question_text: indian chief justice of international court of justice

text: Permanent judges[edit]

text:
Judges of the International Court of Justice, as of 22 July 2010 (sortable)

State
Judge
Terms start
Term end
President
Vice-President

El Salvador El Salvador
Guerrero, José GustavoJosé Gustavo Guerrero
1946
1958
1946–1949
1949–1955

France France
Basdevant, JulesJules Basdevant
1946
1964
1949–1952
1946–1949

Chile Chile
Alvarez Alejandro Álvarez
1946
1955

Mexico Mexico
Fabela, IsidroIsidro Fabela
1946
1952

USA United States
Hackworth, GreenGreen Hackworth
1946
1961
1955–1958

Poland Poland
Winiarski, BohdanBohdan Winiarski
1946
1967
1961–1964

Yugoslavia Yugoslavia
Zoricic Milovan Zoričić
1946
1958

Belgium Belgium
de Visscher Charles De Visscher
1946
1952

UK United Kingdom
McNair, Arnold McNair, 1st BaronArnold McNair, 1st Baron McNair
1946
1955
1952–1955

Norway Norway
Klæstad, HelgeHelge Klæstad
1946
1961
1958–1961

Egypt Egypt
Badawi Abdul Badawi Pasha
1946
1965

1955–1958

USSR Soviet Union
Krylov Sergei Krylov
1946
1952

Canada Canada
Read John Read
1946
1958

China Republic of China
Hsu Hsu Mo
1946
1956

Brazil Brazil
Azevedo, PhiladelphoPhiladelpho Azevedo
1946
1951

Brazil Brazil
Carneiro Levi Carneiro (pt)
1951
1955

India India
Rau, Sir Benegal NarsingSir Benegal Narsing Rau
1952
1953

Uruguay Uruguay
Armand-Ugon Enrique Armand-Ugón (nl)
1952
1961

USSR Soviet Union
Golunsky Sergei Golunsky (ru)
1952
1953

USSR Soviet Union
Kojevnikov Feodor I. Kozhevnikov
1953
1961

Pakistan Pakistan
Zafarullah Khan, Sir MuhammadSir Muhammad Zafarullah Khan
1954
1964
1961
1973
1970–1973
1958–1961

UK United Kingdom
Lauterpacht, HerschHersch Lauterpacht
1955
1960

Argentina Argentina
Moreno Quintana Lucio Moreno Quintana (nl)
1955
1964

Mexico Mexico
Cordova Roberto Córdova
1955
1964

China Republic of China
Koo, WellingtonWellington Koo
1957
1967

1964–1967

Greece Greece
Spiropoulos, JeanJean Spiropoulos
1958
1967

Australia Australia
Spender Sir Percy Spender
1958
1967
1964–1967

Panama Panama
Alfaro, RicardoRicardo Alfaro
1959
1964

1961–1964

UK United Kingdom
Fitzmaurice Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice
1960
1973

USSR Soviet Union
Koretsky Vladimir Koretsky (ru)
1961
1970

1967–1970

Japan Japan
Tanaka Kōtarō Tanaka
1961
1970

Peru Peru
Bustamante y Rivero, JoséJosé Bustamante y Rivero
1961
1970
1967–1970

USA United States
Jessup, PhilipPhilip Jessup
1961
1970

Italy Italy
Morelli Gaetano Morelli (it)
1961
1970

Mexico Mexico
Nervo, Luis PadillaLuis Padilla Nervo
1964
1973

Senegal Senegal
Forster Isaac Forster (nl)
1964
1982

France France
Gros André Gros (nl)
1964
1982

Lebanon Lebanon
AmmounFouad Ammoun (de)
1965
1976

1970–1976

Philippines Philippines
Bengzon, CésarCésar Bengzon
1967
1976

Sweden Sweden
Petrén Sture Petrén (sv)
1967
1976

Poland Poland
Lachs, ManfredManfred Lachs
1967
1993
1973–1976

Nigeria Nigeria
Onyeama Charles Onyeama
1967
1976

USA United States
Dillard, HardyHardy Dillard
1970
1979

Dahomey Benin
Ignacio-Pinto, LouisLouis Ignacio-Pinto
1970
1979

Spain Spain
de Castro, FedericoFederico de Castro
1970
1979

USSR Soviet Union
Morozov Platon Dmitriejevitsj Morozov (nl)
1970
1985

Uruguay Uruguay
Jiménez de Aréchaga, EduardoEduardo Jiménez de Aréchaga
1970
1979
1976–1979

UK United Kingdom
Waldock Sir Humphrey Waldock
1973
1981
1979–1981

India India
Singh, NagendraNagendra Singh
1973
1988
1985–1988
1976–1979

Argentina Argentina
Ruda, JoséJosé Ruda
1973
1991
1988–1991

West Germany West Germany
Mosler Hermann Mosler (de)
1976
1985

Nigeria Nigeria
Elias, TaslimTaslim Elias
1976
1991
1982–1985
1979–1982

Syria Syria
Tarazi Salah Tarazi (nl)
1976
1980

Japan Japan
Oda, ShigeruShigeru Oda
1976
2003

1991–1994

Italy Italy
Ago, RobertoRoberto Ago
1979
1995

Egypt Egypt
El-Erian, AbdullahAbdullah El-Erian
1979
1981

Brazil Brazil
Sette-Camara José Sette Câmara Filho (pt)
1979
1988

1982–1985

USA United States
Baxter Richard Reeve Baxter
1979
1980

Syria Syria
El-Khani Abdallah El-Khani (nl)
1981
1985

USA United States
Schwebel, StephenStephen Schwebel
1981
2000
1997–2000
1994–1997

UK United Kingdom
Jennings Sir Robert Jennings
1982
1995
1991–1994

France France
de Lacharrière Guy Ladreit de Lacharrière (nl)
1982
1987

1985–1987

Senegal Senegal
Mbaye, KébaKéba Mbaye
1982
1991

1987–1991

Algeria Algeria
Bedjaoui, MohammedMohammed Bedjaoui
1982
2001
1994–1997

China China
Ni Ni Zhengyu (zh)
1985
1994

Norway Norway
Evensen, JensJens Evensen
1985
1994

USSR/Russia Soviet Union/Russia
Tarassov Nikolaj Konstantinovitsj Tarasov (ru)
1985
1994

France France
Guillaume Gilbert Guillaume (fr)
1987
2005
2000–2003

Guyana Guyana
Shahabuddeen Mohamed Shahabuddeen
1988
1997

India India
Pathak, Raghunandan SwarupRaghunandan Swarup Pathak
1989
1991

Venezuela Venezuela
Aguilar Mawdsley Andrés Aguilar Mawdsley (nl)
1991
1995

Sri Lanka Sri Lanka
Weeramantry, ChristopherChristopher Weeramantry
1991
2000

1997–2000

Madagascar Madagascar
Ranjeva, RaymondRaymond Ranjeva
1991
2009

2003–2006

Nigeria Nigeria
Ajibola, BolaBola Ajibola
1991
1994

Hungary Hungary
Herczegh Géza Herczegh (hu)
1993
2003

China China
Shi Shi Jiuyong
1994
2010
2003–2006
2000–2003

Germany Germany
Fleischhauer, Carl-AugustCarl-August Fleischhauer
1994
2003

Sierra Leone Sierra Leone
Koroma, Abdul G.Abdul G. Koroma
1994
2012

Russia Russia
Vereschetin Vladlen Veresjtsjetin (nl)
1994
2006

Italy Italy
Ferrari Bravo, LuigiLuigi Ferrari Bravo
1995
1997

UK United Kingdom
Higgins, RosalynRosalyn Higgins
1995
2009
2006–2009

Venezuela Venezuela
Parra Aranguren Gonzalo Parra-Aranguren
1996
2009

Netherlands Netherlands
Kooijmans, PieterPieter Kooijmans
1997
2006

Brazil Brazil
Rezek, FranciscoFrancisco Rezek
1997
2006

Jordan Jordan
Al-Khasawneh Awn Al-Khasawneh
2000
2011

2006–2009

USA United States
Buergenthal, ThomasThomas Buergenthal
2000
2010

Egypt Egypt
El Araby, NabilNabil El Araby
2001
2006

Japan Japan
Owada, HisashiHisashi Owada
2003

2009–2012

Germany Germany
Simma, BrunoBruno Simma
2003
2012

Slovakia Slovakia
Tomka, PeterPeter Tomka
2003

2012–2015
2009–2012

France France
Abraham, RonnyRonny Abraham
2005
2014
2015–

New Zealand New Zealand
Sir Kenneth Keith
2006
2015

Mexico Mexico
Sepúlveda Amor, BernardoBernardo Sepúlveda Amor
2006
2015

2012–2015

Morocco Morocco
Bennouna, MohamedMohamed Bennouna
2006
2024

Russia Russia
Skotnikov, LeonidLeonid Skotnikov
2006
2015

Brazil Brazil
Trindade, Antônio Augusto CançadoAntônio Augusto Cançado Trindade
2009
2018

Somalia Somalia
Yusuf, Abdulqawi AhmedAbdulqawi Ahmed Yusuf
2009
2018

2015–

UK United Kingdom
Greenwood Sir Christopher Greenwood
2009
2018

China China
Xue Xue Hanqin
2010
2012

USA United States
Donoghue, Joan E.Joan E. Donoghue
2010

Italy Italy
Gaja, GiorgioGiorgio Gaja
2012

Uganda Uganda
Sebutinde, JuliaJulia Sebutinde
2012

India India
Bhandari, DalveerDalveer Bhandari
2012

Australia Australia
Crawford James Crawford
2015

Russia Russia
Gevorgian, KirillKirill Gevorgian
2015

Jamaica Jamaica
Robinson, Patrick LiptonPatrick Lipton Robinson
2015

text: Succession of seats[edit]

text: The Court comprises 15 seats. When the original fifteen judges were elected in 1946, they drew lots to determine which five would have 3-year initial terms, which five would have 6-year initial terms, and which five would have 9-year initial terms. From then onwards, all terms have been nine years, with five seats being up for election every three years. The seats are numbered according to the length of the initial term and then in order of seniority of the first judge to hold the seat.

text: There are no formal rules for the allocation of seats, other than that no two may be nationals of the same state. In practice, the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council have each had a permanent seat on the Court, except between 1967 and 1985 when there was no Chinese judge. The remaining seats have been informally allocated by regional groups in the same way as the fifteen seats on the Security Council. Since 1970, the conventional allocation is three seats to Asia Pacific, three seats to Africa, two seats to Latin America and the Caribbean, two seats to Eastern Europe and five seats to Western Europe and Others.

text:
Seat 1 (Asia)

Initial term of nine years

Guerrero, José GustavoJosé Gustavo Guerrero
El Salvador El Salvador
1946–1958

Alfaro, RicardoRicardo Alfaro
Panama Panama
1959-1964

Zafarullah Khan, MuhammadMuhammad Zafarullah Khan
Pakistan Pakistan
1964-1973

Singh, NagendraNagendra Singh
India India
1973-1988

Pathak, RaghunandanRaghunandan Pathak
India India
1989-1991

Weeramantry, ChristopherChristopher Weeramantry
Sri Lanka Sri Lanka
1991-2000

Al-Khasawneh Awn Al-Khasawneh
Jordan Jordan
2000-2011

Bhandari, DalveerDalveer Bhandari
India India
2012-

Seat 2 (WE&O)

Initial term of nine years

Basdevant, JulesJules Basdevant
France France
1946-1964

Gros André Gros (nl)
France France
1964-1982

de Lacharrière Guy Ladreit de Lacharrière (nl)
France France
1982-1987

Guillaume Gilbert Guillaume (fr)
France France
1987-2005

Abraham, RonnyRonny Abraham
France France
2005-

Seat 3 (Africa)

Initial term of nine years

Alvarez Alejandro Álvarez
Chile Chile
1946-1955

Moreno Quintana Lucio Moreno Quintana (nl)
Argentina Argentina
1955-1964

Forster Isaac Forster (nl)
Senegal Senegal
1964-1982

Mbaye, KébaKéba Mbaye
Senegal Senegal
1982-1991

Ranjeva, RaymondRaymond Ranjeva
Madagascar Madagascar
1991-2009

Abdulqawi Ahmed Yusuf Abdulqawi Ahmed Yusuf
Somalia Somalia
2009-

Seat 4 (WE&O)

Initial term of nine years

McNair, Arnold McNair, 1st BaronArnold McNair, 1st Baron McNair
UK UK
1946-1955

Lauterpacht, HerschHersch Lauterpacht
UK UK
1955-1960

Fitzmaurice Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice
UK UK
1960-1973

Waldock Sir Humphrey Waldock
UK UK
1973-1981

Jennings Sir Robert Jennings
UK UK
1981-1995

Higgins, RosalynRosalyn Higgins
UK UK
1995-2009

Sir Christopher Greenwood Christopher Greenwood
UK UK
2009-

text:
Seat 5 (LA&C)

Initial term of nine years

Azevedo, PhiladelphoPhiladelpho Azevedo
Brazil Brazil
1946-1951

Carneiro Levi Carneiro (pt)
Brazil Brazil
1951-1955

Cordova Roberto Córdova
Mexico Mexico
1955-1964

Nervo, Luis PadillaLuis Padilla Nervo
Mexico Mexico
1964-1973

Ruda, JoséJosé Ruda
Argentina Argentina
1973-1991

Aguilar Mawdsley Andrés Aguilar Mawdsley (nl)
Venezuela Venezuela
1991-1995

Parra Aranguren Gonzalo Parra-Aranguren
Venezuela Venezuela
1996-2009

Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade
Brazil Brazil
2009-

Seat 6 (LA&C)

Initial term of six years

Fabela, IsidroIsidro Fabela
Mexico Mexico
1946-1952

Armand-Ugon Enrique Armand-Ugón (nl)
Uruguay Uruguay
1952-1961

Bustamante y Rivero, JoséJosé Bustamante y Rivero
Peru Peru
1961-1970

Jiménez de Aréchaga, EduardoEduardo Jiménez de Aréchaga
Uruguay Uruguay
1970-1979

Sette-Camara José Sette Câmara Filho (pt)
Brazil Brazil
1979-1988

Shahabuddeen Mohamed Shahabuddeen
Guyana Guyana
1988-1997

Rezek, FranciscoFrancisco Rezek
Brazil Brazil
1997-2006

Sepúlveda Amor, BernardoBernardo Sepúlveda Amor
Mexico Mexico
2006-2015

Robinson, Patrick LiptonPatrick Lipton Robinson
Jamaica Jamaica
2015-

Seat 7 (WE&O)

Initial term of six years

Hackworth, GreenGreen Hackworth
USA USA
1946-1961

Jessup, PhilipPhilip Jessup
USA USA
1961-1970

Dillard, HardyHardy Dillard
USA USA
1970-1979

Baxter Richard Reeve Baxter
USA USA
1979-1980

Schwebel, StephenStephen Schwebel
USA USA
1981-2000

Buergenthal, ThomasThomas Buergenthal
USA USA
2000-2010

Joan E. Donoghue Joan E. Donoghue
USA USA
2010-

Seat 8 (Africa)

Initial term of six years

de Visscher Charles De Visscher
Belgium Belgium
1946-1952

Rau, Benegal NarsingBenegal Narsing Rau
India India
1952-1953

Zafarullah Khan, MuhammadMuhammad Zafarullah Khan
Pakistan Pakistan
1954-1961

Tanaka Kōtarō Tanaka
Japan Japan
1961-1970

Ignacio-Pinto, LouisLouis Ignacio-Pinto
Dahomey Benin
1970-1979

El-Erian, AbdullahAbdullah El-Erian
Egypt Egypt
1979-1981

Bedjaoui, MohammedMohammed Bedjaoui
Algeria Algeria
1982-2001

El Araby, NabilNabil El Araby
Egypt Egypt
2001-2006

Bennouna, MohamedMohamed Bennouna
Morocco Morocco
2006-

text:
Seat 9 (WE&O)

Initial term of six years

Klæstad, HelgeHelge Klæstad
Norway Norway
1946-1961

Morelli Gaetano Morelli (it)
Italy Italy
1961-1970

de Castro, FedericoFederico de Castro
Spain Spain
1970-1979

Ago, RobertoRoberto Ago
Italy Italy
1979-1995

Ferrari Bravo, LuigiLuigi Ferrari Bravo
Italy Italy
1995-1997

Kooijmans, PieterPieter Kooijmans
Netherlands Netherlands
1997-2006

Keith Sir Kenneth Keith
New Zealand New Zealand
2006-2015

Crawford James Crawford
Australia Australia
2015-

Seat 10 (Eastern Europe)

Initial term of six years

Krylov Sergei Krylov
USSR USSR
1946-1952

Golunsky Sergei Golunsky (ru)
USSR USSR
1952-1953

Kojevnikov Feodor I. Kozhevnikov
USSR USSR
1953-1961

Koretsky Vladimir Koretsky (ru)
USSR USSR
1961-1970

Morozov Platon Dmitriejevitsj Morozov (nl)
USSR USSR
1970-1985

Tarassov Nikolaj Konstantinovitsj Tarasov (ru)
USSR/Russia USSR/Russia
1985-1994

Vereschetin Vladlen Veresjtsjetin (nl)
Russia Russia
1994-2006

Skotnikov, LeonidLeonid Skotnikov
Russia Russia
2006-2015

Gevorgian, KirillKirill Gevorgian
Russia Russia
2015-

Seat 11 (Eastern Europe)

Initial term of three years

Winiarski, BohdanBohdan Winiarski
Poland Poland
1946-1967

Lachs, ManfredManfred Lachs
Poland Poland
1967-1993

Herczegh Géza Herczegh (hu)
Hungary Hungary
1993-2003

Tomka, PeterPeter Tomka
Slovakia Slovakia
2003-

Seat 12 (WE&O)

Initial term of three years

Zoricic Milovan Zoričić
Yugoslavia Yugoslavia
1946-1958

Spiropoulos, JeanJean Spiropoulos
Greece Greece
1958-1967

Petrén Sture Petrén (sv)
Sweden Sweden
1967-1976

Mosler Hermann Mosler (de)
West Germany West Germany
1976-1985

Evensen, JensJens Evensen
Norway Norway
1985-1994

Fleischhauer, Carl-AugustCarl-August Fleischhauer
Germany Germany
1994-2003

Simma, BrunoBruno Simma
Germany Germany
2003-2012

Gaja, GiorgioGiorgio Gaja
Italy Italy
2012-

text:
Seat 13 (Asia)

Initial term of three years

Badawi Abdul Badawi Pasha
Egypt Egypt
1946-1965

AmmounFouad Ammoun (de)
Lebanon Lebanon
1965-1976

Tarazi Salah Tarazi (nl)
Syria Syria
1976-1980

El-Khani Abdallah El-Khani (nl)
Syria Syria
1981-1985

Ni Ni Zhengyu (zh)
China China
1985-1994

Shi Shi Jiuyong
China China
1994-2010

Xue Hanqin Xue Hanqin
China China
2010-

Seat 14 (Africa)

Initial term of three years

Read John Read
Canada Canada
1946-1958

Spender, PercyPercy Spender
Australia Australia
1958-1967

Onyeama Charles Onyeama
Nigeria Nigeria
1967-1976

Elias, TaslimTaslim Elias
Nigeria Nigeria
1976-1991

Ajibola, BolaBola Ajibola
Nigeria Nigeria
1991-1994

Koroma, Abdul G.Abdul G. Koroma
Sierra Leone Sierra Leone
1994-2012

Sebutinde, JuliaJulia Sebutinde
Uganda Uganda
2012-

Seat 15 (Asia)

Initial term of three years

Hsu Hsu Mo
China China
1946-1956

Koo, WellingtonWellington Koo
China China
1957-1967

Bengzon, CésarCésar Bengzon
Philippines Philippines
1967-1976

Oda, ShigeruShigeru Oda
Japan Japan
1976-2003

Owada, HisashiHisashi Owada
Japan Japan
2003-

text: Judges sitting ad hoc[edit]

text:
Judges sitting ad hoc on the International Court of Justice, as of 22 July 2010 (sortable)

Judge
Nationality
Appointing State
Case(s) including parties years and of initiation to deposition

Georges Abi-Saab
 Egypt
 Mali
Frontier Dispute (Burkina Faso/Republic of Mali) 1983–1986

Adetobunboh Ademola
 Nigeria
 Ethiopia
South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa) 1960–1966

 Liberia
South West Africa (Liberia v. South Africa) 1960–1966

Mohsen Aghahosseini
 Iran
 Iran
Aerial Incident of 3 July 1988 (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America) 1989–1996

Roberto Ago
 Italy
 Honduras
Arbitral Award Made by the King of Spain on 23 December 1906 (Honduras v. Nicaragua) 1958–1960

Bola Ajibola
 Nigeria
 Nigeria
Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria: Equatorial Guinea intervening) 1996–2002

 Nigeria
Request for Interpretation of the Judgment of 11 June 1998 in the Case concerning the Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria), Preliminary Objections (Nigeria v. Cameroon) 1998–1999

Luis Alayza y Paz Soldán
 Peru
 Peru
Asylum (Colombia/Peru) 1949–1950

 Peru
Request for Interpretation of the Judgment of 20 November 1950 in the Asylum Case (Colombia v. Peru) 1950

 Peru
Haya de la Torre (Colombia v.Peru) 1950–1951

Awn Shawkat Al-Khasawneh
 Jordan
 Nicaragua
Maritime Delimitation in the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua) 2014–present

Louise Arbour
 Canada
 Chile
Obligation to Negotiate Access to the Pacific Ocean (Bolivia v. Chile) 2014–present

Enrique Armand-Ugón
 Uruguay
 Spain
Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (Belgium v. Spain) (New Application: 1962) 1962–1970

Antonio de Arruda Ferrer-Correia
 Portugal
 Portugal
East Timor (Portugal v. Australia) 1991–1995

Garfield Barwick
 Australia
 Australia
Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France) 1973–1974

 New Zealand
Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France) 1973–1974

Suzanne Bastid
 France
 Tunisia
Application for Revision and Interpretation of the Judgment of 24 February 1982 in the Case concerning the Continental Shelf (Tunisia/Libyan Arab Jamahiriya) (Tunisia v. Libyan Arab Jamahiriya) 1984–1985

Philémon Beb à Don
 Cameroon
 Cameroon
Northern Cameroons (Cameroon v. United Kingdom) 1961–1963

Mohammed Bedjaoui
 Algeria
 Guinea
Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo) 1998–2012

 Nicaragua
Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia) 2001–2012

 Niger
Frontier Dispute (Benin/Niger) 2002–2005

 Marshall Islands
Obligations concerning Negotiations relating to Cessation of the Nuclear Arms Race and to Nuclear Disarmament (Marshall Islands v. India) 2014–present

 Marshall Islands
Obligations concerning Negotiations relating to Cessation of the Nuclear Arms Race and to Nuclear Disarmament (Marshall Islands v. Pakistan) 2014–present

 Marshall Islands
Obligations concerning Negotiations relating to Cessation of the Nuclear Arms Race and to Nuclear Disarmament (Marshall Islands v. United Kingdom) 2014–present

Mohamed Bennouna
 Morocco
 Benin
Frontier Dispute (Benin/Niger) 2002–2005

Franklin Berman
 United Kingdom
 Liechtenstein
Certain Property (Liechtenstein v. Germany) 2001–2005

Alphonse Boni
 Ivory Coast
 Morocco
Western Sahara 1974–1975

Bengt Broms
 Finland
 Finland
Passage through the Great Belt (Finland v. Denmark) 1991–1992

Charles Brower
 United States
 Colombia
Question of the Delimitation of the Continental Shelf between Nicaragua and Colombia beyond 200 nautical miles from the Nicaraguan Coast (Nicaragua v. Colombia) 2013–present

Ian Brownlie
 United Kingdom
 Liechtenstein
Certain Property (Liechtenstein v. Germany) 2001–2005

Andreas Bucher
  Switzerland
  Switzerland
Jurisdiction and Enforcement of Judgments in Civil and Commercial Matters (Belgium v. Switzerland) 2009–2011

Sayeman Bula-Bula
 Democratic Republic of the Congo
 Democratic Republic of the Congo
Arrest Warrant of 11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Belgium) 2000–2002

José Joaquin Caicedo Castilla
 Colombia
 Colombia
Asylum (Colombia/Peru) 1949–1950

 Colombia
Request for Interpretation of the Judgment of 20 November 1950 in the Asylum Case (Colombia v. Peru) 1950

 Colombia
Haya de la Torre (Colombia v.Peru) 1950–1951

Ian Callinan
 Australia
 Australia
Questions relating to the Seizure and Detention of Certain Documents and Data (Timor-Leste v. Australia) 2013–2015

Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade
 Brazil
 Costa Rica
Dispute regarding Navigational and Related Rights (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua) 2005–2009

Jean-Yves de Cara
 France
 Republic of the Congo
Certain Criminal Proceedings in France (Republic of the Congo v. France) 2003–2010

Paul Carry
  Switzerland
  Switzerland
Interhandel (Switzerland v. United States of America) 1957–1959

Jorge Castañeda
 Mexico
 Malta
Continental Shelf (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Malta) 1982–1985

Federico de Castro
 Spain
 Spain
Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (Belgium v. Spain) 1958–1961

Mohamed Ali Currim Chagla
 India
 India
Right of Passage over Indian Territory (Portugal v. India) 1955–1960

Hilary Charlesworth
 Australia
 Australia
Whaling in the Antarctic (Australia v. Japan: New Zealand intervening) 2010–2014

Joseph Chesson
 Liberia
 Ethiopia
South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa) 1960–1966

 Liberia
South West Africa (Liberia v. South Africa) 1960–1966

Maxwell Cohen
 Canada
 Canada
Delimitation of the Maritime Boundary in the Gulf of Maine Area (Canada/United States of America) 1981–1984

Claude-Albert Colliard
 France
 Nicaragua
Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America) 1984–1986

Jean-Pierre Cot
 France
 Colombia
Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia) 2001–2012

 Romania
Maritime Delimitation in the Black Sea (Romania v. Ukraine) 2004–2009

 Colombia
Aerial Herbicide Spraying (Ecuador v. Colombia) 2008–2013

 Thailand
Request for Interpretation of the Judgment of 15 June 1962 in the Case concerning the Temple of Preah Vihear (Cambodia v. Thailand) (Cambodia v. Thailand) 2011–present

 Timor-Leste
Questions relating to the Seizure and Detention of Certain Documents and Data (Timor-Leste v. Australia) 2013–2015

Yves Daudet
 France
 Burkina Faso
Frontier Dispute (Burkina Faso/Niger) 2010–2013

 Bolivia
Obligation to Negotiate Access to the Pacific Ocean (Bolivia v. Chile) 2014–present

 Nicaragua
Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia) 2013–present

Igor Daxner
 Czechoslovakia
 Albania
Corfu Channel (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland v. Albania) 1947–1949

Vojin Dimitrijević
 Yugoslavia
 Yugoslavia
Application for Revision of the Judgment of 11 July 1996 in the Case concerning Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections (Yugoslavia v. Bosnia and Herzegovina) 2001–2003

Christopher Dugard
 South Africa
 Rwanda
Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Rwanda) 1999–2001

 Rwanda
Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (New Application: 2002) (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Rwanda) 2002–2006

 Malaysia
Sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, Middle Rocks and South Ledge (Malaysia/Singapore) 2003–2008

 Nicaragua
Certain Activities carried out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua) 2010–present

 Nicaragua
Construction of a Road in Costa Rica along the San Juan River (Nicaragua v. Costa Rica) 2011–present

Patrick Ferdinand Duinslaeger
 Belgium
 Belgium
Legality of Use of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v. Belgium) 1999–2004

Bohuslav Ečer
 Czechoslovakia
 Albania
Corfu Channel (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland v. Albania) 1947–1949

Ahmed Sadek El-Kosheri
 Egypt
 Libya
Questions of Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United States of America) 1992–2003

Jens Evensen
 Norway
 Tunisia
Continental Shelf (Tunisia/Libyan Arab Jamahiriya) 1978–1982

Manuel Fernandes
 Portugal
 Portugal
Right of Passage over Indian Territory (Portugal v. India) 1955–1960

Paul-Henning Fischer
 Denmark
 Denmark
Maritime Delimitation in the Area between Greenland and Jan Mayen (Denmark v. Norway) 1988–1993

 Denmark
Passage through the Great Belt (Finland v. Denmark) 1991–1992

Carl-August Fleischhauer
 Germany
 Germany
Certain Property (Liechtenstein v. Germany) 2001–2005

Yves Fortier
 Canada
 Bahrain
Maritime Delimitation and Territorial Questions between Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahrain) 1991–2001

Thomas Franck
 United States
 Indonesia
Sovereignty over Pulau Ligitan and Pulau Sipadan (Indonesia/Malaysia) 1998–2002

Giorgio Gaja
 Italy
 Italy
Legality of Use of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v. Italy) 1999–2004

 Nicaragua
Territorial and Maritime Dispute between Nicaragua and Honduras in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Honduras) 1997–2007

 Italy
Jurisdictional Immunities of the State (Germany v. Italy: Greece intervening) 2008–2012

Walter Ganshof van der Meersch
 Belgium
 Belgium
Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (Belgium v. Spain) 1958–1961

 Belgium
Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (Belgium v. Spain) (New Application: 1962) 1962–1970

Carlos Garcia Bauer
 Guatemala
 Guatemala
Nottebohm (Liechtenstein v. Guatemala) 1951–1955

David Goitein
 Israel
 Israel
Aerial Incident of 27 July 1955 (Israel v. Bulgaria) 1957–1959

Julio Diego Gonzáles Campos
 Spain
 Honduras
Territorial and Maritime Dispute between Nicaragua and Honduras in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Honduras) 1999–2007

Paul Guggenheim
  Switzerland
 Liechtenstein
Nottebohm (Liechtenstein v. Guatemala) 1951–1955

Gilbert Guillaume
 France
 France
Certain Criminal Proceedings in France (Republic of the Congo v. France) 2003–2010

 Nicaragua
Dispute regarding Navigational and Related Rights (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua) 2005–2009

 France
Certain Questions of Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters (Djibouti v. France) 2006–2008

 Peru
Maritime Dispute (Peru v. Chile) 2008–2014

 Nicaragua
Certain Activities carried out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua) 2010–present

 Cambodia
Request for Interpretation of the Judgment of 15 June 1962 in the Case concerning the Temple of Preah Vihear (Cambodia v. Thailand) (Cambodia v. Thailand) 2011–present

 Nicaragua
Construction of a Road in Costa Rica along the San Juan River (Nicaragua v. Costa Rica) 2011–present

Sead Hodžić
 Bosnia and Herzegovina
 Bosnia and Herzegovina
Application for Revision of the Judgment of 11 July 1996 in the Case concerning Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections (Yugoslavia v. Bosnia and Herzegovina) 2001–2003

Robert Yewdall Jennings
 United Kingdom
 United Kingdom
Questions of Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United Kingdom) 1992–2003

Eduardo Jiménez de Aréchaga
 Uruguay
 Libya
Continental Shelf (Tunisia/Libyan Arab Jamahiriya) 1978–1982

 Libya
Continental Shelf (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Malta) 1982–1985

 Libya
Application for Revision and Interpretation of the Judgment of 24 February 1982 in the Case concerning the Continental Shelf (Tunisia/Libyan Arab Jamahiriya) (Tunisia v. Libyan Arab Jamahiriya) 1984–1985

Philippe Kirsch
 Belgium
 Belgium
Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal) 2009–2012

Milenko Kreća
 Serbia and Montenegro
 Serbia and Montenegro
Legality of Use of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v. Belgium) 1999–2004

 Serbia and Montenegro
Legality of Use of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v. Canada) 1999–2004

 Serbia and Montenegro
Legality of Use of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v. Italy) 1999–2004

 Serbia and Montenegro
Legality of Use of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v. France) 1999–2004

 Serbia and Montenegro
Legality of Use of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v. Germany) 1999–2004

 Serbia and Montenegro
Legality of Use of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v. Netherlands) 1999–2004

 Serbia and Montenegro
Legality of Use of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v. Portugal) 1999–2004

 FR Yugoslavia
Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. Spain) 1999

 Serbia and Montenegro
Legality of Use of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v. United Kingdom) 1999–2004

 FR Yugoslavia
Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. United States of America) 1999

 Serbia
Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia) 1999–2015

Marc Lalonde
 Canada
 Canada
Fisheries Jurisdiction (Spain v. Canada) 1995–1998

 Canada
Legality of Use of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v. Canada) 1999–2004

Elihu Lauterpacht
 United Kingdom
 Bosnia and Herzegovina
Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro) 1993–2007

François Luchaire
 France
 Burkina Faso
Frontier Dispute (Burkina Faso/Republic of Mali) 1983–1986

Ahmed Mahiou
 Algeria
 Bosnia and Herzegovina
Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro) 1993–2007

 Guinea
Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo) 1998–2012

 Bosnia and Herzegovina
Application for Revision of the Judgment of 11 July 1996 in the Case concerning Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections (Yugoslavia v. Bosnia and Herzegovina) 2001–2003

 Niger
Frontier Dispute (Burkina Faso/Niger) 2010–2013

Auguste Mampuya Kanunka Tshiabo
 Democratic Republic of the Congo
 Democratic Republic of the Congo
Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo) 1998–2012

 Democratic Republic of the Congo
Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (New Application: 2002) (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Rwanda) 2002–2006

Jean-Pierre Mavungu Mvubidi-Ngom
 Democratic Republic of the Congo
 Democratic Republic of the Congo
Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Rwanda) 1999–2001

 Democratic Republic of the Congo
Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (New Application: 2002) (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Rwanda) 2002–2006

Louis Mbanefo
 Nigeria
 Ethiopia
South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa) 1960–1966

 Liberia
South West Africa (Liberia v. South Africa) 1960–1966

Kéba Mbaye
 Senegal
 Senegal
Arbitral Award of 31 July 1989 (Guinea-Bissau v. Senegal) 1989–1991

 Cameroon
Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria: Equatorial Guinea intervening) 1996–2002

 Cameroon
Request for Interpretation of the Judgment of 11 June 1998 in the Case concerning the Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria), Preliminary Objections (Nigeria v. Cameroon) 1998–1999

Thomas Mensah
 Ghana
 Nicaragua
Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia) 2001–2012

Gaetano Morelli
 Italy
 Italy
Monetary Gold Removed from Rome in 1943 (Italy v. France, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and United States of America) 1953–1954

Hermann Mosler
 West Germany
 West Germany
North Sea Continental Shelf (Federal Republic of Germany/Netherlands) 1967–1969

Nagendra Singh
 India
 India
Appeal Relating to the Jurisdiction of the ICAO Council (India v. Pakistan) 1971–1972

Johannes Offerhaus
 Netherlands
 Netherlands
Application of the Convention of 1902 Governing the Guardianship of Infants (Netherlands v. Sweden) 1957–1958

Francisco Orrego Vicuña
 Chile
 Chile
Maritime Dispute (Peru v. Chile) 2008–2014

Bernard Oxman
 United States
 Ukraine
Maritime Delimitation in the Black Sea (Romania v. Ukraine) 2004–2009

Geoffrey Palmer
 New Zealand
 New Zealand
Request for an Examination of the Situation in Accordance with Paragraph 63 of the Court's Judgment of 20 December 1974 in the Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France) Case 1995

Felipe Paolillo
 Uruguay
 El Salvador
Application for Revision of the Judgment of 11 September 1992 in the Case concerning the Land, Island and Maritime Frontier Dispute (El Salvador/Honduras: Nicaragua intervening) (El Salvador v. Honduras) 2002–2003

Syed Sharif Uddin Pirzada
 Pakistan
 Pakistan
Aerial Incident of 10 August 1999 (Pakistan v. India) 1999–2000

Fausto Pocar
 Italy
 Belgium
Jurisdiction and Enforcement of Judgments in Civil and Commercial Matters (Belgium v. Switzerland) 2009–2011

Pemmaraju Sreenivasa Rao
 India
 Singapore
Sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, Middle Rocks and South Ledge (Malaysia/Singapore) 2003–2008

B. P. Jeevan Reddy
 India
 India
Aerial Incident of 10 August 1999 (Pakistan v. India) 1999–2000

François Rigaux
 Belgium
 Iran
Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America) 1992–2003

Willem Riphagen
 Netherlands
 Belgium
Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (Belgium v. Spain) (New Application: 1962) 1962–1970

Emmanuel Roucounas
 Greece
 Greece
Application of the Interim Accord of 13 September 1995 (the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia v. Greece) 2008–2011

José María Ruda
 Argentina
 Qatar
Maritime Delimitation and Territorial Questions between Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahrain) 1991–2001

Jean Salmon
 Belgium
 Burundi
Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Burundi) 1999–2001

Karim Sandjabi
 Iran
 Iran
Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. (United Kingdom v. Iran) 1951–1952

Bernardo Sepúlveda Amor
 Mexico
 Mexico
Avena and Other Mexican Nationals (Mexico v. United States) 2003–2004

José Sette-Camara
 Brazil
 Libya
Territorial Dispute (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Chad) 1990–1994

Mohamed Shahabuddeen
 Guyana
 Bahrain
Maritime Delimitation and Territorial Questions between Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahrain) 1991–2001

 Indonesia
Sovereignty over Pulau Ligitan and Pulau Sipadan (Indonesia/Malaysia) 1998–2002

Bruno Simma
 Germany
 Costa Rica
Maritime Delimitation in the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua) 2014–present

Leonid Skotnikov
 Russia
 Nicaragua
Question of the Delimitation of the Continental Shelf between Nicaragua and Colombia beyond 200 nautical miles from the Nicaraguan Coast (Nicaragua v. Colombia) 2013–present

Krysztof Skubiszewski
 Poland
 Portugal
East Timor (Portugal v. Australia) 1991–1995

 Slovakia
Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia) 1997–present

Max Sørensen
 Denmark
 Netherlands
North Sea Continental Shelf (Federal Republic of Germany/Netherlands) (1967–1969)

 Denmark
North Sea Continental Shelf (Federal Republic of Germany/Denmark) (1967–1969)

Jean Spiropoulos
 Greece
 Greece
Ambatielos (Greece v. United Kingdom) 1951–1953

Michel Stassinopoulos
 Greece
 Greece
Aegean Sea Continental Shelf (Greece v. Turkey) 1976–1978

Ninian Stephen
 Australia
 Australia
East Timor (Portugal v. Australia) 1991–1995

Fredrik Julius Christian Sterzel
 Sweden
 Sweden
Application of the Convention of 1902 Governing the Guardianship of Infants (Netherlands v. Sweden) 1957–1958

Serge Sur
 France
 Senegal
Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal) 2009–2012

Hubert Thierry
 France
 Guinea-Bissau
Arbitral Award of 31 July 1989 (Guinea-Bissau v. Senegal) 1989–1991

Santiago Torres Bernárdez
 Spain
 Honduras
Land, Island and Maritime Frontier Dispute (El Salvador/Honduras: Nicaragua intervening) 1986–1992

 Qatar
Maritime Delimitation and Territorial Questions between Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahrain) 1991–2001

 Spain
Fisheries Jurisdiction (Spain v. Canada) 1995–1998

 Spain
Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. Spain) 1999

 Honduras
Territorial and Maritime Dispute between Nicaragua and Honduras in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Honduras) 1999–2007

 Honduras
Application for Revision of the Judgment of 11 September 1992 in the Case concerning the Land, Island and Maritime Frontier Dispute (El Salvador/Honduras: Nicaragua intervening) (El Salvador v. Honduras) 2002–2003

 Uruguay
Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v. Uruguay) 2006–2010

Francisco Urrutia Holguin
 Colombia
 Nicaragua
Arbitral Award Made by the King of Spain on 23 December 1906 (Honduras v. Nicaragua) 1958–1960

Nicolas Valticos
 Greece
 Malta
Continental Shelf (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Malta) 1982–1985

 El Salvador
Land, Island and Maritime Frontier Dispute (El Salvador/Honduras: Nicaragua intervening) 1986–1992

 Bahrain
Maritime Delimitation and Territorial Questions between Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahrain) 1991–2001

Joe Verhoeven
 Belgium
 Democratic Republic of the Congo
Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Burundi) 1999–2001

 Democratic Republic of the Congo
Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda) 1999–present

 Democratic Republic of the Congo
Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Rwanda) 1999–2001

Raúl Emilio Vinuesa
 Argentina
 Argentina
Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v. Uruguay) 2006–2010

 Ecuador
Aerial Herbicide Spraying (Ecuador v. Colombia) 2008–2013

Michel Virally
 France
 Honduras
Land, Island and Maritime Frontier Dispute (El Salvador/Honduras: Nicaragua intervening) 1986–1992

Budislav Vukas
 Croatia
 Croatia
Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia) 1999–2015

 Macedonia
Application of the Interim Accord of 13 September 1995 (the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia v. Greece) 2008–2011

Christopher Gregory Weeramantry
 Sri Lanka
 Malaysia
Sovereignty over Pulau Ligitan and Pulau Sipadan (Indonesia/Malaysia) 1998–2002

J.T. van Wyk
 South Africa
 South Africa
South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa) 1960–1966

 South Africa
South West Africa (Liberia v. South Africa) 1960–1966

Chris van den Wyngaert
 Belgium
 Belgium
Arrest Warrant of 11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Belgium) 2000–2002

Mohamed Yaqub Ali Khan
 Pakistan
 Ethiopia
South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa) 1960–1966

 Liberia
South West Africa (Liberia v. South Africa) 1960–1966

 Pakistan
Trial of Pakistani Prisoners of War (Pakistan v. India) 1973

Abdulqawi Yusuf
 Somalia
 Djibouti
Certain Questions of Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters (Djibouti v. France) 2006–2008

Sir Muhammad Zafarullah Khan
 Pakistan
 Ethiopia
South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa) 1960–1966

 Liberia
South West Africa (Liberia v. South Africa) 1960–1966

 Pakistan
Trial of Pakistani Prisoners of War (Pakistan v. India) 1973

Jaroslav Žourek
 Czechoslovakia
 Bulgaria
Aerial Incident of 27 July 1955 (Israel v. Bulgaria) 1957–1959

 Bulgaria
Aerial Incident of 27 July 1955 (United States of America v. Bulgaria) 1957–1960

text: All Judges ad hoc: http://www.icj-cij.org/court/index.php?p1=1&p2=5&p3=2&lang=en


document_title: President of the Senate

question_text: who acts as the president of the senate

question_tokens: who acts as the president of the senate

root

text: President of the Senate

text: Argentina[edit]

text: The Argentine Senate is presided over by the Vice-President of the Republic, currently Gabriela Michetti. This was a recent expansion of the Vice-President's powers introduced as part of the 1994 constitutional amendments (Constitution, Art. 57). The Vice-President may only cast a vote to break a tied Senate vote.

tag: p

text: Australia[edit]

text: The President of the Australian Senate is a senator, traditionally a member of the governing party or coalition, elected by the Senate at the beginning of each parliament as the first item of business. They are assisted by a Deputy President who is traditionally a member of the largest opposition party.[1] The current president is Scott Ryan, a Liberal senator from Victoria, who has held the office since 13 November 2017.[2]

text: Barbados[edit]

text: At the start of every parliamentary session, the Senate of Barbados elects a President and a Vice President, neither of whom may be ministers or parliamentary secretaries. Prior to the January 2008 general election, the positions were held by Sir Fred Gollop and Dame Patricia Symmonds.

text: Belgium[edit]

text: The presiding officer of the Belgian Senate is elected by the senators at the beginning of each parliamentary term. The President of the Senate is customarily a member of a majority party with a great deal of political experience. The president presides over the plenary assembly of the Senate, guides and controls debates in the assembly, is responsible for ensuring the democratic functioning of the Senate, maintains order and security in the assembly and for enforcing the Rules of the Senate, and represents the Senate at both the national (to the other institutions) and the international level.

text: The President of the Senate, together with the President of the Chamber of Representatives, ranks immediately behind the King in the order of precedence. The elder of the two takes the second place in the order of precedence. The Presidents of the Senate and the Chamber rank above the Prime Minister.

text: Belize[edit]

text: The Senate of Belize elects both a president and a vice-president upon first convening after a general election. The person elected president may be a senator (provided he/she does not concurrently hold a ministerial position) or a person external to the Senate. The vice-president must be a member of the Senate who does not hold a ministerial portfolio. (Constitution, section 66.)[3]

text: The current[update] President is Andrea Gill, with Juliet Thimbriel as Vice-President.

text: Brazil[edit]

text: The current[update] President of Brazil's Federal Senate is Eunício Oliveira.

text: The President of the Federal Senate is the third in order to succeed the president (only below the Vice President and the President of the Chamber of Deputies). It is also the president of the National Congress, which includes the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies.

text: Burundi[edit]

text: The President of the Senate of Burundi, since 17 August 2005, is Molly Beamer of the CNDD-FDD. The president is assisted in his work by two vice-presidents.

text: Cambodia[edit]

text: The Senate of Cambodia is led by a 12-person permanent commission (bureau), which is in turn chaired by the President of the Senate, currently Say Chhum. He is assisted by a First and a Second Vice-President.[4] The President and Vice-Presidents are elected as the first item of business at the start of every legislative session.[5]

text: Canada[edit]

text: While the Speaker of the Canadian Senate, who serves as the presiding officer of the Senate of Canada, is not described as a "president" in English, the position is called Président du Sénat in French. He is appointed by the Governor General on the advice of the Prime Minister.

text: Chile[edit]

text: The President of the Senate of Chile is elected from among the country's senators. The current[update] holder of the position, since March 2010, is Jorge Pizarro.

text: Colombia[edit]

text: The President of the Senate – Javier Cáceres Leal for the 2009–10 period – also serves as the President of the Congress of Colombia.

text: Fiji[edit]

text: The members of the former Senate of Fiji (abolished in 2012) used to elect from among their number both a President and Vice-President, whose roles were similar to those of the Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the House of Representatives, respectively.

text: The last persons to hold those positions were Kinijoji Maivalili (President) and Hafiz Khan (Vice-President). The military coup of 5 December 2006 brought their terms to a premature end.

text: Danzig[edit]

text: In the Free City of Danzig (1920–1939/1945), the Senate (or Senat in German) was the executive branch, with Senators (Senatoren) being the holders of ministerial portfolios. In Danzig the President of the Senate (Präsident des Senats) was an office equivalent to that of prime minister in other countries.

text: France[edit]

text: The Senate of France elects a president from among its own number. The President of the French Senate stands first in line of succession in case of death or resignation of the President of the Republic, becoming acting president until a presidential election can be held. This most recently occurred with Alain Poher, who was senate president from 1968 to 1992 and who served as interim president on two occasions: following Charles de Gaulle's resignation in 1969, and following Georges Pompidou's death in office in 1974.

text: Since 2014, the position has been held by Gérard Larcher of the Union for a Popular Movement (UMP).

text: Germany[edit]

text: In the German states of Bremen (Senate of Bremen) and Hamburg (Senate of Hamburg), the Senates (or Senate in German) are the executive branch, with Senators (Senatoren) being the holders of ministerial portfolios. In these Länder, the President of the Senate (Präsident des Senats) is an office equivalent to that of minister-president in other German Länder.

text: Italy[edit]

text: The Senate of Italy holds its first sitting no later than 20 days after a general election. That session, presided by the oldest senator, proceeds to elect the President of the Senate for the following parliamentary period. On the first two attempts at voting, an absolute majority (a majority of all senators) is needed; if a third round is needed, a candidate can be elected by a majority of the senators present and voting. If this third round fails to produce a winner, a final ballot is held between the two senators with the highest votes in the previous ballot. In the case of a tie, the elder senator is deemed the winner.

text: In addition to overseeing the business of the chamber, chairing and regulating debates, deciding whether motions and bills are admissible, representing the Senate, etc., the President of the Senate stands in for the President of the Republic when s/he is unable to perform his/her duties.[6]

text: The current President of the Senate is Pietro Grasso. For a historical listing, see: List of Presidents of the Senate of Italy.

text: Liberia[edit]

text: While the Vice President of Liberia serves as President of the Senate, the senators also elect from among their number a President pro tempore to lead the chamber's day-to-day business.

text: Malaysia[edit]

text: The Senate of Malaysia elects a president from its members, who is comparable to the Speaker of the House of Representatives. The position is partisan and has usually been held by a member of the Government party.

text: Mexico[edit]

text: The Senate of Mexico, at the beginning of each annual legislative session, elects an Executive Board (Mesa Directiva) from among its 128 members. The Executive Board comprises a president, three vice-presidents, and four secretaries, elected by an absolute majority of the Senators. Members of the Executive Board may be re-elected for the following year without restriction. The President of the Executive Board also serves as the President of the Senate.

text: The President of the Senate for the 2015–16 period of sessions is Roberto Gil Zuarth, a National Action Party (PAN) senator for Chiapas.

text: Nigeria[edit]

text: The President of the Senate is the presiding officer of the Senate of Nigeria, elected by its membership.

text: The current[update] President of the Senate is Dr. Bukola Saraki, who represents Kwara State for the APC.

text: Peru[edit]

text: Peru had a bicameral Congress from 1829 until 1992. The President of the Senate was elected by the Senate members to preside over the sessions for one year.

text: Philippines[edit]

text: Poland[edit]

text: Puerto Rico[edit]

text: Romania[edit]

text: The first session of the Senate is headed by the eldest senator. In that session the senators elect the Standing Bureau of the Romanian Senate. It consists of the President of the Senate, four vice-presidents, four secretaries, and four quaestors. The President of the Standing Bureau also serves as the President of the Senate. The President is elected, by secret ballot, for the duration of the legislative period.[7] The Senate president succeeds temporarily the President of Romania if the latter resigns, is suspended, incapacitated or dies in office. (He/she continues to be President of the Senate during the ad-interim presidency of the country. He/she acts as President until a new president is elected).

text: South Africa[edit]

text: The Senate of South Africa was the upper house of Parliament between 1910 and 1981, and between 1994 and 1997. During both periods, the Senate was led by a President.

text: Spain[edit]

text: Sri Lanka[edit]

text: The Senate of Ceylon was the upper house of Parliament between 1947 and 1971. During this periods, the Senate was led by a President.

text: Trinidad and Tobago[edit]

text: The President of the Senate of Trinidad and Tobago, who is generally elected from the government benches, chairs debates in the chamber and stands in for the country's president during periods of absence or illness (Constitution, section 27).[8] A Vice-President of the Senate is also elected from among the senators. The current President of the Senate is Christine Kangaloo.

text: United States[edit]

text: The Vice President of the United States is assigned the responsibility of presiding over the Senate and designated as its president by the United States Constitution. The vice president, as President of the Senate, has the authority (ex officio, for he or she is not an elected member of the Senate) to cast a tie-breaking vote. Other than this, the rules of the Senate grant its president very little power (in contrast to the powerful office of Speaker of the House of Representatives).

text: While vice presidents used to regularly preside over the Senate, modern vice presidents have done so only rarely, usually only when swearing in new senators, during joint sessions, announcing the result of a vote on a significant bill or confirmation, or when casting a tie-breaking vote. The Senate chooses a president pro tempore to preside in the vice president's absence. Modern presidents pro tempore, too, rarely preside over the Senate. In practice, the junior senators of the majority party typically preside in order to learn Senate procedure.

text: Vice presidents have cast 261 tie-breaking votes since the U.S. federal government was established in 1789. The vice president with the most tie breaking votes is John Adams (served 1789–1797) with 29. The current Vice President Mike Pence, in office since January 2017, has made six tie-breaking votes.[9]

text: U.S. state senates[edit]

text: In state governments of the United States, the presiding officer of the state senate (the upper house) is a matter decided by the state's constitution. Some states designate the lieutenant governor as president of the senate, while in other states, the Senate elects its own president. The Tennessee Senate elects a senator Speaker of the Senate, who is given the title of Lieutenant Governor.

text: Similarly, New Hampshire has no lieutenant governor, but the state senate elects a president who is the de facto lieutenant governor, given that in the event of the governor's death, resignation, or inability to serve, the president of the senate acts as governor until the vacancy is filled. New Jersey previously used the same system, but with the important proviso that the Senate president continued to serve in that position while also serving as acting governor. After Christine Todd Whitman resigned as governor, Donald DiFrancesco spent nearly a year as acting governor. As a result of his tenure, questions were raised about the propriety of such a system, particularly with regard to separation of powers-related issues. A constitutional amendment was enacted in 2005 to create the office of lieutenant governor effective at the 2009 election.

text: Uruguay[edit]

text: The Vice President of Uruguay presides over the country's 30-member Senate.


document_title: Brazilian jiu-jitsu ranking system

question_text: what level is purple belt in jiu jitsu

question_tokens: what level is purple belt in jiu jitsu

text: Brazilian jiu-jitsu ranking system

text: History[edit]

text: In 1907, Kanō Jigorō, the founder of judo, introduced the use of belts (obi) and gi (judogi) in the martial arts, replacing the practice of training in formal kimonos.[3] In 1914, Kanō's pupil Mitsuyo Maeda arrived in Brazil, a journey which led to the development of Brazilian jiu-jitsu. At the time Kanō used only white and black belts, with white representing the beginner, as a color of purity and simplicity, and black being the opposite, representing one who is filled with knowledge.[3]

text: Some believe that Mikonosuke Kawaishi was the first to introduce additional colors in 1935 when he began teaching Judo in Paris, ten years after Carlos Gracie opened his academy in Brazil. Kawaishi thought that a more structured system of colored belts would provide the student with visible rewards to show progress, increasing motivation and retention.[3] Since then, Brazilian jiu-jitsu, judo, and many other martial arts have adopted the use of colored belts to denote students' progression in the arts.[4]

text: The first official belt ranking system was created in 1967 by the Jiu-Jitsu Federation of Guanabara.[citation needed] Much of the current criteria and modern belt ranks were implemented by the Sport Jiu Jitsu International Federation (SJJIF) and International Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Federation.

text: Adult belt ranks[edit]

text: White belt[edit]

text: White belt is the first belt within Brazilian jiu-jitsu. The rank is held by any practitioner new to the art and has no prerequisite.[1] Some instructors and other high-level practitioners think that a white belt's training should emphasize escapes and defensive positioning since a white belt will often fight from inferior positions, especially when training with more experienced practitioners.[5]

text: Most academies will additionally require that a white belt level practitioner works to obtain a well-rounded skills set, with a knowledge of basic offensive moves, such as common submissions and guard passes.[6][7]

text: Blue belt[edit]

text: Blue belt is most often the second adult rank in the Brazilian jiu-jitsu.[1] At the blue belt level, students gain a wide breadth of technical knowledge and undertake hundreds of hours of mat time to learn how to implement these moves efficiently.[6] Blue belt is often the rank at which the student learns a large number of techniques.[9]

text: Not all Brazilian jiu-jitsu schools or regulatory bodies award the blue belt as the second adult belt.[10] Although many Brazilian jiu-jitsu organizations adhere to the IBJJF standard of awarding the yellow, orange, and green belt exclusively as part of a youth belt system (under 16 years of age), some supplement the time between white belt and blue belt with one or more belts of these colors.[11][12]

text: The IBJJF requires that a practitioner be at least 16 years old to receive a blue belt, thereby officially entering into the adult belt system.

text: Purple belt[edit]

text: Purple belt is the intermediate adult ranking in Brazilian jiu-jitsu.[1] The purple belt level practitioner has gained a large amount of knowledge, and purple belts are generally considered qualified to help instruct lower-ranked students.

text: The IBJJF requires students to be at least 16 years old and recommends they have spent a minimum of two years ranked as a blue belt to be eligible for a purple belt, with slightly different requirements for those graduating directly from the youth belts.[1]

text: Brown belt[edit]

text: Aside from the exceptional belts awarded at the highest levels, brown belt is the highest ranking color belt in Brazilian jiu-jitsu.[1] Brown belt typically requires at least five years of dedicated training to achieve.[2] It is often thought of as a time for refining techniques.[13]

text: The IBJJF requires that students be at least 18 years old and recommends they have spent a minimum of 18 months as a purple belt to be eligible for a brown belt.[1]

text: Black belt[edit]

text: As with many other martial arts, the black belt is the highest common belt within Brazilian jiu-jitsu, denoting an expert level of technical and practical skills.[1] Brazilian jiu-jitsu black belts are often addressed within the art as professor, although some schools and organizations reserve this honorific for more senior black belts holders.[15][16][17]

text: The IBJJF requires that a student be at least 19 years old and recommends they have spent a minimum of 1 year ranked as a brown belt to be eligible for a black belt. The black belt itself has six different degrees of expertise.[1]

text: Red / Black belt (Coral belt)[edit]

text: When a Brazilian jiu-jitsu black belt reaches the seventh degree, he or she is awarded an alternating red-and-black belt similar to the one earned at the sixth degree in Judo.[1][3] This belt is commonly known as a coral belt.[18][19] Coral belts are very experienced practitioners, most of whom have made a large impact on Brazilian jiu-jitsu, and are often addressed within the art by the title master.[15][16][17]

text: Red / White belt (Coral belt)[edit]

text: The International Brazilian jiu-jitsu Federation in 2013, amended the graduation guidelines with respect to the transition between seventh degree and eighth degree black belt. In short, a practitioner who has achieved the rank of 8th degree black belt will wear a red and white belt,[20] which is also commonly called a coral belt.[21]

text: Red belt[edit]

text: According to Renzo and Royler Gracie, in Brazilian jiu-jitsu the red belt is reserved "for those whose influence and fame takes them to the pinnacle of the art".[2] It is awarded in lieu of a ninth and tenth degree black belt. If a practitioner receives his or her black belt at 19 years old, the earliest they could expect to receive a ninth degree red belt would be at the age of 67.[1] Brazilian jiu-jitsu red belt holders are often addressed within the art by the title grandmaster. The 10th degree was given only to the pioneers of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, the Gracie brothers: Carlos, Oswaldo, George, Gaston and Helio.[15][16][17][22]

text: Promotion criteria[edit]

text: Few published guidelines or standards determine when a practitioner is ready for promotion; the criterion is generally determined by individual instructors and/or academies.[23][24] The IBJJF maintains an extensive graduation system that takes into account time-in-grade and membership standing, but makes no mention of specific performance or skill requirements.[1] When instructors or academies comment on the criteria for promotion, the most widely accepted measures are the amount of technical and conceptual knowledge a practitioner can demonstrate, and;[25] performance in grappling (randori) within the academy and/or competition.[26]

text: Technical and conceptual knowledge are judged by the number of techniques a student can perform, and the level of skill with which they are performed in live grappling, allowing smaller and older practitioners to be recognized for their knowledge, although they may not be the strongest fighters in the school. Brazilian jiu-jitsu is a distinctly individual sport, and practitioners are encouraged to adapt the techniques to their body type, strategic preferences, and level of athleticism. The ultimate criterion for promotion is the ability to execute the techniques successfully, rather than strict stylistic compliance.[2]

text: Formal testing[edit]

text: Brazilian jiu-jitsu has had an informal approach to belt promotions, in which one or more instructors subjectively agree that a given student is ready for the next rank.[2][24] In recent years[when?] some academies have moved toward a more systematic, formal testing approach, especially true for lower ranked students, where the decision to promote is arguably the least contentious.[27] One of the first instructors to publicly publish formal testing criteria was Roy Harris, who has formalized his promotion tests from white belt to black belt.[28] Formal testing is now becoming commonplace in many Gracie Academies and organizations such as Alliance.[7]

text: Some Gracie systems have introduced formal online testing where the student can upload his or her qualification videos to qualify for promotion.[29] Formal tests are generally based around the same elements as a normal promotion, such as the student's technical and conceptual knowledge and the ability to apply those techniques against a resisting opponent. Some tests take other aspects, such as a student's personal character or a basic knowledge of the history of the art, into account.[23] Formal testing may require the payment of testing fees and a require a minimum of pre-testing private lessons with the instructor.[6]

text: Competitions[edit]

text: Students are generally encouraged to compete, as this can help them gain experience. Competition allows instructors to gauge students' abilities while grappling with a fully resisting opponent, and it is common for a promotion to follow a good competition performance. In most academies, competing is not essential for promotion, but in a minority of schools, competing is not only endorsed but is required.[25]

text: Stripes / degrees[edit]

text: In addition to the belt system, many academies award stripes as a form of intra-belt recognition of progress and skill.[30] The cumulative number of stripes earned serves as an indication of the student's skill level relative to others within the same belt rank.[31] Stripes may consist of small pieces of cloth sewn onto the sleeve of the belt, or simple pieces of tape applied to it. Although the exact application, such as the number of stripes allowed for each belt, varies between institutions, the IBJJF sets out a general system under which four stripes can be added before the student may be considered for promotion to the next bjj belt.[1] Stripes are only used for ranks prior to black belt. After black belt is achieved, the markings are known as degrees and are awarded formally. Time-in-grade and skill level are both important factors. Stripes are not used in every academy and, where they are used, they may not be applied consistently.[1]

text: Extra-promotional[edit]

text: A tradition practiced in some Brazilian jiu-jitsu schools immediately after a promotion, is known as "running the gauntlet" ("passar no corredor" in Portuguese).[32] This generally follows one of two basic patterns. The newly promoted student is hit on their back with belts—once by each of their fellow practitioners—as he or she walks or runs past ("faixada" in Portuguese), or he or she may be thrown by each instructor and sometimes also by each student in the academy of equal or higher grade.[33] Advocates for the custom argue that "running the gauntlet" serves as a method of team building and reinforces camaraderie between classmates.[32]

text: Other initiation customs may involve being hip-tossed by the instructor in a controlled manner.[citation needed]


document_title: Major League Baseball rosters

question_text: how many players on the mlb playoff roster

text: Major League Baseball rosters

text: Active roster[edit]

text: Since 1910, when teams were first allowed to carry players under contract in excess of those allowed to participate in regular season games, the latter has been called the "active roster." With exceptions through the years for varying economic conditions (primarily during World War I, the Great Depression, post-World War II, and from 1986 to 1989 when the limit was set at 24 because of rising player salaries), the active roster has allowed up to 25 players to participate for a Major League team within specified dates, currently Opening Day to September 1. In 1968, the 25-player maximum for active rosters was made a part of the first collective bargaining agreement between the major leagues and the Major League Baseball Players Association. Since 1977, teams have been required to carry a minimum of 24 players on their active rosters as well.

text: Active rosters include the starting eight (National League) or nine (American League) position players, pitchers, and reserve players on the team. Players on the active roster are also on the 40-man roster. These players are generally the only ones who dress in uniform and are the only ones who may take the field in a game at any time.

text: Typically, in modern-day play, an active roster will consist of five starting pitchers, seven relief pitchers, two catchers, six infielders, and five outfielders. Teams can vary this somewhat according to preference and circumstance, and indeed the "typical" roster makeup has changed somewhat over the years. (Starting rotations used to consist of four pitchers, not five, well into the 1970s; third-string catchers used to be much more common; many other minor variations exist.) In the American League, a full-time designated hitter (DH) is usually classified as either an infielder or an outfielder, not a DH, because most DHs do play defensive positions from time to time.

text: Since the 2012 season, teams have been allowed 26-player active rosters for "day-night" doubleheaders—two games scheduled on the same day, but with the stadium cleared between games, and separate tickets sold for each game—as long as the doubleheaders have been scheduled with at least 48 hours notice.[1]

text: Expanded roster[edit]

text: Also called the "40-man roster", the expanded roster is composed of all the players in a Major League club's organization who are signed to a major-league contract. The 40-man roster limit has been in effect since 1921, except for 1945 and 1946 when it was raised to 48 to accommodate veterans returning from military service in World War II, from 1962 to 1965 when it was raised to 41 to add a reserve spot for first-year players acquired before implementation of a player draft was approved prior to the 1965 season, and in 1994 due to a strike that canceled the remainder of the 1994 season.

text: The expanded roster includes all players who are eligible for call-up to the active roster at any given time. Also on the 40-man are any players on the 10-day disabled list (DL) and minor league players who are signed to a major-league contract but are on an "optional assignment" to the minors. (Each player has three "option years" to be sent to the minors once on the expanded roster before they must be placed on waivers to be sent there.) A player who is on the 40-man roster but is later placed on the 60-day disabled list is removed from the 40-man roster until his time on the DL is over. The same applies to players who are suspended. Because players on the 60-day DL are taken off the 40-man roster with no risk of losing the player, MLB teams often transfer injured players from the 10-day DL to the 60-day DL so that the team can add another player to the 40-man roster without having to designate a player for assignment. Designating for assignment ("DFA") is the removal of a player from the expanded roster; the team has seven days to trade the player [2], release him, or send him to the minors.

text: September call-ups[edit]

text: On September 1, the Major League team's roster expands from the 25-man active roster to the entire 40-man roster. At this point, any player on the expanded roster on August 31 may play for the Major League team.

text: September call-ups are players from the minors who are playing in September to get Major League experience and, especially for teams in contention, to provide reinforcements down the stretch. In practice, once the roster expands, teams will seldom make more than about six of the fifteen available September call-ups.

text: Postseason roster[edit]

text: A postseason roster takes effect only if a team clinches a playoff berth. Players who are part of the team's final roster at the end of the regular season are eligible to participate in the postseason. Any player who has been traded from a different team, spent time in the Minor Leagues, or signed later in the season with the team (no later than August 31) is eligible to participate in the postseason. A postseason roster is allowed up to 25 active players. Other players who are not on the 25-man active roster will be assigned to the postseason secondary squad. Players who are on the disabled list or any other non-active transaction by the end of the regular season will have their transactions passed on in the postseason. Rosters for a series are set at the beginning of the series and no changes to the 25-man active roster are allowed except when a player is moved to the disabled list or any other inactive transaction. If a player is moved to the disabled list or another inactive transaction during a series, he then becomes ineligible to be returned to the 25-man active roster for the remainder of the series as well as the next series if applicable. If any player goes on any inactive transaction, any player from the 40-man roster can be promoted to the 25-man active roster for the remainder of the series if applicable.[3]

text: For a player to be eligible for the postseason active roster, he must have either been on his club's expanded roster or disabled list as of midnight ET on August 31 of that year and not placed on the 60 day disabled list after August 1.[4] The one exception is for replacing players on the disabled list. Since the 2014 season, an injured player eligible for postseason play may be replaced by any player within his club's organization, including players assigned to the club's minor league affiliates who are not on the major league 40-man roster. Prior to 2014, only players who were on a club's 40-man roster (including those added to the expanded roster after August 31, who would not otherwise be eligible for the postseason) at the conclusion of the regular season were eligible to replace injured players on postseason rosters. The 2015 Kansas City Royals were the first club to exploit this new provision when they added Adalberto Mondesí—who at the time was assigned to the Royals' Double-A affiliate and was not on the 40-man roster—to their World Series roster.

text: Non-roster players[edit]

text: All other professional players affiliated with Major League Baseball are signed to minor-league contracts. They can receive an invitation to spring training with their organization's Major League team without being on the 40-man roster. Two types of players generally receive a non-roster invitation: prospect players who are there to gain experience and face tougher competition as well as receive instruction from the Major League team's coaching staff; and veteran players who were not offered any major league contract by a club. The veteran player is usually signed to a "two-way" salary option—one for their time in the minors and another if they are placed on the 40-man during the season. All spring training invitees are under some sort of contract, to avoid liability if an injury were to occur to the player.

text: All-Star roster[edit]

text: Since 1933, an annual Major League Baseball All-Star Game has been played at approximately the mid-point of each season, except for 1945. The game features an American League team versus a National League team. The number of players on All-Star rosters has varied; since 2010, there are 34 players on each league's roster.


document_title: Aerial bombing of cities

question_text: where did the first air raid take place

question_tokens: where did the first air raid take place

text: Aerial bombing of cities

text: Before World War I[edit]

text: First Italian War of Independence[edit]

text: The first bombs delivered to their targets by air were launched on unmanned balloons, carrying a single bomb, by the Austrians against Venice in 1849,[3] during the First Italian War of Independence.

text: Italian Invasion of Libya[edit]

text: The first ever air raid was conducted during the Italo-Turkish War by Italian forces against the Ottoman province of Libya on November 1, 1911. Giulio Gavotti dropped 1.5 kg of bombs on Ain Zara, a village 8 km west of the capital Tripoli.[4]

text: Balkan War[edit]

text: Adrianople (presently Edirne) was bombed by Bulgaria in 1912 in the First Balkan War.[5] Historically, it was the first bombardment of a city from a heavier-than-air aircraft.[6] In the morning of 29 October 1912 at 9:30 a.m. the plane Albatros F-3 took off from an airfield near the village of Mustafa Pasha - present day Svilengrad, Bulgaria. The pilot was captain Radul Mikov with spotter and bombardier Prodan Tarakchiev. The airfield was specially created to carry out the take off and landing. According to the report weather conditions were perfect. The flight lasted for 1 hour and 20 minutes and the altitude was 500m. During the flight the crew flew over the city of Edirne, discovered hidden Ottoman forces in the nearby villages and flew towards to city railroad station, near the village of Karaagach. The plane was equipped with two bombs, which were released at 10:00 am over the station. The crew landed successfully at the airfield with 4 holes on the hull. A number of journalists and military attachés attended the site.

text: Mexican Revolution[edit]

text: In May 1914, during the revolution of 1910–17, General Venustiano Carranza, later president, ordered a biplane to bomb Neveria Hill adjacent to the downtown area of Mazatlán in order to take the city. The bomb landed not on target but in a city street and in the process killed two citizens and wounded several others.[citation needed]

text: World War I[edit]

text: The first civilian target to be bombed from the air was the Belgian city of Antwerp. This city, at that moment the National Redoubt of Belgium, was bombed during the night of 24–25 August 1914. Instead of targeting the surrounding fortresses, the Zeppelin LZ 25's intention was to bomb the clearly distinguishable historical centre of the city. After dropping approximately ten bombs, ten people were killed and forty injured. The British Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) undertook the first Entente strategic bombing missions on 22 September 1914 and 8 October, when it bombed the Zeppelin bases in Cologne and Düsseldorf. The aeroplanes carried twenty-pound bombs, and at least one airship was destroyed.[7][8] On 19 January 1915 two German Zeppelins dropped 24 fifty-kilogram (110 lb) high-explosive bombs and ineffective three-kilogram incendiaries on the English towns of Great Yarmouth, Sheringham, King's Lynn, and the surrounding villages; in all, four people were killed, 16 injured, and monetary damage was estimated at £7,740.[9]

text: London was bombed for the first time on 30 May 1915. In July 1916, the German government allowed directed raids against urban centers, sparking 23 airship raids in 1916 in which 125 tons of ordnance were dropped, killing 293 people and injuring 691. Gradually British air defenses improved and the Germans also introduced large bomber aircraft for bombing Britain. In 1917 and 1918 there were only eleven Zeppelin raids against England, and the final raid occurred on 5 August 1918, which resulted in the death of KK Peter Strasser, commander of the German Naval Airship Department. By the end of the war, 51 raids had been undertaken, in which 5,806 bombs were dropped, killing 557 people and injuring 1,358[citation needed]. In the course of the Zeppelin raids the Germans lost more than half their airships and 40% of their crew. It has been argued that the raids were effective far beyond material damage inflicted, in diverting and hampering wartime production, and diverting twelve squadrons and over 10,000 men to air defenses.[citation needed] The British developed an Independent Force of long-range bombers that could bomb Berlin, but the war ended before these raids began.

text: After the war, bombers' increasing sophistication led to the general belief that aerial bombing would both destroy cities and be impossible to stop; as Stanley Baldwin stated in a 1932 speech, "The bomber will always get through".

text: Interbellum period[edit]

text: Iraqi revolt against the British[edit]

text: After World War I, there were protests in Iraq against continued British rule. Many Iraqis across a wide spectrum of opinion opposed the British Mandate for Iraq. The Iraqi revolt against the British began, with peaceful demonstrations in May 1920. Initial demands were rejected by the British administration, and fighting broke out in June 1920. This was suppressed, with many deaths, and at very high costs to the Empire. A policy of 'aerial policing', an invention of Winston Churchill's was brought in. This amounted to bombing restive civilians, followed up by pacification by ground troops. This continued up to the mid 1920s.[10] The aerial campaign included Sir Arthur Harris, 1st Baronet, who commanded a Vickers Vernon squadron engaged in the bombing and strafing of recalcitrant civilians.[11] Harris felt that the Arab civilians required this kind of "heavy hand" treatment.[12]

text: Somaliland Campaign[edit]

text: Following the end of World War I, the British stepped up their efforts in their war against the Somali Dervish state, led by the so-called "Mad Mullah", whom they had been fighting for the control the area formerly known as British Somaliland. However, they had been unable to defeat the Dervish state for nearly 25 years. In January 1920, the British launched a combined aerial and land attack, bombarding Taleeh, the capital of the Dervish State.[13] The Somaliland Campaign has been described as one of the bloodiest and longest-running conflicts in the history of sub-Saharan Africa and the Somali forces are noted for concurrently repelling the invading British, Italian and Abyssinian forces for a period of 25 years.[14]

text: Cristero War[edit]

text: During the Cristero War in Mexico in 1929, Irish pilot and mercenary Patrick Murphy mistakenly dropped several improvised "suitcase bombs" on the border town of Naco, Arizona, while bombing government forces in the adjacent town of Naco, Sonora, for the Cristero revolutionaries. The bombing, which caused damage to many buildings and injured several bystanders on the American side of the international border, became the first aerial bombardment of the Continental United States by a foreign power in American history.[15][16]

text: Second Italo-Abyssinian War[edit]

text: The Italians used aircraft against the Ethiopian cities in the Second Italo-Abyssinian War. For example, in February 1936, the Italian invasion forces in the south prepared for a major thrust towards the city of Harar. On 22 March, the Regia Aeronautica bombed Harar and Jijiga as a prelude. Both cities were reduced to ruins even though Harar had been declared an "open city".[17]

text: Spanish Civil War[edit]

text: During the Spanish Civil War, the Nationalists under Francisco Franco made extensive use of aerial bombing on civilian targets. Nazi Germany gave aircraft to Franco to support the overthrow of the Spanish Republican government. The first major example of this came in November 1936, when German and Spanish aircraft bombed Republican-held Madrid; this bombardment was sustained throughout the Siege of Madrid. Barcelona and Valencia were also targeted in this way. On 26 April 1937, the German Luftwaffe (Condor Legion) bombed the Spanish city of Guernica carrying out the most high-profile aerial attack of the war. This act caused worldwide revulsion and was the subject of a famous painting by Picasso, but by the standards of bombings during World War II, casualties were fairly minor (estimates ranging from 500 to 1,500).[citation needed]

text: Shortly after, the front-page headlines of the Diario de Almeria, dated June 3, 1937, referred to the press in London and Paris carrying the news of the "criminal bombardment of Almeria by German planes".[18]

text: Barcelona was bombarded for three days beginning on 16 March 1938, at the height of the Spanish Civil War. Under the command of the Italian dictator Benito Mussolini, Italian aircraft stationed on the island of Majorca attacked 13 times dropping 44 tons of bombs, aimed at the civil population. These attacks were at the request of General Franco as retribution against the Catalan population.[citation needed][dubious – discuss] The medieval Cathedral of Barcelona suffered bomb damage and more than one thousand people died, including many children. The number of people injured is estimated to be in the thousands.[19] Many others Spanish towns and cities were bombed by the German Legion Condor and the Italian Aviazione Legionaria among them Jaen, Durango, Granollers and Alicante.

text: Second Sino-Japanese War[edit]

text: During the Manchurian Incident of 1931, the Japanese widely used airplanes to indiscriminately bomb key targets and cities, such as Mukden. After the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service, in conjunction with the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service, began relentlessly bombing Shanghai, Beijing (Peking), Tianjin (Tientsin) and several cities on the Chinese coast from the beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937.

text: The bombing campaigns on Nanking and Canton which started in September 1937 evoked protests from the Western powers culminating in a resolution by the Far Eastern Advisory Committee of the League of Nations. An example of the many expressions of indignation came from Lord Cranborne, the British Under-Secretary of State For Foreign Affairs:

text: Words cannot express the feelings of profound horror with which the news of these raids had been received by the whole civilized world. They are often directed against places far from the actual area of hostilities. The military objective, where it exists, seems to take a completely second place. The main object seems to be to inspire terror by the indiscriminate slaughter of civilians ...[20]

text: World War II[edit]

text: European theatre[edit]

text: At the beginning of World War II, bombing of cities prior to invasion was an integral part of Nazi Germany's strategy. In the first stages of war, the Germans carried out many bombings of towns and cities in Poland (1939), including the capital Warsaw (also bombed in 1944), with Wieluń being the first city destroyed by 75%. The Soviet Union also attempted strategic bombing against Poland and Finland, bombing Helsinki.[citation needed]

text: The British bombed the German city of Monchengladbach on 11 May 1940.[21] While Germany had refrained from aerial bombing of British cities after the British declaration of war on Germany in September 1939, Britain started aerial bombing of Germany, officially focusing on military and industrial targets, on the night of 15/16 May with 78 bombers against oil targets, 9 against steelworks and 9 against marshaling yards.[22] Oil remained the main British objective until the summer of 1941, although German cities and towns were regularly bombed from May 1940.

text: After the Fall of France, the Luftwaffe turned its attention to the United Kingdom. The scale of the attack increased greatly in July 1940, with 258 civilians killed, and again in August with 1,075 dead.[23] During the night of 25 August, British bombers raided targets in and around Greater Berlin for the first time, in response to the accidental bombing of Oxford Street and the West End by the Luftwaffe while it was bombing the London docks.[24] On 4 September 1940 Hitler, frustrated by the RAF's superiority over the Luftwaffe and enraged by its bombing of German cities, decided to retaliate by bombing London and other cities in the UK.[25] On 7 September the Luftwaffe began massed attacks on London. The bombing campaign was known in the UK as "the Blitz", and ran from September 1940 through to May 1941. The Coventry Blitz and the Belfast Blitz were two of the heaviest of all bombings by the Luftwaffe, killing 568-1,000 civilians of Coventry, killing over 1,100 civilians in Belfast, and destroying much of both city centres.

text: British bombing policy evolved during the war. In the beginning, the RAF was forbidden to attack targets in Germany due to the risk of accidental civilian casualties.[26] Following a German attack on military targets in the Orkney Islands on 16 March 1940 that killed a civilian, the RAF mounted its first attack against a German land target, the seaplane base on the island of Sylt.[27] The RAF began attacking transport targets west of the Rhine on the night of 10 May following the German invasion of the Low Countries, and military targets in the rest of Germany after the bombing of Rotterdam.[28] On 9 September 1940 RAF crews were instructed that due to the "indiscriminate" nature of German bombing, if they failed to find their assigned targets they were to attack targets of opportunity rather than bring their bombs home.[29] On the 15/16 December the RAF carried out its first area bombing attack (destroying 45% of the city of Mannheim), officially in response to the raid on Coventry.[30] The bombing of Mannheim has often been described as the first deliberate "terror bombing" of the war.[31]

text: In 1942, the goals of the British attacks were defined: the primary goal was the so-called "morale bombing", to weaken the will of the civil population to resist. Following this directive intensive bombing of highly populated city centers and working class quarters started. On 30 May 1942, the RAF Bomber Command launched the first "1,000 bomber raid" when 1,046 aircraft bombed Cologne in Operation Millennium, dropping over 2,000 tons of high explosive and incendiaries on the medieval town and burning it from end to end. 411 civilians and 85 combatants were killed, more than 130,000 had to leave the city.[citation needed]

text: Two further 1,000 bomber raids were executed over Essen and Bremen, but to less effect than the destruction at Cologne. The effects of the massive raids using a combination of blockbuster bombs and incendiaries created firestorms in some cites. The most extreme examples were caused by the bombing of Hamburg in Operation Gomorrah (45,000 dead), and the bombings of Kassel (10,000 dead), Darmstadt (12,500 dead), Pforzheim (21,200 dead), Swinemuende (23,000 dead), and Dresden (25,000 dead[32]).[citation needed]

text: The Allies also bombed urban areas in the other countries, including occupied France (Caen) and the major industrial cities of northern Italy, like Milan and Turin. Some cities were bombed at the different times by the Luftwaffe and the Allies, for example Belgrade in Yugoslavia and Bucharest in Romania.[citation needed]

text: The Luftwaffe also bombed cities in the Soviet Union, destroying Stalingrad in a massive air raid at the start of the Battle of Stalingrad and bombing Leningrad during the siege of the city of 1941–1943. The Soviet bombing of the German cities was limited in comparison with the RAF bombing (destruction caused by the Soviet army was mainly due to the land artillery). The Soviet Air Force also bombed Budapest in Hungary.[citation needed]

text: Pacific theatre[edit]

text: In the Pacific theater, Japan continued to bomb Chinese cities as well as other Asian cities such as Singapore, Rangoon, and Mandalay. In the first few months of the war with the Western Powers, Japan projected its airpower on cities as distant as Colombo and Darwin.

text: The U.S. firebombed Tokyo on the night of March 9–10, 1945, and killed more than 100,000 people in the deadliest conventional bombing in history, known to the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) as Operation Meetinghouse.[33] In a few hours, 100,000 people who were in Tokyo including civilians died either by the bombing or the conflagration that followed the bombing by 325 U.S. B-29's night attacks. The fleet included 279 bombers. The bombing was meant to burn wooden buildings and indeed the bombing caused fire that created a 50 m/s wind that is comparable to tornadoes. A total of 381,300 bombs amounting to 1783 tons, were used in the bombing.

text: After the successful Operation Meetinghouse raid, the USAAF then went on to attack other Japanese cities with incendiary and high-explosives bombs in effort to pulverize the enemy's war industry and shatter the enemy's civilian morale to contribute to the war effort. From March to August 1945, the U.S. firebombing of 66 other Japanese cities had killed 350,000 civilians. In addition, the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki killed 120,000 non-combatants, most of them civilians, and combatants.[34]

text: Since World War II[edit]

text: Korean War[edit]

text: During the Korean War of 1950–1953, U.S.-led UN air forces heavily bombed the cities in North Korea and the North-occupied South Korea, including their respective capital cities.[35] There were also plans to use nuclear weapons against North Korea and the People's Republic of China.[36]

text: Vietnam War[edit]

text: From 1965 to 1968, during the Vietnam War, the United States Air Force conducted an aerial campaign known as Operation Rolling Thunder. The campaign began with interdiction of supply lines in rural areas of southern North Vietnam but incrementally spread northward throughout the country. In 1966, restrictions against bombing the capital city of Hanoi and the country's largest port, Haiphong, were lifted, and they were bombed by the USAF and Navy.[37] The bombing of the city centers continued to be prohibited.[38] However, the South Vietnamese cities seized by the communists were bombed, including the former capital of Huế during the 1968 Tet Offensive.[citation needed]

text: The Republic of Vietnam Air Force bombed contested cities in South Vietnam in 1968, 1972 and 1975, while the Vietnam People's Air Force attacked Southern cities (including the capital city of Saigon) in 1975.[citation needed]

text: Arab-Israeli conflict[edit]

text: The Lebanese capital of Beirut was attacked by the Israeli aircraft during the Siege of Beirut in 1982, and during the 2006 Lebanon War (using guided munitions). Israeli cities were bombed by Egyptian, Syrian and Jordanian aircraft during the 1948 Arab-Israeli war and the Six day war. The bombing included attacks on some of Israel's largest cities, such as Tel Aviv, Jerusalem and Haifa. Israel also conducted air strikes targeting Palestinian targets during the Second Intifada, including against Hamas in Gaza.[citation needed]

text: Wars in Afghanistan[edit]

text: In March 1979, in response to an uprising, the Khalq-control army of Democratic Republic of Afghanistan carpet-bombed the Afghan third-largest city of Herat, causing massive destruction[39] and some 5,000 to 25,000 deaths.[40] Herat was also repeatedly bombed during the following Soviet involvement in the Afghan civil war.

text: Following the September 11, 2001 attacks, the U.S.-led coalition attacked the urban targets in Afghanistan using mainly precision-guided munitions (or "smart bombs"). The United States government maintains that it has a policy of striking only significant combatant targets while doing all possible to avoid what it terms "collateral damage" to civilians and non-combatants during the U.S.-led war in Afghanistan.

text: Iran–Iraq War[edit]

text: Saddam Hussein's Iraq attacked civilian targets in Iranian cities in the "War of the Cities" during the Iran–Iraq War in the 1980s, with Iranians retaliating in kind (both sides soon switched to ballistic missile attacks).[citation needed] Iraqi aircraft also bombed the Iraqi Kurdistan city of Halabja with conventional and chemical weapons in 1988, killing more than 5,000 people in the largest aerial poison gas attack in history.

text: Somalia's campaign against Isaaq[edit]

text: In 1988 Somali Air Force aircraft conducted intense aerial bombardment of major Isaaq cities targeting civilian Isaaqs during its campaign against Somali National Movement in the north of the country. Civilians were also strafed by Somali Air Force aircraft as they were fleeing the aerial bombardment.[42] The artillery shelling and aerial bombardment caused the deaths of estimated 50,000 - 200,000 Isaaq civilians, as well as the complete destruction of Somalia's second and third largest cities.[43] It also caused up to 500,000[44][45] Somalis (primarily of the Isaaq clan)[46] to flee and cross the border into Hartasheikh in Ethiopia as refugees in what was described as "one of the fastest and largest forced movements of people recorded in Africa",[47] and resulted in the creation of the world's largest refugee camp then (1988),[48] with another 400,000 being internally displaced.[49][50][51] The scale of destruction led to Hargeisa being known as the 'Dresden of Africa'.[52]

text: Gulf War[edit]

text: The Iraqi Air Force attacked Kuwait City in 1990 and bombed their own cities during the 1991 uprisings in Iraq, targeting civilians with the use of bomb-carrying helicopters (use of airplanes was banned by the Coalition as part of the ceasefire agreement that ended hostilities of the Gulf War but not the war itself).

text: UN-led coalition aircraft attacked targets in Iraqi cities, including in the capital Baghdad and the largest southern city of Basra during Operation Desert Storm in 1991.[citation needed]

text: Yugoslav wars[edit]

text: At the beginning of the Yugoslav Wars, in Croatia (1991), the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) carried out aerial bombing of Dubrovnik and Vukovar.[53]

text: NATO's aerial bombing of FR Yugoslavia in 1999, an answer to the conflict in Kosovo, included aerial bombing throughout Serbia, notably of Belgrade, Novi Sad and Niš. There were civilian casualties. Despite that the NATO campaign indeed being a violation of NATO's own charter,[54] the UNSC rebutted the case on March 24 and March 26 1999.[55] NATO hit civilian economic infrastructure, the integrated national power grid (leaving many cities in the dark), schools, hospitals, water purification plants, dams, oil refineries fertilizer factories, a petrochemical plant, national parks and marketplaces, and also nearly hit nuclear reactors and waste facilities.[56] The 78-day bombing campaign is assessed as having been an 'economic catastrophe', cutting the Yugoslav economy in half.[56]

text: Chechen wars[edit]

text: Post-Soviet Russia heavily bombed the Chechen capital of Grozny from the air with mostly unguided munitions (including fuel-air explosives) as well as bombarding it with a massive artillery barrages (1994–1995, 1996 and 1999–2000), killing thousands of people (some estimates say 27,000 civilians were killed during the 1994-1995 siege alone[57]) including civilians during the First and Second Chechen Wars. Although the Russian pilots and soldiers were ordered to attack designated targets only, such as the Presidential Palace, due to their inexperience and lack of training, Russian soldiers and pilots bombed and shelled random targets inside the city. In 2003, the UN still called Grozny the most destroyed city on earth.[58]

text: Iraq War[edit]

text: In 2003 Invasion of Iraq, the U.S.-led coalition aircraft again bombed Iraq, including the Shock and Awe campaign of precision bombing[citation needed] of government targets in the city centers. Since then, coalition aircraft attack Iraqi insurgent targets, including in urban locations like Najaf, Fallujah, Basra and Baghdad.[citation needed] There are frequent reports of civilian casualties, though it is often hard to distinguish guerrillas and civilians.

text: Syria[edit]

text: Syrian MiG-23s bombed the city of Aleppo on 24 July 2012, the first use of aerial bombing in the Syrian civil war.[59][60][61]

text: Other conflicts[edit]

text: Budapest was attacked by the Soviet air strikes in 1956 during the Hungarian Revolution.[citation needed] In 2008, the cities of Tskhinvali and Gori were hit by the Georgian and Russian aircraft during the war in Georgia.[62]

text: International law[edit]

text: Air warfare, theoretically, must comply with laws and customs of war, including international humanitarian law by protecting the victims of the conflict and refraining from attacks on protected persons.[63]

text: These restraints on aerial warfare are covered by the general laws of war, because unlike war on land and at sea—which are specifically covered by rules such as the 1907 Hague Convention and Protocol I additional to the Geneva Conventions, which contain pertinent restrictions, prohibitions and guidelines— there are no treaties specific to aerial warfare.[63]

text: To be legal, aerial operations must comply with the principles of humanitarian law: military necessity, distinction, and proportionality:[63] An attack or action must be intended to help in the defeat of the enemy; it must be an attack on a legitimate military objective, and the harm caused to civilians or civilian property must be proportional and not excessive in relation to the concrete and direct military advantage anticipated.