document_title: Anne of Green Gables

question_text: where was the orphanage in anne of green gables

root

text: Anne of Green Gables

text: Background[edit]

text: In writing the novel, Montgomery was inspired by notes she had made as a young girl about a couple who were mistakenly sent an orphan girl instead of the boy they had requested yet decided to keep her. She drew upon her own childhood experiences in rural Prince Edward Island, Canada. Montgomery used a photograph of Evelyn Nesbit, which she had clipped from New York’s Metropolitan Magazine and put on the wall of her bedroom, as the model for the face of Anne Shirley and a reminder of her "youthful idealism and spirituality."[8]

tag: p

text: Montgomery was also inspired by the "formula Ann" orphan stories (called such because they followed such a predictable formula) which were popular at the time and distinguished her character by spelling her name with an extra "e".[9][10] She based other characters, such as Gilbert Blythe, in part on people she knew. She said she wrote the novel in the twilight of the day, while sitting at her window and overlooking the fields of Cavendish.[11]

text: Plot summary[edit]

text: Anne Shirley, a young orphan from the fictional community of Bolingbroke, Nova Scotia (based upon the real community of New London, Prince Edward Island),[12][13] is sent to live with Marilla and Matthew Cuthbert, siblings in their fifties and sixties, after a childhood spent in strangers' homes and orphanages. Marilla and Matthew had originally decided to adopt a boy from the orphanage to help Matthew run their farm at Green Gables, which is set in the fictional town of Avonlea. Through a misunderstanding, the orphanage sends Anne instead.

text: Anne is highly imaginative, eager to please and, at times, quite a dramatic individual. However, she is defensive about her appearance, despising her red hair and pale, thin frame. She is often quite talkative, especially when it comes to describing her fantasies and dreams. At first, stern and sharp Marilla says Anne must return to the orphanage, but after much observation and considering, along with Matthew's strong liking to Anne, she decides to let her stay.

text: As a child of imagination, Anne takes much joy in life and adapts quickly, thriving in the close-knit farming village. Her imagination and talkativeness soon brighten up Green Gables.

text: The book recounts Anne's adventures in making a home: the country school where she quickly excels in her studies; her friendship with Diana Barry, the girl living next door (her best or "bosom friend" as Anne fondly calls her); her budding literary ambitions; and her rivalry with her classmate Gilbert Blythe, who teases her about her red hair. For that, he earns her instant hatred, although he apologizes many times. As time passes, Anne realizes she no longer hates Gilbert but cannot bring herself to speak to him.

text: The book also follows Anne's adventures with her new-found friends. Episodes include her play-time with her friends Diana, a calm girl named Jane Andrews and a good-natured but often hysterical girl called Ruby Gillis, and her run-ins with the unpleasant Pye sisters Gertie and Josie; and domestic mishaps such as dyeing her hair green while intending to dye it black, and accidentally getting Diana drunk by giving her what she thought was raspberry cordial but turned out to be currant wine.

text: At sixteen, Anne goes to Queen's Academy to earn a teaching license, along with Gilbert, Ruby, Josie, Jane, and several other students, excluding Diana, much to Anne's dismay. She obtains her license in one year instead of the usual two and wins the Avery Scholarship for the top student in English. This scholarship would allow her to pursue a Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) degree at the fictional Redmond College (based on the real Dalhousie University) on the mainland in Nova Scotia.

text: Near the end of the book, however, tragedy strikes when Matthew dies of a heart attack after learning that all of his and Marilla's money has been lost in a bank failure. Out of devotion to Marilla and Green Gables, Anne gives up the scholarship to stay at home and help Marilla, whose eyesight is failing. She plans to teach at the Carmody school, the nearest school available, and return to Green Gables on weekends. In an act of friendship, Gilbert Blythe gives up his teaching position at the Avonlea School to work at the White Sands School instead, knowing that Anne wants to stay close to Marilla after Matthew's death. After this kind act, Anne and Gilbert's friendship is cemented, and Anne looks forward to what life will bring next.

text: Characters[edit]

text: Green Gables household[edit]

text:
Anne Shirley: An imaginative, talkative, red-headed orphan who comes to live with Matthew Cuthbert and Marilla Cuthbert. Anne is very sensitive and dislikes the color of her hair. She exhibits categorical interest in everything romantic.
Marilla Cuthbert: Matthew's sister, she is an austere but fair woman who objects to Anne's imaginative, unusual conduct on the grounds of its being part of the same group of behavioral misconducts that bring about dereliction of responsibility or produce a disrespectful personal image. Life experience with Anne, however, profoundly affects Marilla's ways; in a very early instance, she experiences first-hand how worthless a confession under duress could be. Although conservative and austere, she is fond of Anne and has the glimmerings of a sense of humor.
Matthew Cuthbert: Marilla's brother, he is an overly shy, albeit kind, old man with a lumbering frame and above-average strength. Matthew takes a liking to Anne from the start and the two become fast friends. Because Marilla has primary responsibility for rearing the girl, he has no qualms about "spoiling" her and indulging her in pretty clothes and other frivolities.

tag: ul

text: Anne's schoolmates[edit]

text:
Diana Barry: Anne's bosom friend and a kindred spirit. Anne and Diana become best friends from the moment they meet. She is the only girl of Anne's age who lives close to Green Gables. Anne admires Diana for being pretty and for her amiable disposition. Diana lacks Anne's powerful imagination but is a loyal friend.
Gilbert Blythe: A handsome, smart, witty and chivalrous classmate who has a crush on Anne the moment he sees her. Unaware of Anne's near-pathological sensitivity about her red hair, he tries to get Anne's attention by holding her braid and calling her "Carrots".  Anne's explosively hostile reaction only causes Gilbert to be more smitten. He makes several attempts to apologize, the failure of all of which do not seem to mar his admiration. He attempts to apologize one last time when he saves Anne from drowning; Anne crassly rebuffs this attempt, only to regret it almost immediately. Years later, he gives up his job offer of teaching at the Avonlea school so that Anne may live at Green Gables, upon which the two reconcile and become good friends (and eventually marry).
Ruby Gillis: Another of Anne's friends. Having several "grown up" sisters, Ruby loves to share her knowledge of beaux with her friends. Ruby is portrayed as traditionally beautiful with long golden hair. She is hysterical and suffers from consumption (tuberculosis).
Jane Andrews: One of Anne's friends from school, she is plain and sensible. She does well enough academically to join Anne's class at Queen's.
Josie Pye: A classmate generally disliked by the other girls (as are her siblings), Josie is vain, dishonest, and jealous of Anne's popularity.

text: Avonlea's locals[edit]

text:
Mrs. Rachel Lynde: A neighbour of Matthew and Marilla, Mrs. Lynde is an amalgamation of vices and virtues. Mrs. Lynde is industrious and helpful, and does work for the church, yet she is famous for being nosy and condescending. Although she and Anne start off on the wrong foot, owing to Mrs. Lynde's blunt criticism and Anne's short temper, they soon become quite close. Mrs. Lynde is married and has raised ten children, although her husband, Thomas Lynde, is mentioned briefly and never speaks.
Mr. Phillips: Anne's first teacher at Avonlea, Mr. Phillips is unpopular with students, because of his boring and crude ways. In Anne's case, he continually misspells her name (without the "E") and punishes only her among twelve pupils who arrive late. He is described as lacking discipline, and "courts" one of his pupils openly.
Miss Muriel Stacy: Anne's energetic replacement teacher. Her warm and sympathetic nature appeals to her students, but Avonlea's conservative parents disapprove of her liberal teaching methods. She forms a special relationship with Anne, who views her as a mentor. Miss Stacy encourages Anne to develop her character and intellect and helps prepare her for the entrance exam at Queen's Academy, where she finishes in a tie for first with Gilbert Blythe.
Reverend and Mrs. Allan: The minister and his wife also befriend Anne, with Mrs. Allan becoming particularly close. She is described as pretty.
Mr. & Mrs. Barry: Diana's parents. Mr. Barry farms. Near the end of the book, he offers to rent some tracts to help out Anne and Marilla, after Matthew's death. Mrs. Barry has a severe personality, expecting her children to follow strict rules. After Anne accidentally gets Diana drunk, Mrs. Barry rejects the girl, forbidding Diana to have anything to do with Anne. This sanction is repealed after Anne saves Minnie May.
Minnie May Barry: Diana's baby sister, whose life is saved by Anne when she comes down with croup.

text: Others[edit]

text:
Miss Josephine Barry: Diana's great-aunt. Initially portrayed in a negative light, she is quickly charmed by Anne's imagination, and eventually invites her and Diana to tea. She refers to Anne as "the Anne-girl" and even sends Anne beaded slippers as a Christmas present.
Mrs Hammond: Anne had lived with her for a portion of her pre-Green-Gables life. She was very mean as a result of her husband′s death. Anne was treated more as a maid in her home than as a daughter or friend.

text: Related works[edit]

text: Based on the popularity of her first book, Montgomery wrote a series of sequels to continue the story of her heroine Anne Shirley. They are listed chronologically below, by Anne's age in each of the novels.

text:
Lucy Maud Montgomery's books on Anne Shirley:

№

Book

Date published

Anne Shirley's age

Timeline year

1
Anne of Green Gables
1908
11–16
1876–1881

2
Anne of Avonlea
1909
16–18
1881–1883

3
Anne of the Island
1915
18–22
1883-1887

4
Anne of Windy Poplars (Canada and USA)Anne of Windy Willows (UK and Australia)

1936
22–25
1887–1890

5
Anne's House of Dreams
1917
25–27
1890–1892

6
Anne of Ingleside
1939
34–40
1899–1905

The following books focus on Anne's children, or on other family friends. Anne appears in these volumes, but plays a lesser part.

№

Book

Date published

Anne Shirley's age

Timeline year

7
Rainbow Valley
1919
41–43
1906–1908

8
Rilla of Ingleside
1921
49–53
1914–1918

9
The Blythes Are Quoted
2009
40–75
1905–1940

Anne Shirley features in one story (and is referenced in other stories) in each of the following collections:

№

Book

Date published

Anne Shirley's age

Timeline year

—
Chronicles of Avonlea
1912
approx. 20
1885

—
Further Chronicles of Avonlea
1920
approx. 20
1885

tag: table

text: The prequel, Before Green Gables (2008), was written by Budge Wilson with authorization of heirs of L. M. Montgomery.

text: Tourism and merchandising[edit]

text:
The province and tourist facilities have highlighted the local connections to the internationally popular novels. Anne of Green Gables has been translated into 36 languages.[14][15]
"Tourism by Anne fans is an important part of the Island economy".[16] Merchants offer items based on the novels.

text: The Green Gables farmhouse is located in Cavendish, Prince Edward Island. Many tourist attractions on Prince Edward Island have been developed based on the fictional Anne, and provincial licence plates once bore her image.[17] Balsam Hollow, the forest that inspired the Haunted Woods and Campbell Pond, the body of water which inspired The Lake of Shining Waters, both described in the book, are located in the vicinity.[18] In addition, the Confederation Centre of the Arts has featured the wildly successful Anne of Green Gables musical on its mainstage every summer for over five decades.[19] The Anne of Green Gables Museum is located in Park Corner, PEI, in a home that inspired L.M. Montgomery.[20]

text: The novel has been very popular in Japan, where it is known as Red-haired Anne,[21][22] and where it has been included in the national school curriculum since 1952. 'Anne' is revered as "an icon" in Japan, especially since 1979 when this story was broadcast as anime, Anne of Green Gables. Japanese couples travel to Prince Edward Island to have civil wedding ceremonies on the grounds of the Green Gables farm. Some Japanese girls arrive as tourists with red-dyed hair styled in pigtails, to look like Anne.[23] In 2014, Asadora 'Hanako to Anne' (Hanako Muraoka is the first translator in Japan) was broadcast and Anne became popular among old and young alike.

text: A replica of the Green Gables house in Cavendish is located in the theme park Canadian World in Ashibetsu, Hokkaido, Japan. The park was a less expensive alternative for Japanese tourists instead of traveling to P.E.I. The park hosted performances featuring actresses playing Anne and Diana. The theme park is open during the summer season with free admission, though there are no longer staff or interpreters.[24]

text: The Avonlea theme park near Cavendish and the Cavendish Figurines shop have trappings so that tourists may dress like the book's characters for photos.[25] Souvenir shops throughout Prince Edward Island offer numerous foods and products based on details of the 'Anne Shirley' novels. Straw hats for girls with sewn-in red braids are common, as are bottles of raspberry cordial soda.[26] In the first book, Lucy Maud Montgomery established the cordial soda as the favorite beverage of Anne, who declares: "I just love bright red drinks!"

text: Legacy and honours[edit]

text: The popularity of the books and subsequent film adaptations is credited with inspiring the design and naming of buildings "Green Gables". An example still standing is an apartment block called "Green Gables" built in the 1930s, in New Farm, Queensland, Australia.[27]

text: Bala's Museum, located in Bala, Ontario, Canada, is a house museum established in 1992 and dedicated to Lucy M. Montgomery information and heritage. The house was a tourist home owned by Fanny Pike when Montgomery and her family stayed there on a summer vacation in 1922. That visit to the region inspired the novel The Blue Castle (1926).[28] The town is named Deerwood in the novel; this was Montgomery's only narrative setting outside Atlantic Canada.[29][30][31]

text:
On May 15, 1975, Canada Post issued Lucy Maud Montgomery, Anne of Green Gables designed by Peter Swan and typographed by Bernard N.J. Reilander. The 8¢ stamps are perforated 13 and were printed by Ashton-Potter Limited.[32]
In 2008, Canada Post issued two postage stamps and a souvenir sheet honouring Anne and the "Green Gables" house.[33]

text:
In 2003, Anne of Green Gables was ranked number 41 in The Big Read, a survey of the British public by BBC to determine the "nation's best-loved novel" (not children's novel).[34]
In 2012, it was ranked number nine among all-time children's novels in a survey published by School Library Journal, a monthly with primarily U.S. audience.[35]

text: Adaptations[edit]

text: Films[edit]

text:
Anne of Green Gables (1919), a silent film adapted to the screen by Frances Marion, directed by William Desmond Taylor, and starring Mary Miles Minter as Anne; this is considered a lost film.
Anne of Green Gables (1934), directed by George Nichols Jr. and starring Dawn O'Day as Anne Shirley; after filming, O'Day changed her screen name to Anne Shirley.
Anne of Windy Poplars (1940) – directed by Jack Hively, is a black & white "talkie" starring Dawn O'Day as Anne Shirley, now billed as "Anne Shirley".
Anne of Green Gables (TBA), an upcoming feature film version of Anne of Green Gables: The Musical.[36]

text: Literature[edit]

text: Ana of California: A Novel (2015), by Andi Teran, is a “contemporary spin on Anne of Green Gables. The lead character of Anne Shirley has been adapted to Ana Cortez, a 15-year-old orphan who "can't tell a tomato plant from a blackberry bush" when she leaves East Los Angeles for the Northern California farm of Emmett and Abbie Garber.[37]

text: Radio productions[edit]

text:
Anne of Green Gables (1941), a British radio drama produced and broadcast by BBC Home Service Basic, adapted into four parts by Muriel Levy, and starring Cherry Cottrell as Anne.[4]
Anne of Green Gables (1944), a recreation of the 1941 BBC Radio drama, produced and broadcast by BBC Home Service Basic.[38]
Anne of Green Gables (1954), a Canadian radio drama produced and broadcast by CBC Radio, adapted into 13 parts by Andrew Allen and starring Toby Tarnow as Anne.[39]
Anna zo Zeleného domu (1966), a Slovak radio drama produced and broadcast by Czechoslovak Radio, starring Anna Bučinská as Anne.[40]
Anne of Green Gables (1971), a British radio drama produced and broadcast by BBC Radio 4, adapted into 13 parts by Cristina Sellors, and read by Ann Murray.[41]
Anne of Green Gables (1997), a British radio drama produced and broadcast by BBC Radio 4, dramatized into five parts by Marcy Kahan and starred Barbara Barnes as Anne.[42]

text: Stage productions[edit]

text:
Anne of Green Gables: The Musical, performed annually in the summer, at Charlottetown Festival, since 1965, this is Canada's longest-running main stage musical production, and has had a total audience of more than 2 million.[43][44][45] Anne of Green Gables – The Musical was composed by Canadians Don Harron and Norman Campbell, with lyrics by Elaine Campbell and Mavor Moore. The production has been performed before Queen Elizabeth II and it has toured across Canada, the United States, and Europe. In 1969, it had a run in London's West End. The Charlottetown Festival production performed at the 1970 World's Fair in Osaka, Japan. Walter Learning directed and organized a successful national tour of the musical in Japan in 1991.[46]
The Guild in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, hosts Anne and Gilbert, The Musical. Written by Nancy White, Bob Johnston, and Jeff Hochhauser, the production is based on Montgomery's sequels featuring Anne Shirley.[47]
The Nine Lives of L.M. Montgomery, a musical adapted from Montgomery's novel and her life, opened at Kings Playhouse in Georgetown, Prince Edward Island on June 20, 2008, the 100th anniversary of the book's publication. With book and lyrics by Adam-Michael James and music by Emmy-nominated composer Leo Marchildon, the musical depicts events from Montgomery’s life and features as characters heroines from all of her novels. Anne figures prominently, and is shown from age 12 into her 40s. Gilbert Blythe also appears. The show’s second production was at the Carrefour Theatre in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island and opened July 11, 2009. Both years, the musical was nominated for The Prince Edward Island Museum and Heritage Foundation's Wendell Boyle Award. In July 2010, a concert version of the show toured Prince Edward Island, with four performances at Green Gables.[48]
Theatreworks USA, a New York-based children's theatre company, produced an Anne of Green Gables musical in 2006 at the Lucille Lortel Theatre. A revived production, with musical contributions from Gretchen Cryer, is planned to tour grade-schools.[49]
The Peterborough Players, based in Peterborough, New Hampshire, staged an adaptation by Joseph Robinette of Anne of Green Gables in August 2009.[50]
Anne and Gilbert is a musical adaptation of the books Anne of Avonlea and Anne of the Island. It depicts the relationship of Anne and Gilbert during their years as teachers and college students, as well as their return to Avonlea.[51]

text: Television movies[edit]

text:
Anne of Green Gables (1956), a made-for-television musical version directed by Norman Campbell and starring Toby Tarnow as Anne.
Anne de Green Gables (1957), a French-Canadian television film directed by Jacques Gauthier, starring Mireille Lachance as Anne Shirley.
Anne of Green Gables (1958), a recreation of the 1956 film directed by Don Harron, starring Kathy Willard as Anne.
Anne of Green Gables (1972), a British made-for-television 5-part mini-series directed by Joan Craft, starring Kim Braden as Anne.
Anne of Avonlea  (1975), a British made-for-television 4-part mini-series directed by Joan Craft, starring Kim Braden as Anne.
Anne of Green Gables (1985), a CBC 4-hour television mini series directed by Kevin Sullivan with Megan Follows as Anne.
Anne of Green Gables: The Sequel (1987), a sequel to the 1985 miniseries which aired on CBC and the Disney Channel as Anne of Avonlea: The Continuing Story of Anne of Green Gables.
Anne of Green Gables: The Continuing Story (2000), a television miniseries based upon the novels.
Anne: Journey to Green Gables (2005), an animated video film produced by Sullivan Entertainment and the prequel to Anne of Green Gables: The Animated Series (2001–2002)
Anne of Green Gables: A New Beginning (2008), a television miniseries whose script is not based on the novels.
L.M. Montgomery's Anne of Green Gables (2016), a 90-minute made-for-television adaptation of the book by Breakthrough Films & Television, which began filming in Toronto in May 2015.[52][53] Casting was held in February 2015.[54] (This replaces the previously announced 13-part series that had been set to film in 2013).[55] It was adapted by Susan Coyne, directed by John Kent Harrison, and stars Ella Ballentine as Anne.[56] The world premiere of the film, advertised under the abbreviated title Anne of Green Gables, on February 15, 2016 on YTV.
Anne of Green Gables:  The Good Stars aired on YTV on February 20, 2017.
Anne of Green Gables: Fire & Dew, aired July 1, 2017 on YTV.

text: Television series[edit]

text:
Anne of Green Gables (1952), a BBC television series starring Carole Lorimer as Anne.[57]
Akage no An (1979; Red-Haired Anne), an animated television series, part of Nippon Animation's World Masterpiece Theater, produced in Japan and directed by Isao Takahata.
Road to Avonlea (1990–1996) shown on CBC, a live-action television series produced by Kevin Sullivan, based upon characters and episodes from several of L.M. Montgomery's books, excluding Anne Shirley. Gilbert Blythe, Marilla Cuthbert, Rachel Lynde and other characters from the Anne books are included, and the series is set within the same continuity as Sullivan's 1980s miniseries.
Anne of Green Gables: The Animated Series (2000), a PBS Kids animated series for older children ages eight to twelve, created by Sullivan Entertainment Inc.
Kon'nichiwa Anne: Before Green Gables (2009), part of the World Masterpiece Theater, this prequel to Akage no An is based on Budge Wilson's authorized prequel Before Green Gables (2008).
Anne (2017), an eighteen-part TV series produced and broadcast by CBC in Canada, and released through Netflix internationally under the title, Anne with an "E".[58][59]

text: Web productions[edit]

text:
Green Gables Fables (2014–2016), an American-Canadian web series which conveys the story in the form of Tumblr posts, tweets, vlogs, and other social media. It is a modern adaptation of Anne of Green Gables and Anne of the Island, with many of its elements changed to better suit 21st-century culture. Mandy Harmon portrays the main character, Anne Shirley.[60]
Project Green Gables (2015–2016), a Finnish web series and a modern adaptation of Anne of Green Gables, which conveys the story in the form of vlogs. Laura Eklund Nhaga plays Anne Shirley.[61]

text: Parodies[edit]

text: As one of the most familiar characters in Canadian literature, Anne of Green Gables has been parodied by several Canadian comedy troupes, including CODCO (Anne of Green Gut) and The Frantics (Fran of the Fundy).


document_title: Hazardous Materials Transportation Act

question_text: according to dot what is the most common mode of transportation for hazardous materials

question_tokens: according to dot what is the most common mode of transportation for hazardous materials

text: Hazardous Materials Transportation Act

text: Background[edit]

text: History[edit]

text: In the 1970s, landfills throughout the United States began to refuse the acceptance of hazardous wastes for the protection of property, the environment, and liability from what would later become known as Superfund sites, which dramatically increased the cost of disposal.[2] The high cost of disposal led to increased dumping of materials that were increasingly being deemed "hazardous" by the public and government. Illegal dumping took place on vacant lots, along highways, or on the actual highways themselves. At the same time, increased accidents and incidents with hazardous materials during transportation was a growing problem, causing damage to property and the environment, injury, and death.[2][4] At the time, the U.S. Department of Transportation estimated that 75% of all hazardous waste shipments violated existing regulations due to a lack of inspection personnel and poor coordination among the U.S. Coast Guard, the Federal Aviation Administration, the Federal Highway Administration, and the Federal Railroad Administration.[2] The increasing frequency of illegal "midnight" dumping and spills, along with the already existing inconsistent regulations and fragmented enforcement, led to the passing of the Hazardous Materials Transportation Act. It was signed into law on January 3, 1975 by President Gerald Ford, as a means to strengthen the Hazardous Materials Transportation Control Act of 1970 and unify existing regulations.

text: Since its passage, the HMTA has had two major amendments:

text:
the Hazardous Materials Transportation Uniform Safety Act (1990) and
the Hazardous Materials Transportation Authorization Act (1994).

text: Importance[edit]

text: It is estimated that the United States alone makes over 500,000 shipments of hazardous materials every day.[5] More than 90% of these shipments are transported by truck, and anywhere from 5–15% of those trucks are carrying hazardous materials regulated under the HMTA. Approximately 50% of those materials are corrosive or flammable petroleum products, while the remaining shipments represent any of the 2,700 other chemicals considered hazardous in interstate commerce. Accidents that occurred in the transportation of hazardous materials resulted in injury, death, and the destruction of property and the environment. However, the accidents were not limited to the road. The number of incidents regarding hazardous wastes was second in railway accidents behind road accidents. The passage of the HMTA (and its subsequent amendments) has significantly reduced the number of incidents and the gravity of those incidents with hazardous materials in transportation.[4]

text: Regulatory role[edit]

text: The HMTA is one of the eight laws defining the EPA's Emergency Management Program. The other laws comprising the Emergency Management Program include the Clean Air Act (CAA), the Clean Water Act (CWA), the Oil Pollution Act (OPA), the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA), the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA), and the Chemical Safety Information, Site Security and Fuels Regulatory Relief Act (CSISSFRRA).[6]

text: The primary objective of the HMTA is to protect "life, property, and the environment" [1] from the inherent risks of transporting hazardous material, in all major modes of commerce, by improving the regulation and enforcement authority of the Secretary of Transportation. It is in the Secretary's authority to designate material or a group or class of material as hazardous when they meet the definition of hazardous material under the Act.

text: A hazardous material, as defined by the Secretary, is any particular quantity or form of a material that may pose an unreasonable risk to health and safety or property during transportation in commerce.[7] This includes materials that are explosive, radioactive, infectious, flammable, toxic, oxidizing, or corrosive.

text: Hazardous wastes and hazardous substances are designated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Hazardous wastes are designated under the EPA's Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, while hazardous substances are designated by the Clean Water Act (CWA) and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA).[5] The HMTA regulates all essential modes of transportation due to the dangers hazardous materials can present during shipment by ground, air, sea, or any other mode of transportation, such as through a pipeline.[5]

text: Regulatory Categories[edit]

text: Regulations under the Act are categorized into four key provisions, encompassing federal standards under Title 49 of the United States Code that guide the safe transportation of hazardous materials:

text:
Procedures and Policies
Material Designations & Labeling
Packaging Requirements
Operational Rules

text: Responsible Parties[edit]

text: The HMTA specifically states that regulations apply to any person who —

text:
transports hazardous materials in commerce;
causes hazardous material to be transported in commerce;
designs, manufactures, fabricates, inspects, marks, maintains, reconditions, repairs, or tests a package, container, or packaging component that is represented, marked, certified, or sold as qualified for use in transporting hazardous material in commerce;
prepares or accepts hazardous material for transportation in commerce;
is responsible for the safety of transporting hazardous material in commerce;
certifies compliance with any requirement under the Act; or
misrepresents whether such person is engaged in any activity under the above requirements.[7]

text: Essentially, all persons involved in the preparation of the transportation of hazardous materials, though the primary burden of liability falls on the shipper of the hazardous materials (the person who offers shipment). Carriers are only required to ensure that required information accompanying hazardous materials packages is immediately available to personnel who would respond to an incident or conduct a hazardous materials investigation, per the amendments enforced in the Hazardous Materials Transportation Uniform Safety Act of 1990.[5]

text: Enforcement[edit]

text: Regulations are enforced by use of compliance orders, civil penalties, and injunctive relief,[8] under the discretion of the Secretary of Transportation.

text: As the Act stands now (with its latest amendments), the Department of Transportation (DOT) is most concerned with the test conditions of packages, rather than the transportation conditions. Enforcement includes random packaging inspections by DOT inspectors at freight terminals, intermodal transfer facilities, airports, and other facilities to determine compliance with proper marking and labeling of packaging. DOT also has made it its intent to inspect manufacturing facilities, testing facilities, and shipper's facilities where manufacturing operations occur.[5]

text: Roles of the Federal Government and States[edit]

text: As the current statute stands, the "HMTA (Section 112, 40 U.S.C. 1811) preempts state and local governmental requirements that are inconsistent with the statute, unless that requirement affords an equal or greater level of protection to the public than the HMTA requirement." [5][8]

text: Enforcement Agencies[edit]

text: The Hazardous Materials Transportation Act is implemented through various agencies based on the mode of transportation and the type of hazardous material being transported:

text:
Enforcement Agency
Role in HMTA

Research and Innovative Technology Administration (RITA)
Container manufacturing guidelines

Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)
Regulations for motor carriers

Federal Railroad Administration (FRA)
Regulations for rail carriers

Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
Regulations for air carriers

United States Coast Guard (USCG)
Regulations for shipment by water

Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA)
Regulations for transportation by pipeline and for special permits

Department of Energy (DOE)
Regulations for radioactive materials

Atomic Energy Authority (AEA)
Regulations for radioactive materials

Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)
Regulations for hazardous materials

Department of Transportation (DOT)
Regulations for hazardous materials and compliance

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Regulations for hazardous materials and compliance

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
Regulations for compliance

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
Regulations for emergency response

text: Special permits and exclusions[edit]

text: §5117 provides that the Secretary may "issue, modify, or terminate" a special permit authorizing a variance to regulations prescribed under §5103(b), §5104, §5110, or §5112 of the Act [3] to a person performing the functions under §5103(b) in a way that achieves a safety level that —

text: Special permits are effective for an initial period of no more than 2 years. Renewal of the special permits is granted under the Secretary's discretion upon application for the permit for successive periods of no more than 4 years each. In the case of a special permit relating to §5112, the additional period following permit renewal must be no more than 2 years each.

text: Applications[edit]

text: To apply for a special permit, the applicant must provide a safety analysis prescribed by the Secretary that justifies the special permit, and submit the application to the Administrator of the Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration.[9] The Secretary then must publish notice of the application in the Federal Register to give the opportunity for public review and comment.[3]

text: Upon the applicant's filing of the application, the Secretary must issue, renew, or deny the application within 180 days after the first day of the month following the filing date. If more time is needed, the Secretary must publish a statement to the Federal Register addressing the reason for the delay in the Secretary's decision on the permit, along with an estimate for when the decision will be made.[3]

text: The Secretary, after completing a review of the circumstance for the permit, and after providing opportunity for public comment and review, must either institute a new rule incorporating the special permit into the regulations of the Act, or publish in the Federal Register the justification for not including the special permit into the regulations.[3]

text: Description of Relevant Sections for which Special Permits Apply[edit]

text: §5103(b): Regulations for safe transportation prescribed by the Secretary for people who —

text:
transport hazardous material in commerce;
causes to transport hazardous material in commerce;
designs, inspects, repairs, or tests packages qualified for hazardous material transport;
prepares or accepts hazardous material for transportation in commerce;
is responsible for the safety of transporting hazardous materials in commerce; or
certifies compliance with any requirements under the Act [7]

text: §5104: Representation and tampering regulations for a package, component of a package, or packaging intended for the use of transporting hazardous material.[10]

text: §5110: Shipping papers and disclosure regulations.[11]

text: §5112: Highway routing of hazardous material regulations.[12]

text: Penalties[edit]

text: Civil Penalties[edit]

text: Under §5123, a person is liable for a civil penalty of up to $75,000 for each violation of a "regulation, order, special permit or approval" of the Act that has been knowingly committed. A separate violation is considered for each day the violation, committed by a person who transports or causes the transportation of a hazardous material, continues.[13] A person acts knowingly when —

text: Under the discretion of the Secretary, he or she may increase the penalty amount upwards to $175,000 if the violation results in the death, serious illness or injury to any person, or in substantial damage to property. Violations resulting from training activities must be at least $450.

text: In determining the amount of the civil penalty, the Secretary must consider —

text:
the nature, circumstances, extent, and gravity of the violation;
the degree of culpability of the violator, any history of prior violations, the ability to pay, and the effect on the ability to continue to do business; and
any other matters that justice requires.

text: An opportunity for a hearing must be granted to the violator, along with a written notice from the Secretary specifying the amount of the penalty.

text: Criminal Penalties[edit]

text: A person is subject to a criminal penalty under §5124 if that person knowingly tampers with the labels or packages used for transporting hazardous material, or "willfully or recklessly" violates a "regulation, order, special permit, or approval" under the Act and shall be fined under Title 18 of the United States Code, imprisoned for no more than 5 years, or both. A violation under this section that results in the release of hazardous material causing bodily injury or death to any person can render a maximum prison penalty of 10 years.

text: Under §5104, tampering refers to the alteration, removal, destruction, or otherwise unlawful tampering of —

text:
a marking, label, placard, or description on a document prescribed by regulations of the Act; or
a package, component of a package, packaging, container, motor vehicle, rail freight car, aircraft, or vessel used to transport hazardous material.

text: A person acts knowingly when —

text: Knowledge of the existence of a statutory regulation required by the Secretary is not considered an element of offense.

text: A person acts willfully when —

text: A person acts recklessly when the person displays a deliberate indifference or conscious disregard to the consequences of that person's conduct.

text: Key provisions[edit]

text: Procedures and Policies[edit]

text: Procedures on proper handling and preparation for handling hazardous materials, as well as finding out information about implementing the Act (permitting procedures, registration procedures, adding a regulation into the Act, etc.), can be found under this provision.

text: Under §5106, the Secretary of Transportation may prescribe criteria for handling hazardous material, including—

text: Under §5107, the hazmat employee training requirements and grants are summarized:

text: (A) Training Requirements— The Secretary shall prescribe by regulation requirements for training that a hazmat employer must give hazmat employees of the employer on the safe loading, unloading, handling, storing, and transporting of hazardous material and emergency preparedness for responding to an accident or incident involving the transportation of hazardous material.

text: (B) Beginning and Completing Training— A hazmat employer shall begin the training of hazmat employees of the employer no later than 6 months after the Secretary prescribes the regulations under subsection (a) of this section.

text: (C) Certification of Training— After completing the training, each hazmat employer shall certify, with documentation the Secretary may require by regulation, that the hazmat employees of the employer have received training and have been tested on appropriate transportation areas of responsibility, including at least one of the following:

text: (D) Coordination of Training Requirements— In consultation with the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency and the United States Secretary of Labor, the Secretary shall ensure that the training requirements prescribed under this section do not conflict with or duplicate—

text: (E) Training Grants—

text: (F) Training of Certain Employees— The Secretary shall ensure that maintenance-of-way employees and railroad signalmen receive general awareness and familiarization training and safety training.[15]

text: Material Designations & Labeling[edit]

text: Under the Act, transporting hazardous material requires regulations unique to the type of hazardous materials being transported.

text: Hazardous Materials Table[edit]

text: The table listing all hazardous materials regulated by the Act for transportation can be found here.[16]

text: This table identifies the hazard class of the material to inform specific packaging requirements,[17] or outlines whether the material is forbidden in transportation.[18]

text: Shipping Papers Requirements[edit]

text: Each person who offers transportation of hazardous materials must describe the material on accompanied shipping papers. The papers must include—

text:
an identification number
a proper shipping name, identified in the Hazardous Materials Table
the hazard class
the packing group, identified in Roman numerals
the total quantity of hazardous materials
the number and type of packages holding the hazardous contents

text: Additionally, the hazardous material must be accompanied by an EPA manifest, a sheet that tracks the transportation of the hazardous material.[19]

text: Marking Requirements[edit]

text: Each "package, freight container, and transport vehicle" carrying the hazardous material must have markings that are—

text:
durable, in English, and printed or affixed on the surface of the shipping package, or on a label, tag, or sign on the package
displayed on a background of sharply contrasting color
not obscured by labels or attachments
located away from any other marking that could reduce its effectiveness [20]

text: Labeling Requirements[edit]

text: Each non-bulk package, container, or small tank must be labeled with a label code corresponding to the hazard class of the hazardous material being transported, and must follow design and placement requirements.[21]

text: Placarding Requirements[edit]

text: Each "bulk packaging, freight container, unit load device, transport vehicle or rail car containing any quantity of a hazardous material" must be placarded corresponding to the hazard class of the hazardous material being transported, and must follow design and placement requirements.[22]

text: Emergency Response and Security Plans[edit]

text: Regulations providing for immediate emergency response information in an incident, as well as requirements for the development and implementation of security plans must be adhered by "any person who offers for transportation in commerce or transports in commerce" hazardous materials regulated under the Act.[23]

text: Packaging Requirements[edit]

text: Packaging requirements under the Act are detailed in Title 49 of the United States Code of Federal Regulations under §173, 178, 179, and 180. Packaging requirements vary based on the hazardous material being transported.[17]

text: General Requirements[edit]

text: Packaging material must fulfill a set of testing requirements before being authorized to store hazardous materials for transportation to endure the physical stress and environmental changes that may result in phase changes of the packaging contents during transportation.[24]

text: All packaging provisions under the Act apply to—

text: Each package must be "designed, constructed, maintained, filled, its contents so limited, and closed" so that during transportation of hazardous contents —

text: Mixing[edit]

text: The contents of the package (the hazardous material) and the material of the package itself must be resistant to significant "chemical or galvanic reaction" that can compromise the integrity of the package. Additionally, hazardous materials may not be mixed together with other hazardous or nonhazardous materials creating a reaction causing —

text:
combustion or dangerous evolution of heat;
flammable, poisonous, or asphyxiant gases; or
formation of unstable or corrosive materials.

text: Shipper's responsibility[edit]

text: It is up to the shipper of the stored, hazardous material to determine that the compatibility between the hazardous material and the packaging is sufficient for safe transportation.[25]

text: Description of Relevant Sections for which Packaging Requirements Apply[edit]

text:
49 CFR §173: General packaging requirements.[24]
49 CFR §178: Specifications for packagings.[26]
49 CFR §179: Specifications for tank cars.[27]
49 CFR §180: Continuing qualification and maintenance of packagings.[28]

text: Operational Rules[edit]

text: The "operational rules" are the final key provision to the HMTA. They are a summary of the above provisions, including procedures and policies, material designations and labeling, and packaging requirements. Operational rules are covered by 49 CFR §171, 173, 174, 175, 176, and 177 and are all subjective to the U.S. Department of Transportation. Operational rules cover the entire transportation process from pick-up to delivery within all known modes of transportation subject to interstate and intrastate commerce.

text: Description of Relevant Sections for which Operational Rules Apply[edit]

text: 49 CFR §171- General Information, Regulations, and North American Shipments

text:
49 CFR §173: Shippers General Requirements for Shipping and Packaging
49 CFR §174: Carriage by Rail
49 CFR §175: Carriage by Aircraft
49 CFR §176: Carriage by Vessel
49 CFR §177: Carriage by Public Highway[29]

text: Major amendments[edit]

text: The Hazardous Materials Transportation Uniform Safety Act (1990)[edit]

text: In 1990, Congress enacted the Hazardous Materials Transportation Uniform Safety Act (HMTUSA) in order to clarify the 1975 Hazardous Materials Transportation Act. This amendment sought to standardize international hazardous material transportation requirements as recommended by the United Nations,[17] define preemption over local state regulations that differed from the Act's regulations, and to give more authority to the Secretary of Transportation in requiring registration of hazardous materials. Before the HMTUSA was passed, the Secretary's authority to require registration by all shippers of hazardous materials and by all parties involved in the preparation of shipment (manufacture, repair, testing, or sale) was never exercised.[5]

text: New provisions under this amendment were designed to "encourage uniformity among different state and local highway routing regulations, to develop criteria for the issuance of federal permits to motor carriers of hazardous materials, and to regulate the transport of radioactive materials."[30]

text: The amendment also outlined two types of emergency response information:

text:
Information immediately available upon an accident (such as shipping papers); and
Comprehensive and product-specific emergency response information that is also immediately available from a shipper-provided contact (whose contact information is also available on the shipping papers).[5]

text: Under the HMTUSA, the Secretary continues to enforce regulations for the safe transport of hazardous material in intrastate, interstate, and foreign commerce in the same manner as the HMTA. The Secretary also retains authority to classify hazardous materials, when "they pose unreasonable risks to health, safety, or property."[30]

text: Hazardous Materials Transportation Authorization Act (1994)[edit]

text: Signed by President Bill Clinton on August 26, 1994, the purpose of the amendment was to broaden the "regulatory and enforcement authority of the Secretary of Transportation." [31] The Secretary is given discretionary power to require anyone who transports hazardous materials through aircraft, rail, ship, or vehicle to register with the Department of Transportation who are not already under mandatory obligation to do so. Additionally, the amendment restructured the Act, reauthorizing funding for the HMTA and requiring additional safety initiatives to be taken by the Department of Transportation.[32] Under this amendment, its underlying goal remained the same as the Hazardous Materials Transportation Act: to protect against the risks to life, property, and the environment during the transportation of hazardous materials.

text: Influence of the September 11 Attacks (2001)[edit]

text: After the September 11 attacks, Congress considered new security measures to the Act, including background checks for truck drivers, requiring shipping companies to create alternative security plans, the use of electronic tracking devices to pinpoint exact locations of hazardous materials and their transporters, and creating strict federal penalties for hijacking trucks carrying hazardous materials.[32] The enormity of attempting to monitor every shipment in the country was recognized as a "logistical impossibility" and an exorbitant expense. However, on October 18, 2001, Senator Hatch introduced the Hazardous Material in Transportation Protection Act of 2001, which amended the Act to require stricter regulations of issuing operational licenses for the motor-vehicular transportation of hazardous materials. Specifically, the bill prohibits states from issuing licenses to transporters unless the Secretary clears the transporter through a comprehensive background check.[32]


document_title: Canada goose

question_text: what time of year do canadian geese lay eggs

text: Canada goose

text: Taxonomy and etymology[edit]

text: The Canada goose was one of the many species described by Carl Linnaeus in his 18th-century work Systema Naturae.[3] It belongs to the Branta genus of geese, which contains species with largely black plumage, distinguishing them from the grey species of the Anser genus.

text: Branta is a Latinised form of Old Norse Brandgás, "burnt (black) goose" and the specific epithet canadensis is a New Latin word meaning "from Canada".[4] According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the first citation for the 'Canada goose' dates back to 1772.[5][6][7] The Canada goose is also colloquially referred to as the "Canadian goose".[8]

text: The cackling goose was originally considered to be the same species or a subspecies of the Canada goose, but in July 2004, the American Ornithologists' Union's Committee on Classification and Nomenclature split them into two species, making the cackling goose into a full species with the scientific name Branta hutchinsii. The British Ornithologists' Union followed suit in June 2005.[9]

text: The AOU has divided the many subspecies between the two species. The subspecies of the Canada goose were listed as:

text:
Atlantic Canada goose, B. c. canadensis
Interior Canada goose, B. c. interior
Giant Canada goose, B. c. maxima
Moffitt's Canada goose, B. c. moffitti
Vancouver Canada goose, B. c. fulva
Dusky Canada goose, B. c. occidentalis
Lesser Canada goose, B. c. parvipes

text: The distinctions between the two geese have led to confusion and debate among ornithologists. This has been aggravated by the overlap between the small types of Canada goose and larger types of cackling goose. The old "lesser Canada goose" was believed to be a partly hybrid population, with the birds named B. c. taverneri considered a mixture of B. c. minima, B. c. occidentalis, and B. c. parvipes. In addition, the barnacle goose has been determined to be a derivative of the cackling goose lineage, whereas the Hawaiian goose is derived from the Canada goose.

text: Description[edit]

text:
Call

A flock of feeding Canada geese calling

Problems playing this file? See media help.

text: The black head and neck with a white "chinstrap" distinguish the Canada goose from all other goose species, with the exception of the cackling goose and barnacle goose (the latter, however, has a black breast and gray rather than brownish body plumage).[10]

text: The seven subspecies of this bird vary widely in size and plumage details, but all are recognizable as Canada geese. Some of the smaller races can be hard to distinguish from the cackling goose, which slightly overlap in mass. However, most subspecies of the cackling goose (exclusive of Richardson's cackling goose, B. h. hutchinsii) are considerably smaller. The smallest cackling goose, B. h. minima, is scarcely larger than a mallard. In addition to the size difference, cackling geese also have a shorter neck and smaller bill, which can be useful when small Canada geese comingle with relatively large cackling geese. Of the "true geese" (i.e. the genera Anser, Branta or Chen), the Canada goose is on average the largest living species, although some other species that are geese in name, if not of close relation to these genera, are on average heavier such as the spur-winged goose and Cape Barren goose.

text: Canada geese range from 75 to 110 cm (30 to 43 in) in length and have a 127–185 cm (50–73 in) wingspan.[11] Among standard measurements, the wing chord can range from 39 to 55 cm (15 to 22 in), the tarsus can range from 6.9 to 10.6 cm (2.7 to 4.2 in) and the bill can range from 4.1 to 6.8 cm (1.6 to 2.7 in). The largest subspecies is the B. c. maxima, or the giant Canada goose, and the smallest (with the separation of the cackling goose group) is B. c. parvipes, or the lesser Canada goose.[12] An exceptionally large male of race B. c. maxima, which rarely exceed 8 kg (18 lb), weighed 10.9 kg (24 lb) and had a wingspan of 2.24 m (7.3 ft). This specimen is the largest wild goose ever recorded of any species.[13]

text: The male Canada goose usually weighs 2.6–6.5 kg (5.7–14.3 lb), averaging amongst all subspecies 3.9 kg (8.6 lb). The female looks virtually identical, but is slightly lighter at 2.4–5.5 kg (5.3–12.1 lb), averaging amongst all subspecies 3.6 kg (7.9 lb), and generally 10% smaller in linear dimensions than the male counterparts.[14] The female also possesses a different, and less sonorous, honk than the male.

text: Distribution and habitat[edit]

text: This species is native to North America. It breeds in Canada and the northern United States in a variety of habitats. The Great Lakes region maintains a very large population of Canada geese. Canada geese occur year-round in the southern part of their breeding range, including most of the eastern seaboard and the Pacific coast. Between California and South Carolina in the southern United States and northern Mexico, Canada geese are primarily present as migrants from further north during the winter.[15]

text: By the early 20th century, overhunting and loss of habitat in the late 19th century and early 20th century had resulted in a serious decline in the numbers of this bird in its native range. The giant Canada goose subspecies was believed to be extinct in the 1950s until, in 1962, a small flock was discovered wintering in Rochester, Minnesota, by Harold Hanson of the Illinois Natural History Survey.[16] In 1964, the Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center was built near Jamestown, North Dakota. Its first director, Harvey K. Nelson, talked Forrest Lee into leaving Minnesota to head the center’s Canada goose production and restoration program. Forrest soon had 64 pens with 64 breeding pairs of screened, high-quality birds. The project involved private, state, and federal resources and relied on the expertise and cooperation of many individuals. By the end of 1981, more than 6,000 giant Canada geese had been released at 83 sites in 26 counties in North Dakota.[17] With improved game laws and habitat recreation and preservation programs, their populations have recovered in most of their range, although some local populations, especially of the subspecies B. c. occidentalis, may still be declining.[citation needed]

text: In recent years, Canada goose populations in some areas have grown substantially, so much so that many consider them pests for their droppings, bacteria in their droppings, noise, and confrontational behavior. This problem is partially due to the removal of natural predators and an abundance of safe, man-made bodies of water near food sources, such as those found on golf courses, in public parks and beaches, and in planned communities. Due in part to the interbreeding of various migratory subspecies with the introduced nonmigratory giant subspecies, Canada geese are frequently a year-around feature of such urban environments.[18]

text: Contrary to its normal migration routine, large flocks of Canada geese have established permanent residence in Esquimalt, British Columbia, on Chesapeake Bay, in Virginia's James River regions, and in the Triangle area of North Carolina (Raleigh, Durham, Chapel Hill), and nearby Hillsborough. Some Canada geese have taken up permanent residence as far south as Florida, in places such as retention ponds in apartment complexes. Large resident populations of Canada geese are also present in much of the San Francisco Bay area in Northern California. In 2015, the Ohio population of Canada geese was reported as roughly 130,000, with the number likely to continue increasing. Many of the geese, previously migratory, reportedly had become native, remaining in the state even in the summer. The increase was attributed to a lack of natural predators, an abundance of water, and plentiful grass in manicured lawns in urban areas.[19] Canada geese were eliminated in Ohio following the American Civil War, but were reintroduced in 1956 with 10 pairs. The population was estimated at 18,000 in 1979. The geese are considered protected, though a hunting season is allowed from September 1–15, with a daily bag limit of five.[20] The Ohio Department of Natural Resources recommends a number of non-lethal scare and hazing tactics for nuisance geese, but if such methods have been used without success, they may issue a permit which can be used from March 11 through August 31 to destroy nests, conduct a goose roundup or shoot geese.[21]

text: Outside North America[edit]

text: Eurasia[edit]

text: Canada geese have reached Northern Europe naturally, as has been proved by ringing recoveries. The birds include those of the subspecies B. c. parvipes, and possibly others. These geese are also found naturally on the Kamchatka Peninsula in eastern Siberia, and eastern China.[citation needed]

text: Canada geese have also been introduced in Europe, and had established populations in Great Britain in the middle of the eighteenth century,[22] Ireland, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Germany, Scandinavia, and Finland. Most European populations are not migratory, but those in more northerly parts of Sweden and Finland migrate to the North Sea and Baltic coasts.[23] Semitame feral birds are common in parks, and have become a pest in some areas. In the early 17th century, explorer Samuel de Champlain sent several pairs of geese to France as a present for King Louis XIII. The geese were first introduced in Britain in the late 17th century as an addition to King James II's waterfowl collection in St. James's Park. They were introduced in Germany and Scandinavia during the 20th century, starting in Sweden in 1929. In Britain, they were spread by hunters, but remained uncommon until the mid-20th century. Their population grew from 2200–4000 birds in 1953 to an estimated 82,000 in 1999, as changing agricultural practices and urban growth provided new habitat. European birds are mostly descended from the subspecies B. c. canadensis, likely with some contributions from the subspecies B. c. maxima.[24]

text: New Zealand[edit]

text: Canada geese were introduced as a game bird into New Zealand in 1905. They have become a problem in some areas by fouling pastures and damaging crops. They were protected under the Wildlife Act 1953 and the population was managed by Fish and Game New Zealand, which culled excessive bird numbers. In 2011, the government removed the protection status, allowing anyone to kill the birds.[25]

text: Behavior[edit]

text: Like most geese, the Canada goose is naturally migratory with the wintering range being most of the United States. The calls overhead from large groups of Canada geese flying in V-shaped formation signal the transitions into spring and autumn. In some areas, migration routes have changed due to changes in habitat and food sources. In mild climates from California to the Great Lakes, some of the population has become nonmigratory due to adequate winter food supply and a lack of former predators.[citation needed]

text: Males exhibit agonistic behavior both on and off breeding and nesting grounds. This behavior rarely involves interspecific killing. One documented case involved a male defending his nest from a brant goose that wandered into the area; the following attack lasted for one hour until the death of the brant. The cause of death was suffocation or drowning in mud as a direct result of the Canada goose's pecking the head of the brant into the mud. Researchers attributed it to high hormone levels and the brant's inability to leave the nesting area.[26]

text: Diet[edit]

text: Canada geese are primarily herbivores,[15] although they sometimes eat small insects and fish.[27] Their diet includes green vegetation and grains. The Canada goose eats a variety of grasses when on land. It feeds by grasping a blade of grass with the bill, then tearing it with a jerk of the head. The Canada goose also eats beans and grains such as wheat, rice, and corn when they are available. In the water, it feeds from aquatic plants by sliding its bill at the bottom of the body of water. It also feeds on aquatic plants, such as seaweeds.[13] In urban areas, it is also known to pick food out of garbage bins. They are also sometimes hand-fed a variety of grains and other foods by humans in parks.

text: Reproduction[edit]

text: During the second year of their lives, Canada geese find a mate. They are monogamous, and most couples stay together all of their lives. If one dies, the other may find a new mate. The female lays from two to nine eggs with an average of five, and both parents protect the nest while the eggs incubate, but the female spends more time at the nest than the male.[13]

text: Its nest is usually located in an elevated area near water such as streams, lakes, ponds, and sometimes on a beaver lodge. Its eggs are laid in a shallow depression lined with plant material and down.

text: The incubation period, in which the female incubates while the male remains nearby, lasts for 24–28 days after laying. As the annual summer molt also takes place during the breeding season, the adults lose their flight feathers for 20–40 days, regaining flight about the same time as their goslings start to fly.[28]

text: As soon as the goslings hatch, they are immediately capable of walking, swimming, and finding their own food (a diet similar to the adult geese). Parents are often seen leading their goslings in a line, usually with one adult at the front, and the other at the back. While protecting their goslings, parents often violently chase away nearby creatures, from small blackbirds to lone humans who approach, after warning them by giving off a hissing sound and then attack with bites and slaps of the wings if the threat does not retreat or has seized a gosling. Canada geese are especially protective animals, and will sometimes attack any animal nearing its territory or offspring, including humans. Most of the species that prey on eggs also take a gosling. Although parents are hostile to unfamiliar geese, they may form groups of a number of goslings and a few adults, called crèches.[29]

text: The offspring enter the fledgling stage any time from 6 to 9 weeks of age. They do not leave their parents until after the spring migration, when they return to their birthplace.[15]

text: Migration[edit]

text: Canada geese are known for their seasonal migrations. Most Canada geese have staging or resting areas where they join up with others. Their autumn migration can be seen from September to the beginning of November.[citation needed][30] The early migrants have a tendency to spend less time at rest stops and go through the migration much faster. The later birds usually spend more time at rest stops. Some geese return to the same nesting ground year after year and lay eggs with their mate, raising them in the same way each year. This is recorded from the many tagged geese which frequent the East Coast.

text: Canada geese fly in a distinctive V-shaped flight formation, with an altitude of 1 km (3,000 feet) for migration flight. The maximum flight ceiling of Canada geese is unknown, but they have been reported at 9 km (29,000 feet).[31]

text: Flying in the V formation has been the subject of study by researchers. The front position is rotated since flying in front consumes the most energy. Canada geese leave the winter grounds more quickly than the summer grounds. Elevated thyroid hormones, such as T3 and T4, have been measured in geese just after a big migration. This is believed because of the long days of flying in migration the thyroid gland sends out more T4 which help the body cope with the longer journey. The increased T4 levels are also associated with increased muscle mass (hypertrophy) of the breast muscle, also because of the longer time spent flying. It is believed that the body sends out more T4 to help the goose's body with this long task by speeding up the metabolism and lowering the temperature at which the muscles work.[32] Also, other studies show levels of stress hormones such as corticosterone rise dramatically in these birds during and after a migration.[33]

text: Survival[edit]

text: The lifespan in the wild of geese that survive to adulthood ranges from 10 to 24 years.[13] The British longevity record is held by a specimen tagged as a nestling, which was observed alive at the University of York at the age of 31.[34][35]

text: Predators[edit]

text: Known predators of eggs and goslings include coyotes,[36] Arctic foxes (Vulpes lagopus), northern raccoons (Procyon lotor), red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), large gulls (Larus species), common ravens (Corvus corax), American crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos), carrion crows (in Europe, Corvus corone) and both brown (Ursus arctos) and American black bears (Ursus americanus).[15][37][38][39][40]

text: Once they reach adulthood, due to their large size and often aggressive behavior, Canada geese are rarely preyed on, although prior injury may make them more vulnerable to natural predators.[41] Beyond humans, adults can be taken by coyotes[42] and gray wolves (Canis lupus).[43] Avian predators that are known to kill adults, as well as young geese, include snowy owls (Bubo scandiacus), golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) and bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) and, though rarely on large adult geese, great horned owls (Bubo virginianus), peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus), and gyrfalcons (Falco rusticolus).[15][39] Adults are quite vigorous at displacing potential predators from the nest site, with predator prevention usually falling to the larger male of the pair.[44][45][46] Males usually attempt to draw attention of approaching predators and toll (mob terrestrial predators without physical contact) often in accompaniment with males of other goose species. Eagles of both species frequently cause geese to fly off en masse from some distance, though in other instances, geese may seem unconcerned at perched bald eagles nearby, seemingly only reacting if the eagle is displaying active hunting behavior.[47] Canada geese are quite wary of humans where they are regularly hunted and killed, but can otherwise become habituated to fearlessness towards humans, especially where they are fed by them.[48] This often leads to the geese becoming overly aggressive towards humans, and large groups of the birds may be considered a nuisance if they are causing persistent issues to humans and other animals in the surrounding area.

text: Salinity[edit]

text: Salinity plays a role in the growth and development of goslings. Moderate to high salinity concentrations without fresh water results in slower development, growth, and saline-induced mortality. Goslings are susceptible to saline-induced mortality before their nasal salt glands become functional, with the majority occurring before the sixth day of life.[49]

text: Disease[edit]

text: Canada geese are susceptible to avian bird flus, such as H5N1. A study carried out using the HPAI virus, a H5N1 virus, found that the geese were susceptible to the virus. This proved useful for monitoring the spread of the virus through the high mortality of infected birds. Prior exposure to other viruses may result in some resistance to H5N1.[50]

text: Relationship with humans[edit]

text: In North America, nonmigratory Canada goose populations have been on the rise. The species is frequently found on golf courses, parking lots, and urban parks, which would have previously hosted only migratory geese on rare occasions. Owing to its adaptability to human-altered areas, it has become one of the most common waterfowl species in North America. In many areas, nonmigratory Canada geese are now regarded as pests by humans. They are suspected of being a cause of an increase in high fecal coliforms at beaches.[51] An extended hunting season, deploying noise makers, and hazing by dogs have been used in an attempt to disrupt suspect flocks.[52] A goal of conservationists has been to focus hunting on the nonmigratory populations (which tend to be larger and more of a nuisance) as opposed to migratory flocks showing natural behavior, which may be rarer.

text: Since 1999, the United States Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services agency has been engaged in lethal culls of Canada geese primarily in urban or densely populated areas. The agency responds to municipalities or private land owners, such as golf courses, which find the geese obtrusive or object to their waste.[53] Addling goose eggs and destroying nests are promoted as humane population control methods.[54] Flocks of Canada goose can also be captured during moult and this method of culling is used to control invasive populations.[55]

text: Canada geese are protected from hunting and capture outside of designated hunting seasons in the United States by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act,[56] and in Canada under the Migratory Birds Convention Act.[57] In both countries, commercial transactions such as buying or trading are mostly prohibited and the possession, hunting, and interfering with the activity of the animals are subject to restrictions.[58][59] In the UK, as with native bird species, the nests and eggs of Canada geese are fully protected by law, except when their removal has been specifically licensed, and shooting is generally permitted only during the defined open season.[60][61][62]

text: Geese have a tendency to attack humans when they feel themselves or their goslings to be threatened. First, the geese stand erect, spread their wings, and produce a hissing sound. Next, the geese charge. They may then bite or attack with their wings.[63]

text: Aircraft strikes[edit]

text: Canada geese have been implicated in a number of bird strikes by aircraft. Their large size and tendency to fly in flocks may exacerbate their impact. In the United States, the Canada goose is the second-most damaging bird strike to airplanes, with the most damaging being turkey vultures.[64] Canada geese can cause fatal crashes when they strike an aircraft's engine. In 1995, a U.S. Air Force E-3 Sentry aircraft at Elmendorf AFB, Alaska, struck a flock of Canada geese on takeoff, losing power in both port side engines. It crashed 2 mi (3.2 km) from the runway, killing all 24 crew members. The accident sparked efforts to avoid such events, including habitat modification, aversion tactics, herding and relocation, and culling of flocks.[65][66][67] In 2009, a collision with a flock of migratory Canada geese resulted in US Airways Flight 1549 suffering a total power loss after takeoff causing the crew of the aircraft to land the plane on the Hudson River with no loss of human life.[68][69][70]

text: Cuisine[edit]

text: As a large, common wild bird, the Canada goose is a common target of hunters, especially in its native range. Drake Larsen, a researcher in sustainable agriculture at Iowa State University, described them to Atlantic magazine as "so yummy...good, lean, rich meat. I find they are similar to a good cut of beef."[71] The British Trust for Ornithology, however, has described them as "reputedly amongst the most inedible of birds." The US goose harvest for 2013–14 reported over 1.3 million geese taken.[72] Canada geese are rarely farmed, and sale of wild Canada goose meat is rare due to regulation, and slaughterhouses' lack of experience with wild birds. Geese culled near New York airports have been donated to food banks in Pennsylvania. As of 2011, the sale of wild Canada goose meat was not permitted in the UK; some landowners have lobbied for this ban to be withdrawn to allow them income from sale of game meat.[73][74]

text: Population[edit]

text: In 2000, the North American population for the geese was estimated to be between 4 million and 5 million birds.[75] A 20-year study from 1983 to 2003 in Wichita, Kansas, found the size of the winter Canada goose population within the city limits increase from 1,600 to over 18,000 birds.[75]