - 3,300,000
2011[14]

 Germany
7000600000000000000♠6% - 7000870000000099999♠8.7%
4,786,000 - 7,000,000
2015[15] 2011[16]
1.0%
800,000
2011[16]

 India
7001290000000000000♠29% - 7001400000000000000♠40%
360,576,000
2009[17] 2014[18][19]
27%

 Israel
7001130000000000000♠13%
1,046,000
2015[20][21]
5%
421,000
2015[20][21]

 Italy
7000710000000000000♠7.1% - 7001100000000000000♠10%
4,246,000
2009[17] 2015[22]
0.6% - 2.8%
400,000 - 1,680,000
2015[22][23]

 Japan
7000470000000000000♠4.7%
5,964,300
2014[24]
2.7%
3,432,000
2014[24]

 Latvia
7000300000000000000♠3% - 7000500000000000000♠5%
60,000 - 100,000
2013[25]

estimation

 Netherlands
7000500000000000000♠5.0%
800,000

2016[26] 2017[27]

 New Zealand
7001103000000000000♠10.3%
463,500
2016[28]

 Norway
7000200000000000000♠2%
100,000
2012[29]

estimation

 Poland
7000320000000000000♠3.2%
1,228,800
2013[30]
1.6%
608,000
2013[30]

 Portugal
7000120000000000000♠1.2%
120,000
2017[31]
0.6%
60,000
2017[31]
survey conducted by marketing research firm Nielsen Corporation

 Russia
7000300000000000000♠3% - 7000400000000000000♠4%
4,380,000 - 5,840,000
2014[32][33]

 Spain
7000150000000000000♠1.5%
697,000
2017[34]
0.2%
93,000
2017[34]
adult population

 Sweden
7001100000000000000♠10%
970,000
2014[35]
4%
390,000
2014[35]

  Switzerland
7001140000000000000♠14%
1,176,156
2017[36]
3%
252,033
2017[37]

 United Kingdom
7000260000000000000♠2.6% - 7000330000000000000♠3.3%
1,292,000 - 1,680,000
2009[38] 2014[39] 2016[40]
1.05%
542,000
2016[40]
% of vegans over age of 15

 United States
7000300000000000000♠3%
7,300,000

2017[41]

0.4%
1,000,000
2015[41]

 Belgium
7000500000000000000♠5.0%
565,177
2016[42]

 Taiwan
7001140000000000000♠14.0%
3,297,011

2015[43] 2016[44] 2017[45]

 South Korea
7000100000000000000♠1.0%
500,000
2011[46]
[47]

text: Africa[edit]

text: African diets are relatively plant-based for economic reasons, but the prevalence of strict ethical vegetarianism in Africa is reported to be low,[48] while scientific polls are lacking. Countries in North Africa have a tradition of cooking in a vegetarian style, with Morocco, Algeria, Libya and Tunisia being particularly connected with this type of cooking which includes couscous and spiced vegetables.[49] Indian immigrants to Africa, particularly in South Africa, brought vegetarianism with them which has been documented as far back as 1895 in Natal Province.[50] Also, some African countries, for example Egypt and Ethiopia, have regular weekly and special periods of religious fasting requiring observance of a vegetarian diet.[48][51]

text: Asia[edit]

text: China[edit]

text: Eating meat is seen as a sign of prosperity in China.[9] Consumption of meat is rapidly increasing while a small but growing number of young people in large cities are vegan. An estimated 4 to 5 percent of Chinese are vegetarian.[9] However, in a survey conducted by SJTU researchers, only 0.77 percent of respondants labeled themselves vegetarian.[52]

text: Native Chinese, generally falling under the label of Taoism (though this tends to confuse the native religion with the Daoist school of philosophy, represented by Laotzu, Chuangtzu, and others), is a form of animism. Similar to Shintoism in Japan, though the killing and eating of animals is not forbidden, it is considered impure.

text: Classical Chinese texts pointed to a period of abstinence from meat before undertaking matters of great importance or of religious significance.

text: With the influx of Buddhist influences, vegetarianism became more popular, but there is a distinction—Daoist vegetarianism is based on a perception of purity, while Buddhist vegetarianism is based on the dual bases of refraining from killing and subduing one's own subservience to the senses. Because of this, two types of "vegetarianism" came to be—one where one refrained from eating meat, the other being refraining from eating meat as well as garlic, onions, and other such strongly flavored foods. This Buddhism-influenced vegetarianism has been known and practiced by some since at least the 7th century.

text: The early 20th century saw some intellectuals espousing vegetarianism as part of their program for reforming China culturally, not just politically. The anarchist thinker Li Shizeng, for instance, argued that tofu and soy products were healthier and could be a profitable export. Liang Shuming, a philosopher and reform activist, adopted a basically vegetarian diet, but did not promote one for others. In recent years, it has seen a resurgence in the cities among the emerging middle class.[53]

text: India[edit]

text: In 2007, UN FAO statistics indicated that Indians had the lowest rate of meat consumption in the world.[54] India has more vegetarians than the rest of the world put together.[55] In India, vegetarianism is usually synonymous with lacto vegetarianism. Most restaurants in India clearly distinguish and market themselves as being either "non-vegetarian", "vegetarian", or "pure vegetarian". Vegetarian restaurants abound, and many vegetarian options are usually available. Animal-based ingredients (other than milk and honey) such as lard, gelatin, and meat stock are not used in the traditional cuisine. India has devised a system of marking edible products made from only vegetarian ingredients, with a green dot in a green square. A mark of a brown dot in a brown square conveys that some animal-based ingredients were used. Products like honey, milk, or its direct derivatives are often categorized under the green mark.[56]

text: According to the 2006 Hindu-CNN-IBN State of the Nation Survey, 31% of Indians are vegetarian, while another 9% also consume eggs (ovo-vegetarian).[57] Among the various communities, vegetarianism was most common among the Lingayat, Vaishnav Community, Jain community and then Brahmins at 55%, and less frequent among Muslims (3%) and residents of coastal states. Other surveys cited by FAO[58] and USDA[59][60] estimate 40% of the Indian population as being vegetarian. These surveys indicate that even Indians who do eat meat, do so infrequently, with less than 30% consuming it regularly, although the reasons are mainly cultural.[60] In states where vegetarianism is more common, milk consumption is higher and is associated with lactase persistence. This allows people to continue consuming milk into adulthood and obtain proteins that are substituted for meat, fish and eggs in other areas.[61][62] An official survey conducted by the Government of India, with a sample size of 8858 and the census frame as 2011, indicated India's vegetarian population to be 28-29% of the total population.[63] Compared to a similar survey done almost a decade earlier, India's vegetarian population has increased.[64]

text: The recent growth in India's organized retail sector has also been hit by some controversy, because some vegetarians are demanding meat-free supermarkets.[65]

text: In 2016, the Government of India announced the decision to provide students, at a few of the Institutes of Hotel Management, Catering Technology and Applied Nutrition (IHMCTANs), the option to choose only vegetarian cooking. Earlier, it was compulsory for all IHMCTAN students to learn non-vegetarian cooking. These IHMCTANs are located at Ahmedabad, Bhopal and Jaipur.[66][67]

text: Israel[edit]

text: A study by the Israeli Ministry of Health in 2001 found that 7.2% of men and 9.8% of women were vegetarian. Although vegetarianism is quite common, the actual percentage of vegetarians in Israel may be lower — the Israeli food industry estimated it at 5%.[68] In 2010, 2.6% of Israelis were vegetarians or vegans.[69]

text: In 2015, according to a poll by Globes newspaper and Channel Two, 13% of the Israeli population are vegetarian or vegan (8% were vegetarians and 5% were vegans). Tel Aviv beat out Berlin, New York and Chennai, India as U.S. food website The Daily Meal's top destination for vegan travelers.[69][70]

text: Japan[edit]

text: According to a 2014/12 survey 4.7% of the Japanese population are vegetarian or vegan (2.7% vegan). NOTE: The referenced web survey included 1,188 valid responses and is not representative of the population of Japan. [24]

text: Malaysia[edit]

text: Vegetarian diets are categorized as lacto vegetarianism, ovo-lacto vegetarianism, and veganism in general. The reasons for being vegetarian include influence from friends and family members, concern about global warming, health issues and weight management, religion and mercy for animals, in descending order of significance.[71]

text: Singapore[edit]

text: Rice, mushrooms, vegetables are some of the dietary staples, mixed with a rich variety of spices, coconut, lime and tamarind. Buddhist Chinese monastics are vegetarians or vegans. Singapore is also the headquarters of the world's first international, vegetarian, fast food chain, VeganBurg.[72] The bigger communities of vegetarians and vegans in Singapore are Vegetarian Society (VSS) and SgVeganCommunity. Vegetarian and vegan places have a active role in the gastronomy of Singapore.

text: Taiwan[edit]

text: In Taiwan, 1.7 million people, or 13% of the population of Taiwan, follow a vegetarian diet at least some of the time.[73][74] There are more than 6,000 vegetarian eating establishments in Taiwan.[75] The country's food labelling laws for vegetarian food are the world's strictest, because around 2 million Taiwanese people eat vegetarian food.[76] A popular movement of "one day vegetarian every week" has been advocated on a national level,[77] and on a local level, even government bodies are involved, such as the Taipei City Board of Education.[78]

text: Thailand[edit]

text: Europe[edit]

text: The definition of vegetarianism throughout Europe is not uniform, creating the potential for products to be labelled inaccurately.[1]

text: Austria[edit]

text: According to a study of ISEF[79] from 2013 (n=500), 9% of Austrians are vegetarian or vegan.

text: Belgium[edit]

text: Since May 2009, Belgium has had the first city in the world (Ghent) with a weekly "veggie day".[80]

text: Denmark[edit]

text: According to a survey by Coop Analyse published in June 2011, just under 4% of Danes considered themselves either vegetarians or vegans.[10]

text: Finland[edit]

text: There is no recent data about amount of vegetarians or vegans in Finland. In 2015, according to a survey by meat producers' association Lihatiedotusyhdistys, 6% of the population, or 329,000 people, did not eat meat.[81] In 2014, the percentage was 5%; it was 10% among 25–34 year old people. The survey did not ask about eating fish.[82] Otherwise, it is estimated that 2–3% of Finns are vegetarians[11] and 0.5% vegans.[13] By combining the data of three surveys (a sample of 24,000 people) published in 2008, 3.3% of Finns identified themselves vegetarians but only 0.66% actually followed a vegetarian diet. 1.4% ate fish but not meat. 0.18% were vegans or lacto-vegetarians.[83]

text: In most of the cities's schools the students are offered two options, a vegetarian and a non-vegetarian meal, on four school days a week, and one day a week they have a choice between two vegetarian meals, for grades 1 to 12. In secondary schools and universities, from 10 to 40 percents of the students preferred vegetarian food in 2013.[84][85] Vegetarianism is most popular in secondary art schools where in some schools over half of the students were vegetarians in 2013.[86]

text: France[edit]

text: Studies in the 1990s showed that one million French (1.5% of the total population) called themselves vegetarians, although more recently this number has reportedly increased to 2%.[14]

text: Germany[edit]

text: According to Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Germany has over six million vegetarians.[87] A survey conducted by Institut Produkt und Markt found that 9% of the population (7,380,000 people) are vegetarian.[88]

text: However, the statistically representative German National Nutrition Monitoring (NEMONIT) only found there to be slightly less than 2% vegetarians in the German population in 2012.[89]

text: Italy[edit]

text: The Italian research institute Eurispes estimates that 10% of Italians are vegetarian and 1.1% are vegan.[17]

text: Netherlands[edit]

text: It is estimated that 4.5% of the Dutch population does not eat meat.[90]

text: A study has shown that the number of vegetarians out of a population of nearly 16.5 million people increased from 560,000 in 2004 to 720,000 in 2006.[91][92] The number of "part-time vegetarians" grew rapidly as well; around 3.5 million Dutch citizens abstain from eating meat a few days a week.[92]

text: The sales of meat substitutes have an annual growth of around 25%, making it one of the fastest-growing markets in the Netherlands.[92] In supermarkets and stores, it is sometimes necessary to read the fine print on products in order to make sure that there are no animal-originated ingredients. Increasingly, however, vegetarian products are labeled with the international "V-label," overseen by the Dutch vegetarian association Vegetarisch Keurmerk.[93] Veganism is uncommon in the Netherlands: the Dutch Association for Veganism estimates that there are approximately 70,000 vegans in the Netherlands, or around 0.4% of the population.[94]

text: Poland[edit]

text: According to a survey carried out in Poland by Mintel in 2017, 8% of respondents are vegetarian, while 7% identify themselves as vegans. [95]

text: The capital of Poland, Warsaw, was listed 3rd on the list of Top Vegan Cities In The World published by HappyCow in 2017. [96]

text: Portugal[edit]

text: In 2007, the number of vegetarians in Portugal was estimated at 30,000, which equates to less than 0.3% of the population. In 2014, the number was estimated to be 200,000 people.[97]

text: Vegan and vegetarian products like soy milk, soy yogurts, rice milk and tofu are widely available in major retailers, and across the country.

text: Russia[edit]

text: 2013-2014 polls revealed that 3[32] to 4%[33] of the Russian population considered themselves vegetarian.[98]

text: Spain[edit]

text: A 2012 article in El Pais stated that 0.5% of the population are vegetarian, but that interest in vegetarianism is growing.[99]

text: In Spain, different sources estimate that there are between 1.5 and 2 million vegetarians. In a 2002 article El Mundo stated that there are 1.5 million vegetarians.[100] More recent sources (Asociación Vegana) estimate the number to be two million and observe that in recent years the number of people adopting a vegetarian diet has been growing.[101][102]

text: Sweden[edit]

text: A 2014 survey of 1,000 people found that the number of vegetarians had increased to 10% (4% vegans and 6% vegetarians).[35]

text: Switzerland[edit]

text: 1997 government figures suggested that 2.3% of the population never ate meat, and the observed trend seemed to point towards less meat consumption.[103] A 2007 study suggested that the percentage of vegetarians had risen to 5%.[103]

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: In the United Kingdom, increasing numbers of people have adopted a vegetarian diet since the end of World War II.[104] The Food Standards Agency Public Attitudes to Food Survey 2009 reported that 3% of respondents were found to be "completely vegetarian", with an additional 5% "partly vegetarian (do not eat some types of fish or meat)".[38] The UK's National Diet and Nutrition Survey (NDNS) reported in 2014 that its four-year study found 2.6% of adults and 1.9% of children were vegetarian.[39] The "How many vegans?" survey conducted in May 2016 by the Vegan Society found that 3.25% of UK residents were vegetarian or vegan, while 1.05% were vegan.[40] Some less formal market studies suggest that vegetarians constitute 7% to 11% of the UK adult population (4 million people).[105][106][107] There are twice as many vegetarian women as men.[107] According to Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, the UK has the third highest rate of vegetarianism in the European Union.[87] Flexitarianism is also becoming more popular in the UK.[108]

text: Despite the clear classification by the Vegetarian Society, some people in the UK misidentify as vegetarians while still eating fish, either for perceived "health reasons", or because of differing ethical perspectives on vegetarianism, while others use the terms "flexitarian" or "part-vegetarian".[104] As of 2009, people in the UK are now also identified with the labels "meat-avoiders" and "meat-reducers" by marketers, denoting people who do not self-identify as vegetarians, but are reducing or avoiding meat for reasons of health or climate change impacts, with one survey identifying 23% of the population as "meat-reducers", and 10% as "meat-avoiders", although the same survey indicated the "vast majority" in the UK still eat meat, with one in five liking to eat meat every day.[104] Even among professed vegetarians, a newspaper article claimed that 39% admitted to having eaten a kebab while under the influence of alcohol.[109]

text: Foods labelled as suitable for vegetarians or vegans are subject to provisions within the Trades Descriptions Act 1968.[110] The Food Standards Agency issues guidance on the labelling of foods as suitable for vegetarians:

text: The term 'vegetarian' should not be applied to foods that are, or are made from or with the aid of, products derived from animals that have died, have been slaughtered, or animals that die as a result of being eaten. Animals means farmed, wild or domestic animals, including for example, livestock poultry, game, fish, shellfish, crustaceans, amphibians, tunicates, echinoderms, molluscs, and insects.

text: The FSA's definition has now passed into European law, with legislation due in 2015[needs update].

text: In addition to voluntary labelling, the Vegetarian Society operates a scheme whereby foods that meet its criteria can be labelled "Vegetarian Society approved".[112] Under this scheme, a product is vegetarian if it is free of meat, fowl, fish, shellfish, meat or bone stock, animal or carcass fats, gelatin, aspic, or any other ingredient resulting from slaughter, such as rennet.[113] Cheese is often labelled as well, making it possible to identify cheeses that have been made with rennet derived from non-animal sources.[114]

text: North America[edit]

text: Canada[edit]

text: In Canada, vegetarianism is usually synonymous with ovo-lacto vegetarianism. However, vegetarians are sometimes wrongly assumed to be pescetarians or pollotarians. Approximately 4.0% of adults were vegetarians as of 2003[update].[115]

text: United States[edit]

text: In 1971, 1 percent of U.S. citizens described themselves as vegetarians.[116] In 2008 Harris Interactive found that 3.2% are vegetarian and 0.5% vegan,[117] while a 2013 Public Policy Polling survey of 500 respondents found that 13% of Americans are either vegetarian or vegan—6% vegetarian and 7% vegan.[118] U.S. vegetarian food sales (dairy replacements such as soy milk and meat replacements such as textured vegetable protein) doubled between 1998 and 2003, reaching $1.6 billion in 2003.[119] According to a report in 2017, the number of consumers claiming to be vegan has risen to 6% in the US [120] In 2015, a Harris Poll National Survey of 2,017 adults aged 18 and over found that eight million Americans, or 3.4%, ate a solely vegetarian diet, and that one million, or 0.4%, ate a strictly vegan diet.[41]

text: Many American children whose parents follow vegetarian diets follow them because of religious, environmental or other reasons.[121] In the government's first estimate[122] of how many children avoid meat, the number is about 1 in 200.[123][124] The CDC survey included children ages 0 to 17 years.

text: By U.S. law, food packaging is regulated by the Food and Drug Administration, and generally must be labeled with a list of all its ingredients.[125][126] However, there are exceptions. For example, certain trace ingredients that are "ingredients of ingredients" do not need to be listed.[127]

text: Oceania[edit]

text: Australia[edit]

text: In Australia, some manufacturers who target the vegetarian market label their foods with the statement "suitable for vegetarians"; however, for foods intended for export to the UK, this labelling can be inconsistent because flavourings in ingredients lists do not need to specify if they come from animal origin. As such, "natural flavour" could be derived from either plant or animal sources.

text: Animal rights organisations such as Animal Liberation promote vegan and vegetarian diets. "Vegetarian Week" runs from 1–7 October every year,[128] and food companies are taking advantage of the growing number of vegetarians by producing meat-free alternatives of popular dishes, including sausages and mash and spaghetti Bolognese.[129]

text: A 2000 Newspoll survey (commissioned by Sanitarium) shows 44% of Australians report eating at least one meat-free evening meal a week, while 18% said they prefer plant-based meals.

text: According to a 2010 Newspoll survey, 5% of Australians identify themselves as vegetarians, with 2% actually eating a diet defined by the survey as vegetarian.[130]

text: Roy Morgan Research in August 2016 reported, "Between 2012 and 2016, the number of Australian adults whose diet is all or almost all vegetarian has risen from 1.7 million people (or 9.7% of the population) to almost 2.1 million (11.2%), the latest findings from Roy Morgan Research reveal."[131]

text: New Zealand[edit]

text: Similar to Australia, in New Zealand the term "vegetarian" refers to individuals who eat no animal meat such as pork, chicken, and fish; they may consume animal products such as milk and eggs. In contrast, the term "vegan" is used to describe those who do not eat or use any by-products of animals.[132] In 2002 New Zealand's vegetarians made up a minority of 1-2% of the country’s 4.5 million people.[133] By 2011 Roy Morgan Research claimed the number of New Zealanders eating an "all or almost all" vegetarian diet to be 8.1%, growing to 10.3% in 2015 (with men providing the most growth, up 63% from 5.7% to 9.3%).[134] In New Zealand there is a strong enough movement for vegetarianism that it has created significant enough demand for a number of vegetarian and vegan retailers to set up.[135]

text: As New Zealand and Australia work together to form common food standards (as seen in the Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ) and the Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code), there is also a lot of ambiguity surrounding the "natural flavour" ingredients.[136]

text: South America[edit]

text: Brazil[edit]

text: In 2004, Marly Winckler, President of the Brazilian Vegetarian Society, claimed that 5% of the population was vegetarian.[137] According to a 2012 survey undertaken by the Brazilian Institute of Public Opinion and Statistics, 8% of the population, or 15.2 million people, identified themselves as vegetarian.[6] The city of São Paulo has the most vegetarians in absolute terms (792,120 people), while Fortaleza has the highest percentage, at 14% of the total population.[138]

text: Marly Winckler claims that the central reasons for the deforestation of the Amazon are expansive livestock raising (mainly cattle) and soybean crops, most of it for use as animal feed, and a minor percentage for edible oil processing (being direct human consumption for use as food nearly negligible),[139] claims that are widely known to have a basis.[140][141][142][143]

text: As in Canada, vegetarianismo (Portuguese pronunciation: [veʒiˌtaɾjɐ̃ˈnizmu]) is usually synonymous with lacto-ovo-vegetarianism, and vegetarians are sometimes wrongly assumed to be pescetarians and/or pollotarians who tolerate the flesh of fish or poultry, respectively. Nevertheless, veganism, and freeganism, are very common among Brazilian anarchists, punks and members of other groups in the counterculture and/or left-wing movements. Other beliefs generally associated with Brazilian vegetarians are Eastern philosophies and religions, New Age and Spiritism. It is also commonly said to be related to the emo and indie youth subcultures as influence from the local punks. Brazilian vegetarians reportedly tend to be urban, of middle or upper class[137] and live in the Central-Southern half of the country. Since the 1990s, and especially since the 2000s, several vegetarian and vegan restaurants have appeared in the metropolitan regions of São Paulo, Porto Alegre, Curitiba and Rio de Janeiro.[144]


document_title: Electron configuration

question_text: which list includes species with the same number of electrons

root

text: Electron configuration

text: Shells and subshells[edit]

text:
s (ℓ=0)
p (ℓ=1)

m=0
m=0
m=±1

s
pz
px
py

n=1

n=2

tag: table

text: Electron configuration was first conceived under the Bohr model of the atom, and it is still common to speak of shells and subshells despite the advances in understanding of the quantum-mechanical nature of electrons.

tag: p

text: An electron shell is the set of allowed states that share the same principal quantum number, n (the number before the letter in the orbital label), that electrons may occupy. An atom's nth electron shell can accommodate 2n2 electrons, e.g. the first shell can accommodate 2 electrons, the second shell 8 electrons, and the third shell 18 electrons. The factor of two arises because the allowed states are doubled due to electron spin—each atomic orbital admits up to two otherwise identical electrons with opposite spin, one with a spin +1/2 (usually denoted by an up-arrow) and one with a spin −1/2 (with a down-arrow).

text: A subshell is the set of states defined by a common azimuthal quantum number, ℓ, within a shell. The values ℓ = 0, 1, 2, 3 correspond to the s, p, d, and f labels, respectively. For example, the 3d subshell has n = 3 and ℓ = 2. The maximum number of electrons that can be placed in a subshell is given by 2(2ℓ+1). This gives two electrons in an s subshell, six electrons in a p subshell, ten electrons in a d subshell and fourteen electrons in an f subshell.

text: The numbers of electrons that can occupy each shell and each subshell arise from the equations of quantum mechanics,[2] in particular the Pauli exclusion principle, which states that no two electrons in the same atom can have the same values of the four quantum numbers.[3]

text: Notation[edit]

text: Physicists and chemists use a standard notation to indicate the electron configurations of atoms and molecules. For atoms, the notation consists of a sequence of atomic subshell labels (e.g. for phosphorus the sequence 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p) with the number of electrons assigned to each subshell placed as a superscript. For example, hydrogen has one electron in the s-orbital of the first shell, so its configuration is written 1s1. Lithium has two electrons in the 1s-subshell and one in the (higher-energy) 2s-subshell, so its configuration is written 1s2 2s1 (pronounced "one-s-two, two-s-one"). Phosphorus (atomic number 15) is as follows: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3.

text: For atoms with many electrons, this notation can become lengthy and so an abbreviated notation is used. The electron configuration can be visualized as the core electrons, equivalent to the noble gas of the preceding period, and the valence electrons: each element in a period differs only by the last few subshells. Phosphorus, for instance, is in the third period. It differs from the second-period neon, whose configuration is 1s2 2s2 2p6, only by the presence of a third shell. The portion of its configuration that is equivalent to neon is abbreviated as [Ne], allowing the configuration of phosphorus to be written as [Ne] 3s2 3p3 rather than writing out the details of the configuration of neon explicitly. This convention is useful as it is the electrons in the outermost shell that most determine the chemistry of the element.

text: For a given configuration, the order of writing the orbitals is not completely fixed since only the orbital occupancies have physical significance. For example, the electron configuration of the titanium ground state can be written as either [Ar] 4s2 3d2 or [Ar] 3d2 4s2. The first notation follows the order based on the Madelung rule for the configurations of neutral atoms; 4s is filled before 3d in the sequence Ar, K, Ca, Sc, Ti. The second notation groups all orbitals with the same value of n together, corresponding to the "spectroscopic" order of orbital energies that is the reverse of the order in which electrons are removed from a given atom to form positive ions; 3d is filled before 4s in the sequence Ti4+, Ti3+, Ti2+, Ti+, Ti.

text: The superscript 1 for a singly occupied subshell is not compulsory; for example aluminium may be written as either [Ne] 3s2 3p1 or [Ne] 3s2 3p. It is quite common to see the letters of the orbital labels (s, p, d, f) written in an italic or slanting typeface, although the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) recommends a normal typeface (as used here). The choice of letters originates from a now-obsolete system of categorizing spectral lines as "sharp", "principal", "diffuse" and "fundamental" (or "fine"), based on their observed fine structure: their modern usage indicates orbitals with an azimuthal quantum number, l, of 0, 1, 2 or 3 respectively. After "f", the sequence continues alphabetically "g", "h", "i"... (l = 4, 5, 6...), skipping "j", although orbitals of these types are rarely required.[4][5]

text: The electron configurations of molecules are written in a similar way, except that molecular orbital labels are used instead of atomic orbital labels (see below).

text: Energy—ground state and excited states[edit]

text: The energy associated to an electron is that of its orbital. The energy of a configuration is often approximated as the sum of the energy of each electron, neglecting the electron-electron interactions. The configuration that corresponds to the lowest electronic energy is called the ground state. Any other configuration is an excited state.

text: As an example, the ground state configuration of the sodium atom is 1s22s22p63s1, as deduced from the Aufbau principle (see below). The first excited state is obtained by promoting a 3s electron to the 3p orbital, to obtain the 1s22s22p63p configuration, abbreviated as the 3p level. Atoms can move from one configuration to another by absorbing or emitting energy. In a sodium-vapor lamp for example, sodium atoms are excited to the 3p level by an electrical discharge, and return to the ground state by emitting yellow light of wavelength 589 nm.

text: Usually, the excitation of valence electrons (such as 3s for sodium) involves energies corresponding to photons of visible or ultraviolet light. The excitation of core electrons is possible, but requires much higher energies, generally corresponding to x-ray photons. This would be the case for example to excite a 2p electron to the 3s level and form the excited 1s22s22p53s2 configuration.

text: The remainder of this article deals only with the ground-state configuration, often referred to as "the" configuration of an atom or molecule.

text: History[edit]

text: Niels Bohr (1923) was the first to propose that the periodicity in the properties of the elements might be explained by the electronic structure of the atom.[6] His proposals were based on the then current Bohr model of the atom, in which the electron shells were orbits at a fixed distance from the nucleus. Bohr's original configurations would seem strange to a present-day chemist: sulfur was given as 2.4.4.6 instead of 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4 (2.8.6).

text: The following year, E. C. Stoner incorporated Sommerfeld's third quantum number into the description of electron shells, and correctly predicted the shell structure of sulfur to be 2.8.6.[7] However neither Bohr's system nor Stoner's could correctly describe the changes in atomic spectra in a magnetic field (the Zeeman effect).

text: Bohr was well aware of this shortcoming (and others), and had written to his friend Wolfgang Pauli to ask for his help in saving quantum theory (the system now known as "old quantum theory"). Pauli realized that the Zeeman effect must be due only to the outermost electrons of the atom, and was able to reproduce Stoner's shell structure, but with the correct structure of subshells, by his inclusion of a fourth quantum number and his exclusion principle (1925):[8]

text: It should be forbidden for more than one electron with the same value of the main quantum number n to have the same value for the other three quantum numbers k [l], j [ml] and m [ms].

text: The Schrödinger equation, published in 1926, gave three of the four quantum numbers as a direct consequence of its solution for the hydrogen atom:[2] this solution yields the atomic orbitals that are shown today in textbooks of chemistry (and above). The examination of atomic spectra allowed the electron configurations of atoms to be determined experimentally, and led to an empirical rule (known as Madelung's rule (1936),[9] see below) for the order in which atomic orbitals are filled with electrons.

text: Atoms: Aufbau principle and Madelung rule[edit]

text: The Aufbau principle (from the German Aufbau, "building up, construction") was an important part of Bohr's original concept of electron configuration. It may be stated as:[10]

text: The principle works very well (for the ground states of the atoms) for the first 18 elements, then decreasingly well for the following 100 elements. The modern form of the Aufbau principle describes an order of orbital energies given by Madelung's rule (or Klechkowski's rule). This rule was first stated by Charles Janet in 1929, rediscovered by Erwin Madelung in 1936,[9] and later given a theoretical justification by V.M. Klechkowski[11]

text:
Orbitals are filled in the order of increasing n+l;
Where two orbitals have the same value of n+l, they are filled in order of increasing n.

tag: ol

text: This gives the following order for filling the orbitals:

text: In this list the orbitals in parentheses are not occupied in the ground state of the heaviest atom now known (Og, Z = 118).

text: The Aufbau principle can be applied, in a modified form, to the protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus, as in the shell model of nuclear physics and nuclear chemistry.

text: Periodic table[edit]

text: The form of the periodic table is closely related to the electron configuration of the atoms of the elements. For example, all the elements of group 2 have an electron configuration of [E] ns2 (where [E] is an inert gas configuration), and have notable similarities in their chemical properties. In general, the periodicity of the periodic table in terms of periodic table blocks is clearly due to the number of electrons (2, 6, 10, 14...) needed to fill s, p, d, and f subshells.

text: The outermost electron shell is often referred to as the "valence shell" and (to a first approximation) determines the chemical properties. It should be remembered that the similarities in the chemical properties were remarked on more than a century before the idea of electron configuration.[12] It is not clear how far Madelung's rule explains (rather than simply describes) the periodic table,[13] although some properties (such as the common +2 oxidation state in the first row of the transition metals) would obviously be different with a different order of orbital filling.

text: Shortcomings of the Aufbau principle[edit]

text: The Aufbau principle rests on a fundamental postulate that the order of orbital energies is fixed, both for a given element and between different elements; in both cases this is only approximately true. It considers atomic orbitals as "boxes" of fixed energy into which can be placed two electrons and no more. However, the energy of an electron "in" an atomic orbital depends on the energies of all the other electrons of the atom (or ion, or molecule, etc.). There are no "one-electron solutions" for systems of more than one electron, only a set of many-electron solutions that cannot be calculated exactly[14] (although there are mathematical approximations available, such as the Hartree–Fock method).

text: The fact that the Aufbau principle is based on an approximation can be seen from the fact that there is an almost-fixed filling order at all, that, within a given shell, the s-orbital is always filled before the p-orbitals. In a hydrogen-like atom, which only has one electron, the s-orbital and the p-orbitals of the same shell have exactly the same energy, to a very good approximation in the absence of external electromagnetic fields. (However, in a real hydrogen atom, the energy levels are slightly split by the magnetic field of the nucleus, and by the quantum electrodynamic effects of the Lamb shift.)

text: Ionization of the transition metals[edit]

text: The naïve application of the Aufbau principle leads to a well-known paradox (or apparent paradox) in the basic chemistry of the transition metals. Potassium and calcium appear in the periodic table before the transition metals, and have electron configurations [Ar] 4s1 and [Ar] 4s2 respectively, i.e. the 4s-orbital is filled before the 3d-orbital. This is in line with Madelung's rule, as the 4s-orbital has n+l  = 4 (n = 4, l = 0) while the 3d-orbital has n+l  = 5 (n = 3, l = 2). After calcium, most neutral atoms in the first series of transition metals (Sc-Zn) have configurations with two 4s electrons, but there are two exceptions. Chromium and copper have electron configurations [Ar] 3d5 4s1 and [Ar] 3d10 4s1 respectively, i.e. one electron has passed from the 4s-orbital to a 3d-orbital to generate a half-filled or filled subshell. In this case, the usual explanation is that "half-filled or completely filled subshells are particularly stable arrangements of electrons".

text: The apparent paradox arises when electrons are removed from the transition metal atoms to form ions. The first electrons to be ionized come not from the 3d-orbital, as one would expect if it were "higher in energy", but from the 4s-orbital. This interchange of electrons between 4s and 3d is found for all atoms of the first series of transition metals.[15] The configurations of the neutral atoms (K, Ca, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, ...) usually follow the order 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, ...; however the successive stages of ionization of a given atom (such as Fe4+, Fe3+, Fe2+, Fe+, Fe) usually follow the order 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 3d, 4s, ...

text: This phenomenon is only paradoxical if it is assumed that the energy order of atomic orbitals is fixed and unaffected by the nuclear charge or by the presence of electrons in other orbitals. If that were the case, the 3d-orbital would have the same energy as the 3p-orbital, as it does in hydrogen, yet it clearly doesn't. There is no special reason why the Fe2+ ion should have the same electron configuration as the chromium atom, given that iron has two more protons in its nucleus than chromium, and that the chemistry of the two species is very different. Melrose and Eric Scerri have analyzed the changes of orbital energy with orbital occupations in terms of the two-electron repulsion integrals of the Hartree-Fock method of atomic structure calculation.[16] More recently Scerri has argued that contrary to what is stated in the vast majority of sources including the title of his previous article on the subject, 3d orbitals rather than 4s are in fact preferentially occupied.[17]

text: Similar ion-like 3dx4s0 configurations occur in transition metal complexes as described by the simple crystal field theory, even if the metal has oxidation state 0. For example, chromium hexacarbonyl can be described as a chromium atom (not ion) surrounded by six carbon monoxide ligands. The electron configuration of the central chromium atom is described as 3d6 with the six electrons filling the three lower-energy d orbitals between the ligands. The other two d orbitals are at higher energy due to the crystal field of the ligands. This picture is consistent with the experimental fact that the complex is diamagnetic, meaning that it has no unpaired electrons. However, in a more accurate description using molecular orbital theory, the d-like orbitals occupied by the six electrons are no longer identical with the d orbitals of the free atom.

text: Other exceptions to Madelung's rule[edit]

text: There are several more exceptions to Madelung's rule among the heavier elements, and as atomic number increases it becomes more and more difficult to find simple explanations such as the stability of half-filled subshells. It is possible to predict most of the exceptions by Hartree–Fock calculations,[18] which are an approximate method for taking account of the effect of the other electrons on orbital energies. For the heavier elements, it is also necessary to take account of the effects of Special Relativity on the energies of the atomic orbitals, as the inner-shell electrons are moving at speeds approaching the speed of light. In general, these relativistic effects[19] tend to decrease the energy of the s-orbitals in relation to the other atomic orbitals.[20] The table below shows the ground state configuration in terms of orbital occupancy, but it does not show the ground state in terms of the sequence of orbital energies as determined spectroscopically. For example, in the transition metals, the 4s orbital is of a higher energy than the 3d orbitals; and in the lanthanides, the 6s is higher than the 4f and 5d. The ground states can be seen in the Electron configurations of the elements (data page).

text:
Electron shells filled in violation of Madelung's rule[21] (red)

Period 4

Period 5

Period 6

Period 7

Element
Z
Electron Configuration

Element
Z
Electron Configuration

Element
Z
Electron Configuration

Element
Z
Electron Configuration

Lanthanum
57
[Xe] 6s2 5d1

Actinium
89
[Rn] 7s2 6d1

Cerium
58
[Xe] 6s2 4f1 5d1

Thorium
90
[Rn] 7s2 6d2

Praseodymium
59
[Xe] 6s2 4f3

Protactinium
91
[Rn] 7s2 5f2 6d1

Neodymium
60
[Xe] 6s2 4f4

Uranium
92
[Rn] 7s2 5f3 6d1

Promethium
61
[Xe] 6s2 4f5

Neptunium
93
[Rn] 7s2 5f4 6d1

Samarium
62
[Xe] 6s2 4f6

Plutonium
94
[Rn] 7s2 5f6

Europium
63
[Xe] 6s2 4f7

Americium
95
[Rn] 7s2 5f7

Gadolinium
64
[Xe] 6s2 4f7 5d1

Curium
96
[Rn] 7s2 5f7 6d1

Terbium
65
[Xe] 6s2 4f9

Berkelium
97
[Rn] 7s2 5f9

Scandium
21
[Ar] 4s2 3d1

Yttrium
39
[Kr] 5s2 4d1

Lutetium
71
[Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d1

Lawrencium
103
[Rn] 7s2 5f14 7p1

Titanium
22
[Ar] 4s2 3d2

Zirconium
40
[Kr] 5s2 4d2

Hafnium
72
[Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d2

Rutherfordium
104
[Rn] 7s2 5f14 6d2

Vanadium
23
[Ar] 4s2 3d3

Niobium
41
[Kr] 5s1 4d4

Tantalum
73
[Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d3

Dubnium
105
[Rn] 7s2 5f14 6d3

Chromium
24
[Ar] 4s1 3d5

Molybdenum
42
[Kr] 5s1 4d5

Tungsten
74
[Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d4

Seaborgium
106
[Rn] 7s2 5f14 6d4

Manganese
25
[Ar] 4s2 3d5

Technetium
43
[Kr] 5s2 4d5

Rhenium
75
[Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d5

Bohrium
107
[Rn] 7s2 5f14 6d5

Iron
26
[Ar] 4s2 3d6

Ruthenium
44
[Kr] 5s1 4d7

Osmium
76
[Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d6

Hassium
108
[Rn] 7s2 5f14 6d6

Cobalt
27
[Ar] 4s2 3d7

Rhodium
45
[Kr] 5s1 4d8

Iridium
77
[Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d7

Nickel
28
[Ar] 4s2 3d8 or
[Ar] 4s1 3d9 (disputed)[22]

Palladium
46
[Kr] 4d10

Platinum
78
[Xe] 6s1 4f14 5d9

Copper
29
[Ar] 4s1 3d10

Silver
47
[Kr] 5s1 4d10

Gold
79
[Xe] 6s1 4f14 5d10

Zinc
30
[Ar] 4s2 3d10

Cadmium
48
[Kr] 5s2 4d10

Mercury
80
[Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d10

text: The electron-shell configuration of elements beyond hassium has not yet been empirically verified, but they are expected to follow Madelung's rule without exceptions until element 120.[23]

text: Electron configuration in molecules[edit]

text: In molecules, the situation becomes more complex, as each molecule has a different orbital structure. The molecular orbitals are labelled according to their symmetry,[24] rather than the atomic orbital labels used for atoms and monatomic ions: hence, the electron configuration of the dioxygen molecule, O2, is written 1σg2 1σu2 2σg2 2σu2 3σg2 1πu4 1πg2,[25][26] or equivalently 1σg2 1σu2 2σg2 2σu2 1πu4 3σg2 1πg2.[1] The term 1πg2 represents the two electrons in the two degenerate π*-orbitals (antibonding). From Hund's rules, these electrons have parallel spins in the ground state, and so dioxygen has a net magnetic moment (it is paramagnetic). The explanation of the paramagnetism of dioxygen was a major success for molecular orbital theory.

text: The electronic configuration of polyatomic molecules can change without absorption or emission of a photon through vibronic couplings.

text: Electron configuration in solids[edit]

text: In a solid, the electron states become very numerous. They cease to be discrete, and effectively blend into continuous ranges of possible states (an electron band). The notion of electron configuration ceases to be relevant, and yields to band theory.

text: Applications[edit]

text: The most widespread application of electron configurations is in the rationalization of chemical properties, in both inorganic and organic chemistry. In effect, electron configurations, along with some simplified form of molecular orbital theory, have become the modern equivalent of the valence concept, describing the number and type of chemical bonds that an atom can be expected to form.

text: This approach is taken further in computational chemistry, which typically attempts to make quantitative estimates of chemical properties. For many years, most such calculations relied upon the "linear combination of atomic orbitals" (LCAO) approximation, using an ever-larger and more complex basis set of atomic orbitals as the starting point. The last step in such a calculation is the assignment of electrons among the molecular orbitals according to the Aufbau principle. Not all methods in calculational chemistry rely on electron configuration: density functional theory (DFT) is an important example of a method that discards the model.

text: For atoms or molecules with more than one electron, the motion of electrons are correlated and such a picture is no longer exact. A very large number of electronic configurations are needed to exactly describe any multi-electron system, and no energy can be associated with one single configuration. However, the electronic wave function is usually dominated by a very small number of configurations and therefore the notion of electronic configuration remains essential for multi-electron systems.

text: A fundamental application of electron configurations is in the interpretation of atomic spectra. In this case, it is necessary to supplement the electron configuration with one or more term symbols, which describe the different energy levels available to an atom. Term symbols can be calculated for any electron configuration, not just the ground-state configuration listed in tables, although not all the energy levels are observed in practice. It is through the analysis of atomic spectra that the ground-state electron configurations of the elements were experimentally determined.


document_title: Chrysler 300

question_text: how much horsepower does a 2005 chrysler 300c have

text: Chrysler 300

text: First generation (2005–2010)[edit]

text:
First generation

Overview

Also called
Chrysler 300C

Production
2004–2010

Model years
2005–2010

Assembly
Brampton, Ontario, Canada (Brampton Assembly)[2]
Graz, Austria (Magna Steyr) (2005-2010)
Beijing, China (Beijing Benz) (2006-2009)[3]

Designer
Ralph Gilles (2001)
Freeman Thomas (2001)

Body and chassis

Body style
4-door notchback sedan
5-door station wagon (Europe, Australia)

Platform
Chrysler LX platform

Related
Dodge Charger
Dodge Challenger
Dodge Magnum
Mercedes-Benz E-Class (W211)

Powertrain

Engine
2.7 L EER V6
3.5 L EGG V6
5.7 L EZB HEMI V8
6.1 L ESF HEMI V8
3.0 L OM642 turbodiesel V6

Transmission
4-speed 42RLE automatic
5-speed W5A580 automatic

Dimensions

Wheelbase
120.0 in (3,048 mm)[4]

Length
197.8 in (5,024 mm)

Width
74.1 in (1,882 mm)

Height
58.4 in (1,483 mm)
SRT8: 57.9 in (1,471 mm)

Curb weight
3,721-4,046 lb (1,688-1,835 kg )[5][6]

text: The Chrysler 300 was designed as a modern interpretation of the Chrysler C-300 (and the letter series Chryslers that followed), featuring a large grille, long hood and low roofline that was prominent on those vehicles. The styling retained many elements of the 1998 Chrysler Chronos concept car, such as chrome interior accents and tortoiseshell finishings on the steering wheel and shifter knob.[7]

text: The Chrysler 300 is based on the rear-wheel drive Chrysler LX platform with components derived from the W211 Mercedes-Benz E-Class of 2003 to 2009.[8] Shared components include the rear suspension design, front seat frames, wiring harnesses, steering column, the 5-speed automatic transmission's design, and a derivative of the 4Matic all-wheel drive system.

text: Model range[edit]

text: Base[edit]

text: The basic 300 (or 300C in some countries) comes with standard 17-inch wheels, wheel covers, four-wheel disc brakes, single disc MP3 player, auxiliary input jack, power driver seat and a four-speed automatic transmission. It uses a 2,736 cc (2.736 L; 167.0 cu in) EER V6 making 190 hp (140 kW). In Canada, it comes standard with the Touring model's 3,518 cc (3.5 L; 214.7 cu in) V6 engine. The vehicle comes with standard rear wheel drive and available all wheel drive. The basic 300 model was renamed to LX for 2008 and remains as the code-name for the platform.[9]

text: Touring[edit]

text: The Touring model uses a 3,518 cc (3.5 L; 214.7 cu in) V6, producing 250 hp (190 kW) and 250 lb⋅ft (340 N⋅m) of torque, either a 4 or 5spd transmission depending on the year and drive configuration, and comes with 17-inch aluminium wheels, AM/FM radio with CD player and auxiliary audio jack, Electronic Stability Program (ESP), remote keyless entry, leather trimmed seats, and SIRIUS satellite radio. This model was renamed Touring Plus for the 2009 and 2010 model years.[9]

text: Limited[edit]

text: The Limited model included the Touring model's 3.5 L V6 engine, generating 250 hp (190 kW) and 250 lb⋅ft (340 N⋅m) and either a 4 or 5 speed transmission depending on the year and drive configuration. Additional features included 18-inch chrome-clad aluminium wheels, anti-roll bars.

text: The top-of-the-line 300C version uses a 5.7 L (345 cu in) Hemi V8.[9] Using the Multidisplacement System (MDS), this engine can run on four cylinders when less power is needed in order to reduce total fuel consumption. The USEPA-rated fuel consumption of the 300C is: 15 miles per US gallon (16 L/100 km; 18 mpg‑imp) city, and 23 miles per US gallon (10 L/100 km; 28 mpg‑imp) highway. When all eight cylinders are needed, the 300C can make 340 hp (250 kW) and 390 lb⋅ft (530 N⋅m) torque. It uses a five-speed automatic transmission and comes standard with 18-inch chrome-clad alloy wheels, Chrysler's MyGIG Infotainment System in 2008 and SIRIUS Satellite Radio and Backseat Television in 2008. The HEMI engine includes a pushrod induction tube, located on the side of the engine-block. This tube makes the 300C more fuel efficient and quicker, because of the air being "pulled and pushed" into the engine's induction area.[citation needed] The engine uses the HEMI, or double rocker configuration, with a cam-in-block, overhead valve (OHV) pushrod design. There are two spark plugs per cylinder to promote efficient fuel/air mixture burn and thereby reduce emissions. In 2009 - 2010 power output was increased to 360HP.

text: The SRT-8 model was equipped with a 6.1-liter Hemi engine producing 425 horsepower at 6,200 rpm and 420 lb-ft of torque at 4,800 rpm. The SRT8 can hit 0-60 mph in 4.9 seconds.[10]

text: Other variants[edit]

text: Station wagon[edit]

text: The 300C was sold in Europe, Australia and Japan as both a four-door notchback sedan and a five-door station wagon. The five-door station wagon was sold as the 300C Touring (not to be confused with the North American notchback sedan's "Touring" trim level), which shared much of its sheet metal aft of the C-pillar and wheel designs with the Dodge Magnum. The base Chrysler 300 was not sold in Europe, instead all cars came with the 300C body style/interior and a choice of either V6 diesel or V8 gasoline powerplants. The economical Mercedes-based V6 diesel was popular in Europe, where gasoline prices are high. All 300C Touring models, along with European 300C sedans and right-hand drive models were assembled by Magna Steyr in Graz, Austria beginning in June 2005.[11] Steyr insisted on upgrading suspension components to suit European tastes. The five-door station wagon bodystyle was discontinued after the first generation.

text: Diesel (2006–2011)[edit]

text: In Europe and Australia, the 300C was available with a Mercedes-Benz 3.0 L diesel V6 engine (internal code OM642) rated 218 PS (160 kW; 215 hp)@3800rpm and 376 lb⋅ft (510 N⋅m)@1600rpm. Fuel economy for the 300C diesel is rated at 26.2 mpg‑US (9.0 L/100 km; 31.5 mpg‑imp) City, 42.8 mpg‑US (5.50 L/100 km; 51.4 mpg‑imp) Highway and 34.9 mpg‑US (6.74 L/100 km; 41.9 mpg‑imp) on the combined cycle. Acceleration from 0-60 mph happens in 7.9 seconds while the top speed remains the same as the gasoline V6 (140 mph (230 km/h)).

text: 2008 UK models include 300C SRT-Design model in saloon or Touring body, which included SRT 20-inch alloy wheels and wheel arch spats, chrome mesh grille, MyGIG satellite navigation, SRT-8 steering wheel, SRT-8 leather sports seats and carbon fibre interior details.[12]

text: ASC Helios 300[edit]

text: ASC created a convertible version of the Chrysler 300C, dubbed the ASC Helios 300, and unveiled it at the North American International Auto Show in early 2005. Despite rumours, Chrysler confirmed that the vehicle would not be produced.

text: Executive Series 300[edit]

text: The Walter P. Chrysler Executive Series 300 was an extended wheelbase version shown at the 2006 New York Auto Show. It added six inches (152 mm) to the rear passenger compartment.[13]

text: Heritage Edition 300C

text: The Chrysler 300C Heritage Edition debuted in 2006 and was a performance oriented trim that used the 5.7 Hemi and had styling ques from the Chrysler 300 "letter series" of the 1950s and the 1960s.[14]

text: Awards[edit]

text: The 300C was the 2005 Motor Trend Car of the Year and was on Car and Driver's Ten Best list for 2005 and 2006. It also won the North American Car of the Year and Canadian Car of the Year Best New Luxury Car awards. During its debut year, it was promoted as being one of the most awarded new cars ever. The 300C was also included in the finalists for 2005 World Car of the Year but was eliminated in first round.[citation needed]

text: Reception and legacy[edit]

text: In the USA, the 300C enjoyed a wave of popularity in the mid-2000s, aided by celebrity owners (including US President Barack Obama,[15]) and appearances in music videos. In 2004, rapper Snoop Dogg famously called then-Chrysler CEO, Dieter Zetsche, asking for his own 300C; he later appeared in a commercial for the car alongside Lee Iacocca.[16] The 300C was ranked #12 in a Complex.com article, "The 25 Most Iconic Hip-Hop Cars" due to its popularity in many hip-hop music videos following its introduction.[17] Chrysler 300 designer Ralph Gilles reflected on the vehicle's success in 2008, saying that the "300 turned out to be a bit of an icon for Chrysler".[18]

text: In the UK, the BBC Top Gear team described the 300C as "something different with a bit of kitsch gangster cool". They praised the spacious and well equipped interior and the low price while criticizing the quality of materials, ride, steering and low engine torque.[19] The first generation model was popular with British buyers who regarded it as the "poor man's Bentley".[20] (Indeed, some owners swapped the Chrysler badges for Bentley ones). The post-2011 second generation proved less popular, primarily because of its less attractive appearance to British eyes.

text: On Hip hop artist Drake's album The Views; song Keep The Family Close he references The Chrysler 300 with the lyrics "Always saw you for what you could've been / Ever since you met me / Like when Chrysler made that one car that looked just like the Bentley"

text: Second generation (2011–present)[edit]

text:
Second generation

Overview

Also called
Lancia Thema (Europe)
Chrysler 300C (global)

Production
2011–present

Model years
2011–present

Assembly
Brampton, Ontario, Canada (Brampton Assembly)[2]

Body and chassis

Body style
4-door notchback sedan

Platform
Chrysler LX platform

Related
Dodge Charger
Dodge Challenger

Powertrain

Engine
3.6 L Pentastar V6
5.7 L HEMI V8
6.4 L HEMI V8
3.0 L VM A630 turbodiesel V6

Transmission
5-speed 5G-Tronic automatic
8-speed 8HP45 automatic [21]

Dimensions

Wheelbase
120.2 in (3,053 mm)

Length
198.6 in (5,044 mm)

Width
75.1 in (1,908 mm)

Height
58.4 in (1,483 mm)

text: A mildly redesigned 300 was introduced in 2011 as a four-door notchback sedan, the five-door station wagon version of the 300 having been retired. Exterior changes included revised sheet metal, thinner roof pillars, a more raked windshield, bi-xenon HID projector headlights, LED daytime running strips within the headlights, new taillights with LEDs and a horizontally slotted front grille with an updated version of the Chrysler winged brand emblem. Options included a dual-pane panoramic sunroof and 20-inch polished-aluminium wheels. Interior changes included a revised instrument panel with localized "soft-touch" materials, 8.4 inch Uconnect Touch, new steering wheel and centre console, and standard leather seating on all trim levels. Both seat-mounted and curtain side airbags were standard.

text: The predecessors' 2.7- and 3.5-litre engines were replaced with Chrysler's new 3.6-litre Pentastar V6 engine producing 292 horsepower (218 kW) and 260 lb⋅ft (350 N⋅m) of torque. The 5.7-litre HEMI V8 engine remained available with 363 horsepower. A 3.0-litre VM Motori V6 turbodiesel is also available in Europe, and Australia.[22] Beginning with model year 2012 all V6 models were equipped with the 8-speed 8HP45 automatic transmission, licensed from ZF Friedrichshafen .[23]

text: Variants[edit]

text: The 2011 model was offered in Touring, Limited, 300C, and 300C AWD trim levels. Touring and Limited trims included the Pentastar V6, while the 300C line offered a standard 5.7 HEMI.[24]

text: A new 300C Executive Series luxury trim level was introduced alongside a new 300S trim at the 2011 New York International Auto Show. The Executive/Luxury Series was also sold in Europe, rebranded as the Lancia Thema from 2011-2014. The sport themed 300S featured black treatment for grille and headlamps, 20-inch polished-face aluminium wheels with black painted pockets, 10-speaker Beats by Dr. Dre sound system,[25] and steering wheel mounted paddle shifters.[26]

text: SRT[edit]

text: An SRT version was unveiled at the 2011 New York International Auto Show, powered by a 6.4-litre 392 HEMI V8 engine. The 6.4 392 Hemi engine is also used in other Chrysler Group SRT vehicles. With 470 hp (350 kW), the new 300 SRT can go from zero to 60 mph (97 km/h) in the low 4 second range.[27]

text: In addition to the increase in power, the SRT receives specific exterior trim including a lower front fascia, large exhaust tips, body color instead of chrome trim and large 20-inch aluminium wheels. The car also gets a lowered, sportier suspension setup and a large Brembo brake package.[28]

text: The 300 SRT (or SRT8) was discontinued for the 2015 model year in the United States, but is still sold in Australia, New Zealand, and the Middle East. Contrary to past statements by Chrysler, the 300 SRT is still sold in left-hand drive abroad.[29]

text: Special editions[edit]

text:
In early 2016, Chrysler announced a new 300S Alloy Edition. Features included dark bronze 20" wheels (19" on AWD) and 300S badge, titanium exhaust tips and wing badge, and gloss-black window, headlight and taillight accents.
The 300 Motown Edition model sales began in the spring of 2013. The Motown Edition is a tribute to the Motown genre of music. Additions to the Chrysler 300C features, include special chrome wheels, a Beats by Dr. Dre ten-speaker sound system, "Motown Edition" badges on the front fenders, as well as 100 Motown tunes preloaded on a USB drive.[30] Berry Gordy, Jr., the creator of the Motown genre, appears in a 2012 TV ad for the Chrysler 300 Motown Edition, promoting his musical, and saying "This is Motown. And this is what we do". The song playing in the commercial is "Ain't No Mountain High Enough".
300S Glacier Edition, available in the fall of 2012 as a 2013 model year vehicle. Based on the Chrysler 300S, the Glacier Edition adds signature details not found on other Chrysler 300 models.
Mopar '12, available as a 2012 model year vehicle. This Special Edition Chrysler 300 was designed by Mopar Performance to mark Mopar's 75th anniversary. Featuring a 3:91 gear ratio, sport tuned suspension, and unique badging, only 500 Mopar Edition 300's were made.
John Varvatos Edition available in 2013 and 2014 in "Luxury" or "Limited" trim.[31] Each version featured unique exterior and interior colors and materials.

tag: ul

text: Engines[edit]

text:
Chrysler

Model
Engine
Displacement
Power @ rpm
Torque @ rpm
Years

Touring
3.6 V6 Pentastar
3,604 cc (219.9 cu in)
296 PS (218 kW; 292 hp) @ 6350 rpm
350 N⋅m (260 lb⋅ft) @ 4800 rpm
2011–

Limited

300S[32]
3.6 V6 Pentastar
3,604 cc (219.9 cu in)
304 PS (224 kW; 300 hp)
350 N⋅m (260 lb⋅ft) @ 4800 rpm
2011–

300C
5.7 V8 HEMI
5,654 cc (345.0 cu in)
368 PS (271 kW; 363 hp) @ 5150 rpm
527 N⋅m (389 lb⋅ft) @ 4250 rpm
2011–

300 SRT-8
6.4L 392 Hemi V8 engine
6,430 cc (392 cu in)
477 PS (351 kW; 470 hp)
637 N⋅m (470 lb⋅ft)
2012–

Lancia - (Chrysler UK)

Petrol
3.6 V6 Pentastar
3,604 cc (219.9 cu in)
286 PS (210 kW; 282 hp) @ 6350 rpm
340 N⋅m (250 lb⋅ft) @ 4650 rpm
2011–2014

Diesel
3.0 V6 VM Motori A630
2,987 cc (182.3 cu in)
190 PS (140 kW; 190 hp) @ 4000 rpm
440 N⋅m (320 lb⋅ft) @ 1600-2800 rpm
2011–2014

239 PS (176 kW; 236 hp) @ 4000 rpm
550 N⋅m (410 lb⋅ft) @ 1800-2800 rpm

text: Source for Lancia[33]

text: Marketing[edit]

text: As part of the 2011 Chrysler 300 advertising campaign, three TV commercials were produced. "Homecoming" featured Detroit Lions defensive lineman Ndamukong Suh driving through his rainy hometown of Portland, Oregon, in his new 2011 Chrysler 300, retracing his humble beginnings. "Attitude" featured John Varvatos seeking inspiration at a record store in Brooklyn and record under his arm and into his Chrysler 300. "Good Things" featured Dr. Dre driving through the streets of Los Angeles in a Beats by Dre equipped 2012 Chrysler 300.[34]

text: The 'See It Through' TV commercial featured the Chrysler 300 and notable Detroit locals, including Detroit Lion's Ndamukong Suh and a poem written in 1917 by Edgar Guest titled "See It Through".[35]

text: 2015 facelift[edit]

text: In late 2014 a facelift version of the 300 was introduced. Changes include:

text:
Full speed-range Adaptive Cruise Control with Stop
Full-Speed Forward Collision Warning (FCW) with Active Braking
Lane Departure Warning with Lane Keep Assist
Uconnect Systems: Bluetooth Streaming Audio, Uconnect Voice Command and Bluetooth (with Uconnect Access). The 8.4AN System adds, navigation, featuring full-color 3-D graphics and HD Radio
7-inch customizable Driver Information Display (DID) electronic instrument cluster
Standard TorqueFlite eight-speed automatic transmission with Rotary E-shift
Restyled front and rear fascia
New black and silver mesh chrome grille

text: Safety[edit]

text: The Lancia version was safety tested by Euro NCAP in autumn 2011 and got the following results:

text:
Euro NCAP test results

Lancia Thema (2011)[36]

Test
Points
%

Overall:

Adult occupant:
29.7
83%

Child occupant:
37.7
77%

Pedestrian:
21.3
59%

Safety assist:
5
71%

text: Concept cars[edit]

text:
In 2000, Chrysler introduced the 300 HEMI C,[37] a 2+2 convertible bearing the new 5.7 litre HEMI engine with 353 horsepower (263 kW) and 353 lb⋅ft (479 N⋅m) torque. It had rear wheel drive and a four speed automatic transmission. It was capable of 0-60 mph in under 6 seconds.
In 1991, Chrysler introduced a Monteverdi High Speed inspired concept 300,[38] employing the Dodge Viper engine. It was inspired by a 1970s Swiss-built sedan powered by Chrysler.

text: Total Sales[edit]

text:
Year
USA
Canada

2004[39]
112,930
10,048

2005[39]
144,068
14,654

2006[40]
143,647
13,316

2007[40]
120,636
10,021

2008[41]
62,352
7,443

2009[42]
38,606
5,234

2010[43]
37,116
4,180

2011[44]
36,285
3,045

2012[45]
70,747
5,760

2013[46]
57,724
5,375

2014[47]
53,382
4,117

2015[48]
53,109
4,443

2016[49]
53,241
3,662

2017
45.551[50]
3,838

Total Sales 1,124.530


document_title: Sound barrier

question_text: when did we break the speed of sound

question_tokens: when did we break the speed of sound

text: Sound barrier

text: History[edit]

text: Some common whips such as the bullwhip or stockwhip are able to move faster than sound: the tip of the whip breaks the sound barrier and causes a sharp crack—literally a sonic boom.[5] Firearms made after the 19th century have generally had a supersonic muzzle velocity.[citation needed]

text:
The sound barrier may have been first breached by living beings some 150 million years ago. Some paleobiologists report that, based on computer models of their biomechanical capabilities, certain long-tailed dinosaurs such as Apatosaurus and Diplodocus may have possessed the ability to flick their tails at supersonic speeds, possibly used to generate an intimidating booming sound. This finding is theoretical and disputed by others in the field.[6]
Meteorites entering the Earth's atmosphere usually, if not always, descend faster than sound.[citation needed]

text: Early problems[edit]

text: The tip of the propeller on many early aircraft may reach supersonic speeds, producing a noticeable buzz that differentiates such aircraft. This is particularly noticeable on the Stearman (released in 1934), and noticeable on the North American T-6 Texan when it enters a sharp-breaking turn. This is undesirable, as the transonic air movement creates disruptive shock waves and turbulence. It is due to these effects that propellers are known to suffer from dramatically decreased performance as they approach the speed of sound. It is easy to demonstrate that the power needed to improve performance is so great that the weight of the required engine grows faster than the power output of the propeller can compensate. This problem was one that led to early research into jet engines, notably by Frank Whittle in England and Hans von Ohain in Germany, who were led to their research specifically in order to avoid these problems in high-speed flight.

text: Nevertheless, propeller aircraft were able to approach the speed of sound in a dive. Unfortunately, doing so led to numerous crashes for a variety of reasons. Most infamously, in the Mitsubishi Zero, pilots flew full power into the terrain because the rapidly increasing forces acting on the control surfaces of their aircraft overpowered them.[7] In this case, several attempts to fix it only made the problem worse. Likewise, the flexing caused by the low torsional stiffness of the Supermarine Spitfire's wings caused them, in turn, to counteract aileron control inputs, leading to a condition known as control reversal. This was solved in later models with changes to the wing. Worse still, a particularly dangerous interaction of the airflow between the wings and tail surfaces of diving Lockheed P-38 Lightnings made "pulling out" of dives difficult; however, the problem was later solved by the addition of a "dive flap" that upset the airflow under these circumstances. Flutter due to the formation of shock waves on curved surfaces was another major problem, which led most famously to the breakup of de Havilland Swallow and death of its pilot, Geoffrey de Havilland, Jr. in 1946. A similar problem is thought to have been the cause of the 1943 crash of the BI-1 rocket aircraft in the Soviet Union.

text: All of these effects, although unrelated in most ways, led to the concept of a "barrier" making it difficult for an aircraft to exceed the speed of sound.[8] Erroneous news reports caused most people to envision the sound barrier as a physical "wall", which supersonic aircraft needed to "break" with a sharp needle nose on the front of the fuselage. Rocketry and artillery experts' products routinely exceeded Mach 1, but aircraft designers and aerodynamic engineers during and after World War II discussed Mach 0.7 as a limit dangerous to exceed.[9]

text: Early claims[edit]

text: During WWII and immediately thereafter, a number of claims were made that the sound barrier had been broken in a dive. The majority of these purported events can be dismissed as instrumentation errors. The typical airspeed indicator (ASI) uses air pressure differences between two or more points on the aircraft, typically near the nose and at the side of the fuselage, to produce a speed figure. At high speed, the various compression effects that lead to the sound barrier also cause the ASI to go non-linear and produce inaccurately high or low readings, depending on the specifics of the installation. This effect became known as "Mach jump".[10] Before the introduction of Mach meters, accurate measurements of supersonic speeds could only be made externally, normally using ground-based instruments. Many claims of supersonic speeds were found to be far below this speed when measured in this fashion.

text: In 1942, Republic Aviation issued a press release stating that Lts. Harold E. Comstock and Roger Dyar had exceeded the speed of sound during test dives in the P-47 Thunderbolt. It is widely agreed that this was due to inaccurate ASI readings. In similar tests, the North American P-51 Mustang, a higher performance aircraft, demonstrated limits at Mach 0.85, with every flight over M0.84 causing the aircraft to be damaged by vibration.[11]

text: One of the highest recorded instrumented Mach numbers attained for a propeller aircraft is the Mach 0.891 for a Spitfire PR XI, flown during dive tests at the Royal Aircraft Establishment, Farnborough in April 1944. The Spitfire, a photo-reconnaissance variant, the Mark XI, fitted with an extended 'rake type' multiple pitot system, was flown by Squadron Leader J. R. Tobin to this speed, corresponding to a corrected true airspeed (TAS) of 606 mph.[12] In a subsequent flight, Squadron Leader Anthony Martindale achieved Mach 0.92, but it ended in a forced landing after over- revving damaged the engine.[13]

text: In the 1990s, Hans Guido Mutke claimed to have broken the sound barrier on 9 April 1945 in the Messerschmitt Me 262 jet aircraft. He states that his ASI pegged itself at 1,100 kilometres per hour (680 mph). Mutke reported not just transonic buffeting but the resumption of normal control once a certain speed was exceeded, then a resumption of severe buffeting once the Me 262 slowed again. He also reported engine flame out.[14]

text: This claim is widely disputed, even by pilots in his unit.[15] All of the effects he reported are known to occur on the Me 262 at much lower speeds, and the ASI reading is simply not reliable in the transonic. Further, a series of tests made by Karl Doetsch at the behest of Willy Messerschmitt found that the plane became uncontrollable above Mach 0.86, and at Mach 0.9 would nose over into a dive that could not be recovered from. Post-war tests by the RAF confirmed these results, with the slight modification that the maximum speed using new instruments was found to be Mach 0.84, rather than Mach 0.86.[16]

text: In 1999, Mutke enlisted the help of Professor Otto Wagner of the Munich Technical University to run computational tests to determine whether the aircraft could break the sound barrier. These tests do not rule out the possibility, but are lacking accurate data on the coefficient of drag that would be needed to make accurate simulations.[17][18] Wagner stated "I don't want to exclude the possibility, but I can imagine he may also have been just below the speed of sound and felt the buffeting, but did not go above Mach-1."[15]

text: One bit of evidence presented by Mutke is on page 13 of the "Me 262 A-1 Pilot's Handbook" issued by Headquarters Air Materiel Command, Wright Field, Dayton, Ohio as Report No. F-SU-1111-ND on January 10, 1946:

text: Speeds of 950 km/h (590 mph) are reported to have been attained in a shallow dive 20° to 30° from the horizontal. No vertical dives were made. At speeds of 950 to 1,000 km/h (590 to 620 mph) the air flow around the aircraft reaches the speed of sound, and it is reported that the control surfaces no longer affect the direction of flight. The results vary with different airplanes: some wing over and dive while others dive gradually. It is also reported that once the speed of sound is exceeded, this condition disappears and normal control is restored.

text: The comments about restoration of flight control and cessation of buffeting above Mach 1 are very significant in a 1946 document. However, it is not clear where these terms came from, as it does not appear the US pilots carried out such tests.[17]

text: In his 1990 book Me-163, former Messerschmitt Me 163 "Komet" pilot Mano Ziegler claims that his friend, test pilot Heini Dittmar, broke the sound barrier while diving the rocket plane, and that several people on the ground heard the sonic booms. He claims that on 6 July 1944, Dittmar, flying Me 163B V18, bearing the Stammkennzeichen alphabetic code VA+SP, was measured traveling at a speed of 1,130 km/h (702 mph).[19] However, no evidence of such a flight exists in any of the materials from that period, which were captured by Allied forces and extensively studied.[20] Dittmar had been officially recorded at 1,004.5 km/h (623.8 mph) in level flight on 2 October 1941 in the prototype Me 163A V4. He reached this speed at less than full throttle, as he was concerned by the transonic buffeting. Dittmar himself does not make a claim that he broke the sound barrier on that flight, and notes that the speed was recorded only on the AIS. He does, however, take credit for being the first pilot to "knock on the sound barrier."[15]

text: The Luftwaffe test pilot Lothar Sieber (April 7, 1922 – March 1, 1945) may have inadvertently become the first man to break the sound barrier on 1 March 1945. This occurred while he was piloting a Bachem Ba 349 "Natter" for the first manned vertical takeoff of a rocket in history. In 55 seconds, he traveled a total of 14 km (8.7 miles). The aircraft crashed and he perished violently in this endeavor.[21]

text: There are a number of unmanned vehicles that flew at supersonic speeds during this period, but they generally do not meet the definition. In 1933, Soviet designers working on ramjet concepts fired phosphorus-powered engines out of artillery guns to get them to operational speeds. It is possible that this produced supersonic performance as high as Mach 2,[22] but this was not due solely to the engine itself. In contrast, the German V-2 ballistic missile routinely broke the sound barrier in flight, for the first time on 3 October 1942. By September 1944, V-2s routinely achieved Mach 4 (1,200 m/s, or 3044 mph) during terminal descent.

text: Breaking the sound barrier[edit]

text: In 1942, the United Kingdom's Ministry of Aviation began a top-secret project with Miles Aircraft to develop the world's first aircraft capable of breaking the sound barrier. The project resulted in the development of the prototype Miles M.52 turbojet powered aircraft, which was designed to reach 1,000 mph (417 m/s; 1,600 km/h) (over twice the existing speed record) in level flight, and to climb to an altitude of 36,000 ft (11 km) in 1 minute 30 sec.

text: A huge number of advanced features were incorporated into the resulting M.52 design, many of which hint at a detailed knowledge of supersonic aerodynamics. In particular, the design featured a conical nose and sharp wing leading edges, as it was known that round-nosed projectiles could not be stabilised at supersonic speeds.  The design used very thin wings of biconvex section proposed by Jakob Ackeret for low drag. The wing tips were "clipped" to keep them clear of the conical shock wave generated by the nose of the aircraft. The fuselage had the minimum cross-section allowable around the centrifugal engine with fuel tanks in a saddle over the top.

text: Another critical addition was the use of a power-operated stabilator, also known as the all-moving tail or flying tail, a key to supersonic flight control which contrasted with traditional hinged tailplanes (horizontal stabilizers) connected mechanically to the pilots control column. Conventional control surfaces became ineffective at the high subsonic speeds then being achieved by fighters in dives, due to the aerodynamic forces caused by the formation of shockwaves at the hinge and the rearward movement of the centre of pressure, which together could override the control forces that could be applied mechanically by the pilot, hindering recovery from the dive.[23][24] A major impediment to early transonic flight was control reversal, the phenomenon which caused flight inputs (stick, rudder) to switch direction at high speed; it was the cause of many accidents and near-accidents. An all-flying tail is considered to be a minimum condition of enabling aircraft to break the transonic barrier safely, without losing pilot control. The Miles M.52 was the first instance of this solution, and has since been universally applied.

text: Initially, the aircraft was to use Frank Whittle's latest engine, the Power Jets W.2/700, which would only reach supersonic speed in a shallow dive. To develop a fully supersonic version of the aircraft, an innovation incorporated was a reheat jetpipe – also known as an afterburner. Extra fuel was to be burned in the tailpipe to avoid overheating the turbine blades, making use of unused oxygen in the exhaust.[25] Finally, the design included another critical element, the use of a shock cone in the nose to slow the incoming air to the subsonic speeds needed by the engine.

text: Although the project was eventually cancelled, the research was used to construct an unmanned missile that went on to achieve a speed of Mach 1.38 in a successful, controlled transonic and supersonic level test flight; this was a unique achievement at that time which validated the aerodynamics of the M.52.

text: Meanwhile, test pilots achieved high velocities in the tailless, swept-wing de Havilland DH 108. One of them was Geoffrey de Havilland, Jr. who was killed on 27 September 1946 when his DH 108 broke up at about Mach 0.9.[26] John Derry has been called "Britain's first supersonic pilot"[27] because of a dive he made in a DH 108 on 6 September 1948.

text: Sound barrier officially broken in aircraft[edit]

text: The British Air Ministry signed an agreement with the United States to exchange all its high-speed research, data and designs and Bell Aircraft company was given access to the drawings and research on the M.52,[28] but the U.S. reneged on the agreement and no data was forthcoming in return.[29] Bell's supersonic design was still using a conventional tail and they were battling the problem of control.[30]

text: They utilized the information to initiate work on the Bell X-1. The final version of the Bell X-1 was very similar in design to the original Miles M.52 version. Also featuring the all-moving tail, the XS-1 was later known as the X-1. It was in the X-1 that Chuck Yeager was credited with being the first person to break the sound barrier in level flight on October 14, 1947, flying at an altitude of 45,000 ft (13.7 km). George Welch made a plausible but officially unverified claim to have broken the sound barrier on 1 October 1947, while flying an XP-86 Sabre. He also claimed to have repeated his supersonic flight on October 14, 1947, 30 minutes before Yeager broke the sound barrier in the Bell X-1. Although evidence from witnesses and instruments strongly imply that Welch achieved supersonic speed, the flights were not properly monitored and are not officially recognized. The XP-86 officially achieved supersonic speed on April 26, 1948.[31]

text: On 14 October 1947, just under a month after the United States Air Force had been created as a separate service, the tests culminated in the first manned supersonic flight, piloted by Air Force Captain Charles "Chuck" Yeager in aircraft #46-062, which he had christened Glamorous Glennis. The rocket-powered aircraft was launched from the bomb bay of a specially modified B-29 and glided to a landing on a runway. XS-1 flight number 50 is the first one where the X-1 recorded supersonic flight, at Mach 1.06 (361 m/s, 1,299 km/h, 807.2 mph) peak speed; however, Yeager and many other personnel believe Flight #49 (also with Yeager piloting), which reached a top recorded speed of Mach 0.997 (339 m/s, 1,221 km/h), may have, in fact, exceeded Mach 1.[citation needed] (The measurements were not accurate to three significant figures and no sonic boom was recorded for that flight.)

text: As a result of the X-1's initial supersonic flight, the National Aeronautics Association voted its 1948 Collier Trophy to be shared by the three main participants in the program. Honored at the White House by President Harry S. Truman were Larry Bell for Bell Aircraft, Captain Yeager for piloting the flights, and John Stack for the NACA contributions.

text: Jackie Cochran was the first woman to break the sound barrier on May 18, 1953, in a Canadair Sabre, with Yeager as her wingman.

text: On August 21, 1961, a Douglas DC-8-43 (registration N9604Z) unofficially exceeded Mach 1 in a controlled dive during a test flight at Edwards Air Force Base, as observed and reported by the flight crew; the crew were William Magruder (pilot), Paul Patten (co-pilot), Joseph Tomich (flight engineer), and Richard H. Edwards (flight test engineer).[32] This was the first supersonic flight by a civilian airliner, and the only one other than those by Concorde or the Tu-144.[32]

text: The sound barrier understood[edit]

text: As the science of high-speed flight became more widely understood, a number of changes led to the eventual understanding that the "sound barrier" is easily penetrated, with the right conditions. Among these changes were the introduction of swept wings, the area rule, and engines of ever-increasing performance. By the 1950s, many combat aircraft could routinely break the sound barrier in level flight, although they often suffered from control problems when doing so, such as Mach tuck. Modern aircraft can transit the "barrier" without control problems.[33]

text: By the late 1950s, the issue was so well understood that many companies started investing in the development of supersonic airliners, or SSTs, believing that to be the next "natural" step in airliner evolution. However, this has not yet happened. Although the Concorde and the Tupolev Tu-144 entered service in the 1970s, both were later retired without being replaced by similar designs. The last flight of a Concorde in service was in 2003.

text: Although Concorde and the Tu-144 were the first aircraft to carry commercial passengers at supersonic speeds, they were not the first or only commercial airliners to break the sound barrier. On 21 August 1961, a Douglas DC-8 broke the sound barrier at Mach 1.012 or 1,240 km/h (776.2 mph) while in a controlled dive through 41,088 feet (12,510 m). The purpose of the flight was to collect data on a new leading-edge design for the wing.[34] A China Airlines 747 may have broken the sound barrier in an unplanned descent from 41,000 ft (12,500 m) to 9,500 ft (2,900 m) after an in-flight upset on 19 February 1985.[citation needed] It also reached over 5g.[35]

text: Breaking the sound barrier in a land vehicle[edit]

text: On January 12, 1948, a Northrop unmanned rocket sled became the first land vehicle to break the sound barrier. At a military test facility at Muroc Air Force Base (now Edwards AFB), California, it reached a peak speed of 1,019 mph (1,640 km/h) before jumping the rails.[36][37]

text: On October 15, 1997, in a vehicle designed and built by a team led by Richard Noble, Royal Air Force pilot Andy Green became the first person to break the sound barrier in a land vehicle in compliance with Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile rules. The vehicle, called the ThrustSSC ("Super Sonic Car"), captured the record 50 years and one day after Yeager's first supersonic flight.

text: Breaking the sound barrier as a human projectile[edit]

text: Felix Baumgartner[edit]

text: In October 2012 Felix Baumgartner, with a team of scientists and sponsor Red Bull, attempted the highest sky-dive on record. The project would see Baumgartner attempt to jump 120,000 ft (36,580 m) from a helium balloon and become the first parachutist to break the sound barrier. The launch was scheduled for October 9, 2012, but was aborted due to adverse weather; subsequently the capsule was launched instead on October 14. Baumgartner's feat also marked the 65th anniversary of U.S. test pilot Chuck Yeager's successful attempt to break the sound barrier in an aircraft.[38]

text: Baumgartner landed in eastern New Mexico after jumping from a world record 128,100 feet (39,045 m), or 24.26 miles, and broke the sound barrier as he traveled at speeds up to 833.9 mph (1342 km/h or Mach 1.26). In the press conference after his jump, it was announced he was in freefall for 4 minutes, 18 seconds, the second longest freefall after the 1960 jump of Joseph Kittinger for 4 minutes, 36 seconds.[38]

text: Alan Eustace[edit]

text: In October 2014, Alan Eustace, a senior vice president at Google, broke Baumgartner's record for highest sky-dive and also broke the sound barrier in the process.[39]

text: Legacy[edit]

text: David Lean directed The Sound Barrier, a fictionalized retelling of the de Havilland DH 108 test flights.