document_title: Big Momma's House

question_text: who played the real big momma in big mommas house

text: Big Momma's House

text: Plot[edit]

text: The film begins in an illegal underground dog-fighting arena in Korea, where an undercover FBI agent, John Patterson, has been identified and is later ordered by a Korean mob boss to be killed. However, John is eventually rescued by his undercover partner and master of disguise, Malcolm Turner.

text: Meanwhile, a criminal named Lester Vesco, who was originally serving a life sentence in prison for murder and armed robbery, escapes from his cell by killing a doctor and stealing his car. The FBI assigns Malcolm and John to capture Lester by sending them to small-town Cartersville, Georgia to stake out the house of an overweight, elderly African American woman named Hattie Mae Pierce, whom her friends call her Big Momma. Big Momma is the estranged Southern grandmother of Lester's ex-girlfriend, Sherry Pierce, a bank employee who supposedly aided Lester in his robbery by giving him the key to the vault. After Big Momma unexpectedly leaves town for two weeks to help an ill friend, Malcolm and John sneak into her house to plant security cameras and tap the phones. Sherry calls Big Momma's house, and Malcolm disguises his voice as Big Momma in order to lure Sherry to the house and possibly obtain a confession. The plan works, and Malcolm and John work together on a Big Momma disguise costume before Sherry's arrival.

text: The next day, Sherry arrives at Big Momma's house with her 10-year-old son, Trent. However, Malcolm's behaviour and sudden inexperience with cooking confuses Sherry. Malcolm also has to deal with Big Momma's lecherous boyfriend, Ben Rawley; act as midwife for a woman named Ritha, who has gone into labor; and attend self-defense classes under Ritha's older brother, a dim-witted security guard named Nolan, whom Malcolm handily defeats. After Malcolm almost damages the suit while sleeping, he tries to sneak back to the safe house where he and John are staying. However, Sherry captures Malcolm on the porch and he poses as Big Momma's handyman. Malcolm and John repair the suit. When Malcolm leaves with Sherry, John searches Trent and Sherry's belongings for clues, but to no avail. Malcolm bonds with Trent when he defends him against the two older boys who bullied Trent and kicked him off a basketball court so they could play. Malcolm and Trent eventually beat the boys at basketball, amazing Nolan and Trent. Malcolm also begins to bond with Sherry and Trent when he accompanies them on a fishing trip as himself. That night, Nolan discovers Malcolm and John's undercover operation and is reluctantly recruited to help them after he insists.

text: Malcolm accompanies Sherry and Trent to church, where the Reverend calls on Malcolm to give his testimony. Malcolm attempts to influence Sherry and Trent by giving them his testimony about the importance of not keeping secrets. When Malcolm, Sherry, and Trent return to Big Momma's house, they discover a surprise birthday party for Big Momma. During the party, the real Big Momma returns home prematurely, whom John tries to stall her. Malcolm accidentally finds the stolen money hidden in Trent's footlocker. Sherry tells Malcolm the real story: Lester had wooed Sherry so he could steal her keys to gain access to the bank vault; Sherry did not tell anyone about her stolen keys out of fear of getting fired. John quietly tells Nolan that the real Big Momma is back, at which point Nolan accidentally locks Malcolm out of the house, believing he is the real Big Momma. When Lester arrives after tracking down Sherry, Malcolm breaks through the window and fights Lester, causing confusion among the partygoers as they see two Big Mommas at once. Lester shoots John in his right shoulder and rips Malcolm's mask during a fistfight, which reveals his identity. Nonetheless, Malcolm subdues Lester by knocking him out through the window. Sherry and Trent are heartbroken to realize that Malcolm was an FBI agent all along, and they refuse to speak to him. The police arrest Lester and paramedics takes John to the hospital to heal his right shoulder.

text: On Sunday morning, Malcolm goes to church to testify Sherry, Trent, and Big Momma. Malcolm delivers his confession and heartfelt speech to Sherry and Trent, and later admits that he genuinely loves them. Big Momma forgives Malcolm, and the crowd cheers as Malcolm and Sherry kiss. The crowd celebrates as Big Momma and the choir sings "Oh Happy Day" during the film's closing credits.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Martin Lawrence as Agent Malcolm Turner/Big Momma
Nia Long as Sherry Pierce
Paul Giamatti as Agent John Patterson, Malcolm's undercover partner.
Terrence Howard as Lester Vesco, Sherry's ex-boyfriend.
Anthony Anderson as Nolan, a dim-witted security guard.
Jascha Washington as Trent Pierce, Sherry's 10-year-old son.
Ella Mitchell as Hattie Mae Pierce (Big Momma), Sherry's long lost, overweight, elderly Southern grandmother.
Phyllis Applegate as Sadie, Big Momma's nosy and jealous neighbor
Starletta DuPois as Miss Patterson
Tichina Arnold as Ritha, Nolan's younger sister.
Octavia Spencer as Twila
Nicole Prescott as Lena
Cedric the Entertainer as the Reverend
Carl Wright as Ben Rawley, Big Momma's annoying, lecherous boyfriend.
Aldis Hodge as Basketball teen

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 30% based on 81 reviews and an average rating of 4.4/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Big Momma's House is funny in some parts, but it is essentially a one-joke movie."[2] On Metacritic, the film has a score of 33 out of 100 based on 27 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".[3] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.[4]

text: The film, and the series as a whole, have been derided as typical of "representations of the big black woman that have appeared in mass marketed comedies" which at the same time devalue the women by casting "male actors wearing Latex fat suits".[5] One review of the third film sarcastically comments, "Believe it or not, the Big Momma's House series rigidly follows the classic Hollywood trilogy structure".[6] By the third film, the series was derided for its unnecessary rehashing of the cross-dressing gimmick.[6]

text: Box office[edit]

text: The film was released on 2 June 2000, and was a surprise hit as it opened as the number two movie in North America, and almost overtook Mission: Impossible 2 for the top spot that weekend. Big Momma's House went on to gross over $117 million at the US box office, and with a worldwide total just under $174 million.[7] Each installment in the series declined from the box office realized by the original:

text:
Film
Release date
Box office revenue[8]

Opening weekend
United States
Worldwide

Big Momma's House
June 2, 2000
$25,661,041
$117,559,438
$173,959,438

Big Momma's House 2
January 27, 2006
$27,736,056
$70,165,972
$138,259,062

Big Mommas: Like Father, Like Son
February 18, 2011
$16,300,803
$37,043,617
$69,922,617

Total

$69,697,900
$224,769,027
$382,141,117

text: Music[edit]

text: A soundtrack containing hip hop music was released on May 30, 2000 by So So Def Records. The film's theme song was "Bounce with Me" by Lil Bow Wow. The soundtrack was also a moderate success and has been certified gold since its release. Other than Lil Bow Wow, the soundtrack featured artists such as Jermaine Dupri, Da Brat, and Black Dave, whose single Go Big Girl can be heard briefly in the film. It peaked at 41 on the Billboard 200 and 12 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums and spawned two hit singles, "Bounce with Me" and "I've Got to Have It".

text: This was the only Big Momma film to have an official soundtrack. However, the third film spawned one single, "Imma Do It Big", by T-Pain, Brandon T. Jackson, and One Chance.

text: Sequels[edit]

text: Big Momma's House spawned 2 sequels: Big Momma's House 2 (2006) and Big Mommas: Like Father, Like Son (2011). Both sequels are notable for being lighter and family-friendlier than the original. The sequels included some, but not all, of the same crew members, characters, and actors from the original:

text:
Film
Director
Producer
Writer
Composer
Cinematographer
Editor

Big Momma's House
Raja Gosnell
David T. Friendly
Michael Green
screenplay:
Darryl Quarles
story:
Darryl Quarles
Don Rhymer
Richard Gibbs
Michael D. O'Shea
Kent Beyda
Bruce Green

Big Momma's House 2
John Whitesell
Don Rhymer
George S. Clinton
Mark Irwin
Priscilla Nedd-Friendly

Big Mommas: Like Father, Like Son
screenplay:
Matthew Fogel
story:
Matthew Fogel
Don Rhymer
David Newman
Anthony B. Richmond

text: Home media[edit]

text: The film is one of very few titles to be released on EVD as well as DVD and VHS. The film was re-released on Blu-ray and DVD.


document_title: Powertrain control module

question_text: what does pcm stand for on a vehicle

question_tokens: what does pcm stand for on a vehicle

root

text: Powertrain control module

text: A power-train control module, abbreviated PCM, is an automotive component, a control unit, used on motor vehicles. It is generally a combined control unit, consisting of the engine control unit (ECU) and the transmission control unit (TCU). On some cars, such as many Chryslers, there are multiple computers: the PCM, the Transmission Control Unit, and the Body Control Module, for a total of three separate computers as an example. These automotive computers are generally very reliable. The PCM commonly controls more than 100 factors in a car or truck. There are many hundreds of error codes that can occur, which indicates that some subsection of the car is experiencing a problem. When one of these errors occurs, usually it will turn on the "check engine" light on the dashboard. The PCM is one of potentially several on-board computers, or essentially the "brain" of the engine control system.[1]

tag: p

text: The primary inputs to the PCM come from many sensors, of different types, that are spread around the car. Most of them are oriented toward engine management and performance. These sensors fail at a much higher rate than any of the computers do.

text: Early use of the powertrain control module dates back to the late 1970s[citation needed] - official phasing in[clarification needed] of the PCM occurred during the early 1980s when used in conjunction with electronic controlled carburetors and lockup torque converters (at the time conventional 3-speed automatics received lockup converters at the same time overdrives were introduced[citation needed]).

text: Other names[edit]

text: Engine control unit is also called:

text:
PCM: Power-train control module (Ford/GM)
ECM: Engine control module
Injection control unit (Peugeot,[2] Citroen, Fiat, Alfa, Lancia)
DME/DDE: Digital Motor Electronics / Digital Diesel Electronics (BMW,[3] Mini)
ECU: Electronic control unit

tag: ul

text: Bibliography[edit]

text:
Duffy, James E. (2003). Modern Automotive Technology (6th ed.). ISBN 1-59070-186-0.
Ribbens, William B. (2002). Understanding Automotive Electronics (6th ed.). ISBN 0-08-048149-3.


document_title: I Can Only Imagine (film)

question_text: who played the bands manager in i can only imagine

text: I Can Only Imagine (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: Coming from a home with an abusive father, 10-year-old Bart Millard is dropped off at a Christian camp by his mother, where he meets Shannon. Upon his return from camp, Bart finds his mother has left and movers are removing her belongings, leading to a physical confrontation with his father Arthur, who takes custody of him.

text: Years later, Millard is in Lakeside high school and dating Shannon. Hoping to impress his father, he begins playing football. However, he is injured, breaking both ankles and ending his career. In order to make up the credits he would miss from football, he signs up for music class, the only available class left. Initially, Millard is assigned to be a sound technician. After the director catches him singing in the empty auditorium of Lakeside high school, she casts him as Curly, the lead role in the school production of Oklahoma. He doesn't tell his father of his role in the play, and while Bart has risen to the singing demands of the part, Arthur subsequently collapses with severe abdominal pain, but refuses to tell Bart or Shannon about his cancer diagnosis. The following morning, Millard voices his frustrations with his father and is assaulted by his father, who smashes a plate over his head. Shannon presses Bart to open up, but he responds by breaking up with her and leaving to seek his fortune in the city after graduation.

text: Millard then connects with the band who would become MercyMe, and eventually attracts the attention of Christian music producer Scott Brickell (Trace Adkins), who coaches Millard and gets them a showcase in Nashville, leading to meetings with Amy Grant (Nicole DuPort) and Michael W. Smith (Jake B. Miller). Millard has been unable to reconcile with Shannon, who rejects his invitation to tour with the band to their upcoming Nashville showcase. While the band felt their performance was the best of their career, industry representatives reject the band as not being good enough to sell records. In despair, Millard quits the band. After talking with Brickell, who encourages him to resolve his issues with his father, Millard rejoins the band but asks they wait for him to confront his father and settle the conflict before they play again.

text: Millard returns home and is greeted enthusiastically by his father, who prepares breakfast for him the next morning. His father claims to have become a Christian, but Bart is initially skeptical and rejects his father's offer to start over. In anger, Arthur takes a baseball bat and hits his old Jeep, which he had hoped to repair with his son. As Bart prepares to leave, he finds out his father has terminal cancer. Bart and his father reconcile and form a deep bond before Arthur dies of his illness.

text: After his father's funeral, Millard rejoins the band and writes "I Can Only Imagine". Brickell sends the demo tape to several artists, including Grant, who, deeply moved by the song, asks to record it herself as her next single. The band accepts Grant's offer. Millard is seated in the audience when Grant intends to unveil the song live in concert. However, Grant decides that Millard should be the one to sing the song, and offers it back to him, calling him to the microphone to sing it before the large audience. Millard's unexpected performance is wildly applauded and he reunites with Shannon, who had also been in attendance at the concert. The band releases the song as their first single, achieving success on Christian and mainstream radio.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
J. Michael Finley as Bart Millard

Brody Rose as Young Bart

Dennis Quaid as Arthur Millard, Bart's father
Cloris Leachman as Meemaw, Bart's grandmother
Madeline Carroll as Shannon, Bart's girlfriend

Taegen Burns as Young Shannon

Trace Adkins as Scott Brickell, MercyMe's manager
Priscilla Shirer as Mrs. Fincher, Bart's teacher
Nicole DuPort as Amy Grant
Jake B. Miller as Michael W. Smith
Mark Furze as Nathan

text: Production[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (March 2018)

tag: table

text: The film was announced in December 2016.[4] Dennis Quaid joined the cast in January 2017.[5] Broadway actor J. Michael Finley makes his film debut as Bart Millard.[1] The same month, it was announced that the film was slated for release in the spring of 2018.[5] In August 2017, Lionsgate and Roadside Attractions signed on as distributors for the film for a nationwide release in the United States.[1][6]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: As of May 13, 2018[update], I Can Only Imagine has grossed $82.4 million in the United States, and Canada and $1.1 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $83.5 million, against a production budget of $7 million.[2] It is the third-highest grossing music biopic of all-time in the United States, behind Straight Outta Compton and Walk the Line.[7]

text: The film was released on March 16, 2018, alongside Tomb Raider and Love, Simon, and was originally projected to gross $2–4 million from 1,620 theaters in its opening weekend.[8] However, after making $6.2 million on its first day (including $1.3 million from Thursday night previews), weekend estimates were increased to $14 million.[9] It ended up grossing $17.1 million, exceeding expectations and finishing third at the box office behind Black Panther and Tomb Raider. 67% of the opening weekend audience was female while 80% was over the age of 35.[10] It was the fourth best-ever opening for a faith-based film, following The Passion of the Christ ($83.8 million), Son of God ($25.6 million) and Heaven Is for Real ($22.5 million).[11] In its second weekend the film was added to 624 additional theaters and dropped just 19% to $13.8 million, again finishing third.[12] It was added to another 395 venues and finished fourth in its third weekend, making $10.4 million (including $3 million on Easter Sunday).[13] The film will be released on DVD, Blu-ray and available at iTunes Store and Google Play Store, June 5, 2018.

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 70% based on 23 reviews, and an average rating of 6/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "I Can Only Imagine's message will have the most impact among Christian audiences, but overall, its performances and storytelling represent a notable evolution in faith-based cinema."[14] On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 29 out of 100, based on 7 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".[15] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A+" on an A+ to F scale, one of fewer than 80 films in the history of the service to earn such a score.[9]

text: The Arizona Republic's James Ward gave the film 4/5 stars and wrote, "Too often faith-based films — say anything with Kirk Cameron or the terrible God's Not Dead series — tend to preach to the choir or hector their audience. The Erwins’ films — I Can Only Imagine definitely among them — are more inclusive, charitable of spirit and hopeful, all qualities that are always appreciated, be they rooted in Christian faith or otherwise."[16] David Ehrlich of IndieWire gave the film a "C–" saying: "There’s a reason why all of these movies are so amateurishly made; why they all end with links to religious websites; why they all look like they were shot on an iPhone by a Walmart-brand Janusz Kaminski who lit each interior like the white light of heaven was streaming through every window...Art can be affirmation, but affirmation cannot be art."[17]


document_title: Shaun of the Dead

question_text: who is yvonne in shaun of the dead

question_tokens: who is yvonne in shaun of the dead

text: Shaun of the Dead

text: Plot[edit]

text: Shaun is a shop salesman with no direction in his life. His colleagues disrespect him, he does not get on with his stepfather Philip, and his girlfriend Liz breaks up with him, unhappy they spend every evening at his local pub, the Winchester. After the break-up, Shaun drowns his sorrows there with his housemate and best friend Ed. At home, their housemate Pete, complaining of a bite wound from a mugger, berates Shaun to get his life together.

text: By morning, a zombie apocalypse has overwhelmed London, but Shaun and Ed are slow to notice until they encounter two zombies in their garden and kill them with blows to the head. They form a plan to rescue Shaun's mother, Barbara, and Liz, then wait out the crisis in the Winchester. They escape in Pete's car, and pick up Barbara and Philip, who has been bitten, then Liz and her friends Dianne and David. Philip makes peace with Shaun before turning into a zombie.

text: The group abandons the vehicle and continues on foot, evading zombies. They seek refuge inside the Winchester, where Shaun discovers that the Winchester rifle above the bar is functional. Barbara reveals she has been bitten and turns undead after giving Liz and Shaun her blessing. Shaun, distraught, is forced to shoot Barbara.

text: Zombies break into the pub. David is disembowelled, and an enraged Diane grabs David's leg and rushes into the horde. The zombified Pete bites Ed, after which Shaun shoots Pete and sets fire to the bar. The fire sets off the rifle ammunition while Shaun, Liz, and Ed flee into the cellar, where they contemplate suicide. Ed volunteers to stay behind with the rifle while Shaun and Liz escape through a hatch that opens to the street. The Army arrives and guns down the remaining zombies.

text: Six months after the outbreak, civilisation has returned to normal, and surviving zombies are used as cheap labour and entertainment. Liz has moved in with Shaun, while Shaun keeps the zombie Ed tethered in his shed, where they play video games together.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Simon Pegg as Shaun
Nick Frost as Ed
Kate Ashfield as Liz
Lucy Davis as Dianne
Dylan Moran as David
Penelope Wilton as Barbara
Bill Nighy as Philip
Jessica Stevenson as Yvonne
Peter Serafinowicz as Pete
Rafe Spall as Noel
Martin Freeman as Declan
Reece Shearsmith as Mark
Tamsin Greig as Maggie
Julia Deakin as Yvonne's mum
Matt Lucas as Cousin Tom

text: Production[edit]

text: The film is notable for Wright's kinetic directing style, and its references to other movies, television series and video games. In this way, it is similar to the British sitcom Spaced, which both Pegg and Wright worked on in similar roles.

text: The film was inspired by the Spaced episode "Art", written by Pegg (along with his writing partner and co-star Jessica Hynes) and directed by Wright, in which the character of Tim (Pegg), under the influence of amphetamine and the video game Resident Evil 2, hallucinates that he is fighting off a zombie invasion. Having discovered a mutual appreciation for Romero's Dead trilogy, they decided to write their own zombie movie. Spaced was to be a big influence on the making of Shaun of the Dead, as it was directed by Wright in a similar style, and featured many of the same cast and crew in minor and major roles. Nick Frost, who played Mike in Spaced, has a starring role in Shaun of the Dead as Ed. Peter Serafinowicz and Julia Deakin – who played Duane Benzie and Marsha in Spaced – appear in Shaun of the Dead as Pete and Yvonne's mum, and Pegg's Spaced co-star Jessica Hynes plays Yvonne.

text: The film's cast features a number of British comedians, comic actors, and sitcom stars, most prominently from Spaced, Black Books and The Office. Shaun of the Dead also co-stars Dylan Moran, who played Bernard Black in Black Books, Martin Freeman (Tim Canterbury in The Office), Tamsin Greig (Fran in Black Books, Caroline in Green Wing), Julia Deakin (Marsha in Spaced), Reece Shearsmith (Dexter in Spaced and a member of The League of Gentlemen) and Matt Lucas (writer/co-star of Little Britain). In addition, the voices of Mark Gatiss (The League of Gentlemen) and Julia Davis (Nighty Night) can be heard as radio news presenters, as can David Walliams (Little Britain) who provides the voice of an unseen TV reporter. Trisha Goddard also makes a cameo appearance, hosting two fictionalised episodes of her real-life talk show Trisha. Many other comics and comic actors appear in cameos as zombies, including Rob Brydon, Paul Putner, Russell Howard, Pamela Kempthorne (Morticia de'Ath in The Vampires of Bloody Island), Joe Cornish, Antonia Campbell-Hughes (from the Jack Dee sitcom Lead Balloon), Mark Donovan (Black Books) and Michael Smiley (Tyres in Spaced). Coldplay members Chris Martin (who contributed to the soundtrack by guest singing the cover of Buzzcocks' "Everybody's Happy Nowadays" with Ash) and Jonny Buckland also have cameo roles in the film.[6]

text: The film was shot over nine weeks between May and July 2003.[7][8]

text: Locations[edit]

text: The production was filmed in London, on location and at Ealing Studios, and involved production companies Working Title Films and StudioCanal. Many exterior shots were filmed in and around the North London areas of Crouch End, Highgate Finsbury Park and East Finchley. Zombie extras were mainly local residents or fans of Spaced who responded to a casting call organised through a fan website.

text: Shaun's place of work is an actual electrical appliances shop located at Tally Ho, North Finchley.[clarification needed]

text: The scenes filmed in and around the "Winchester Tavern" pub were shot at the "Duke of Albany" pub, 39 Monson Road, New Cross, South London – a three-story Victorian pub. It was turned into flats in 2008.[9]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: In the United Kingdom, Shaun of the Dead took £1.6 million at 366 cinemas on its opening weekend[10] and netted £6.4 million by mid-May. In its opening weekend in the United States, Shaun of the Dead earned US$3.3 million, taking seventh place at the box office despite a limited release to 607 theatres.[4] The film has earned US$30,039,392 worldwide in box office receipts since its release.[4]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: Shaun of the Dead received critical acclaim. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a score of 92%, based on 201 reviews, with an average rating of 7.8/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Shaun of the Dead cleverly balances scares and witty satire, making for a bloody good zombie movie with loads of wit".[11] On Metacritic, the film has a score of 76 out of 100, based on 34 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[12] Nev Pierce, reviewing the film for the BBC, called it a "side-splitting, head-smashing, gloriously gory horror comedy" that will "amuse casual viewers and delight genre fans."[13] Peter Bradshaw gave it four stars out of five, saying it "boasts a script crammed with real gags" and is "pacily directed [and] nicely acted."[14] The film was placed sixth in Empire's top one hundred British films list.[15]

text: Awards and recognition[edit]

text: In 2004, Total Film magazine named Shaun of the Dead the 49th greatest British film of all time. In 2005, it was rated as the third greatest comedy film of all time in a Channel 4 poll.[16] Horror novelist Stephen King described the movie as "...a '10' on the fun meter and destined to be a cult classic."[17] In 2007, Stylus Magazine named it the ninth-greatest zombie film ever made.[18] In 2007, Time named it one of the 25 best horror films, calling the film "spooky, silly and smart-smart-smart" and complimenting its director: "Wright, who'd be a director to watch in any genre, plays world-class games with the camera and the viewer's expectations of what's supposed to happen in a scare film."[19] Bloody Disgusting ranked the film second in their list of the 'Top 20 Horror Films of the Decade', with the article saying "Shaun of the Dead isn't just the best horror-comedy of the decade – it's quite possibly the best horror-comedy ever made."[20] In December 2009, Now deemed Shaun of the Dead the best film of the decade.[21]

text: George A. Romero was so impressed with Pegg and Wright's work that he asked them to appear in cameo roles in the 2005 film Land of the Dead. Pegg and Wright insisted on being zombies rather than the slightly more noticeable roles that were originally offered.[22][23]  Pegg and Frost reprised their roles (animated style) in the Phineas and Ferb Halloween special "Night of the Living Pharmacists" in October 2014.[24]

text: Quentin Tarantino dubbed the film as one of his top twenty films made since 1992.[25]

text: In March 2011, the film was voted by BBC Radio 1 and BBC Radio 1Xtra listeners as their second favourite film of all time. Frank Darabont's The Shawshank Redemption came in first place.[26]

text:
Award
Date of ceremony
Category
Recipients and nominees
Result
Notes

British Independent Film Awards
30 November 2004
Best British Independent Film
Shaun of the Dead
Nominated

Best Screenplay
Edgar Wright and Simon Pegg
Won

Most Promising Newcomer
Nick Frost
Nominated

Evening Standard British Film Awards
6 February 2005
Peter Sellers Award for Comedy
Simon Pegg
Won
[27]

London Film Critics' Circle Awards
9 February 2005
British Film of the Year
Shaun of the Dead
Nominated

Screenwriter(s) of the Year
Simon Pegg and Edgar Wright
Nominated

British Academy Film Awards
12 February 2005
Outstanding British Film
Shaun of the Dead
Nominated

Outstanding Debut by a British Writer, Director or Producer
Nira Park (producer)
Nominated

Empire Awards
13 March 2005
Best British Film
Shaun of the Dead
Won

Best British Director
Edgar Wright
Nominated

Best British Actor
Simon Pegg
Nominated

Best British Actress
Kate Ashfield
Nominated

Scene of the Year
The records and zombies scene
Nominated

Saturn Awards
3 May 2005
Best Horror Film
Shaun of the Dead
Won

Bram Stoker Awards
25 June 2005
Best Screenplay
Simon Pegg and Edgar Wright (tied with Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind)
Won

text: Home media[edit]

text: The film was released on DVD shortly after its theatrical run in the US, with a DVD release around December 2004 in the US. Features included several audio commentaries, EPK featurettes about the film's production, pre-production video diaries and concept videos, photo galleries, bloopers, and more. The film also saw release on the HD DVD format in July 2007, with a Blu-ray Disc release following in September 2009.

text: Merchandise[edit]

text: In 2006, the National Entertainment Collectibles Association announced that it would be producing action figures based on the film as part of its "Cult Classics" line that features fan favourite characters from various genre films. The releases are:[citation needed]

text:
12" Shaun with sound
7" Shaun, which was released in Cult Classics series 4. The sculpt was based on the 12" figure.
"Winchester" two-pack, featuring 7" versions of Ed and a bloodied-up Shaun with the Winchester rifle.
Zombie Ed, which is a re-deco of the "Winchester" Ed, to be released in Cult Classics: Hall of Fame.

text: Upper Deck Entertainment released a card for the popular World of Warcraft TCG in 2007, an ally named "Shawn of the Dead", with the power of bringing back allies from the enemy graveyard.[28]

text: Cultural references[edit]

text: Prominent are many references to George A. Romero's earlier Dead films (Night of the Living Dead, Dawn of the Dead, and Day of the Dead,[22] with Dawn in particular being referenced).[29]

text: Films influenced by Shaun of the Dead[edit]

text: The 2010 Cuban film Juan of the Dead[30] and the 2013 Singaporean film Hsien of the Dead[31] were inspired by Shaun of the Dead.

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text:
Shaun of the Dead: Music from the Motion PictureSoundtrack album by various artistsReleased
12 April 2004 (2004-04-12)Genre
RockAlternative rockSkaHip hopElectroLabel
Universal InternationalEdgar Wright film soundtrack chronology

Shaun of the Dead: Music from the Motion Picture(2004)

Hot Fuzz(2007)

text: The film's score by Pete Woodhead and Daniel Mudford is a pastiche of Italian zombie film soundtracks by artists like Goblin and Fabio Frizzi. It also uses many musical cues from the original Dawn of the Dead that were originally culled by George A. Romero from the De Wolfe production music library.[32]

text: On the soundtrack album, dialogue from the film is embedded within the music tracks.

text:
"Figment" – S. Park
"The Blue Wrath" – I Monster
"Mister Mental" – The Eighties Matchbox B-Line Disaster
"Meltdown" – Ash
"Don't Stop Me Now" – Queen
"White Lines (Don't Don't Do It)" – Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five and Melle Mel
"Hip Hop, Be Bop (Don't Stop)" – Man Parrish
"Zombie Creeping Flesh" – Pete Woodhead and Daniel Mudford
"Kernkraft 400" – Zombie Nation
"Fizzy Legs" – Pete Woodhead and Daniel Mudford
"Soft" – Lemon Jelly
"Death Bivouac" – Pete Woodhead and Daniel Mudford
"The Gonk (Kid Koala Remix)" – The Noveltones
"Envy the Dead" – Pete Woodhead and Daniel Mudford
"Ghost Town" – The Specials
"Blood in Three Flavours" – Pete Woodhead and Daniel Mudford
"Panic" – The Smiths
"Everybody's Happy Nowadays" (originally by Buzzcocks) – Ash featuring Chris Martin
"You're My Best Friend" – Queen
"You've Got Red on You / Shaun of the Dead Suite" – Pete Woodhead and Daniel Mudford
"Normality" – Pete Woodhead and Daniel Mudford
"Fundead" – Pete Woodhead and Daniel Mudford
"Orpheus" – Ash

tag: ol

text: Comic strip[edit]

text: Pegg and Wright also scripted a one-off tie-in comic strip for the British comic magazine 2000AD titled "There's Something About Mary".[33]

text: Set the day before the zombie outbreak, the strip follows and expands on the character of Mary, who appears briefly in the introductory credits, and is the first zombie whom Shaun and Ed are aware of, and details how she became a zombie. It features expanded appearances from many of the minor or background characters who appear in the film. The strip was made available on the DVD release of Shaun, along with two other strips that wrapped up "Plot Holes" in the film, like how Dianne escaped and survived the Winchester incident, and Ed's fate after taking refuge in the pub's basement.


document_title: Tsonga people

question_text: in which province do the majority of the tsonga culture stay

text: Tsonga people

text: History[edit]

text: The Tsonga people originated from Central and West Africa somewhere between AD 200 and 500, and have been migrating in-and-out of South Africa for over a thousand (1000) years. Initially, the Tsonga people settled on the coastal plains of Southern Mozambique but finally settled in the Transvaal Province and around parts of St Lucia Bay in South Africa from as early as the 1300s.[2] One of the earliest reputable written accounts of the Tsonga people is by HP Junod titled "Matimu ya Vatsonga 1498-1650" which was formally published in 1977 by his son, and it speaks of the earliest Tsonga kingdoms. The son of HP Junod, Henri Alexandri Junod carried on where his father left off and further released his own work titled "The life of a South African Tribe" which was officially published in 1927.

text: The historical movements of the Tsonga people is dominated by separate migrations, with the Tembe people settling at the northern parts of KwaZulu Natal around the 1350s and the Van'wanati and Vanyayi settling in the eastern Limpopo region between the late 1400s and 1650s.[3] Separate migrations from parts of Mozambique occurred shortly thereafter and particularly during the 1800s.

text: Within apartheid South Africa, a Tsonga "homeland", Gazankulu Bantustan, was created out of part of northern Transvaal Province (Now Limpopo Province and Mpumalanga) during the 1960s and was granted self-governing status in 1973.[4] This bantustan's economy depended largely on gold and on a small manufacturing sector.[4] However, only an estimated 500,000 people—less than half the Tsonga population of South Africa—ever lived there.[4] Many others joined township residents from other parts of South Africa around urban centres, especially Johannesburg and Pretoria.[4]

text: Name[edit]

text:
The Constitution of South Africa stipulates that all South Africans have a right to identify with their own language, and points out that tribal affiliations or "ethnicity" is identifiable mostly through a common language; hence the recognition of groups such as, for example the Xhosas who are united by isiXhosa; Zulus who are united by isiZulu; Vendas who are united by Tshivenda; and the Sothos who are united by Sesotho. The various groups who speak the Xitsonga language or one of its dialects are therefore also united by the language and take its name from it, hence Constitutionally they are the Tsonga people (Vatsonga).
The name 'Tsonga' itself is only applied within the South African context. Groups outside of South Africa who are ancestral or related to the South African Tsonga people go by various tribal names (e.g., Tonga, Rhonga, Chopi, Tswa) but they are sometimes classified within the heritage and history of the Tsonga people of South Africa.

text: Language[edit]

text:
The Tsonga people speak the Xitsonga language, which is one of the official languages of the Republic of South Africa. According to historians, the Xitsonga language had already developed during the 1500s with its predecessor the "Thonga language" identified as the main origin.[2]
It was mostly through the missionary work of the late 1800s to mid-1900s that led to a cohesive study of the Tsonga people's dialects and language features. The work carried out by Henri Junod and his father left a lasting legacy for the Tsonga people to rediscover their past history. It was however Paul Berthoud and his companion Ernest Creux who actively engaged with the Tsonga people of the Spelonken region to eventually produce the first hymn books written in the Xitsonga language at around 1878.[5] These Swiss Missionaries however did not understand the Xitsonga language at all and had to depend on the guidance of native speakers for the translations. The first book written in the Xitsonga language was published in 1883 by Paul Berthoud after dedicating enough time to learning the language. The Tsonga people themselves had then began to learn to read and write in Xitsonga, however it should be noted that the Tsonga people had already been well affluent in the Xitsonga language or one of its dialects long before the arrival of the Swiss Missionaries. There is evidence to indicate that the "language was already-spoken by the primitive occupants of the country more than 500 years" before the arrival of Swiss Missionaries.(Junod 1912, p. 33)[2]

text: Conflics and Naming Conventions[edit]

text: In South Africa the name "Shangaan" or "Machangane" is regularly applied to the entire Tsonga population; however, this is a common misconception and others even take offense to it with regards to tribal affiliation.[3] What can be identified as the Shangaan tribe only forms a small fraction of the entire Tsonga ethnic group, meaning that the term "Shangaan" should only be applied to that tribe which is directly related to Soshangane ka Zikode (a Ngoni general from the Ndwandwe tribe) who came to existence during the 1800s, as well as those tribes which were founded or assimilated directly by him. In contrast, the Tsonga ethnic group comprises various tribal identities, some of which have been recognised and well established in Mozambique and South Africa even back around 1350 all the way through the 1600s to 1900s, namely the Varhonga, Vaxika, Vahlengwe, Van'wanati, Vacopi, Valoyi, and others. On the other hand, the double barrel term "Tsonga-Shangaan" is often applied in a way similar to Sotho and Tswana; Pedi and Lobedu; or Xhosa and Mpondo. Historical research shows that a substantial number of Tsonga tribes have been living together in South Africa during the 1400s to 1700s at a time where the name "Shangaan" had not yet existed.[6] Back during the 1640s-1700s the Tsonga people of South Africa were already integrated and living together established under their own traditional leaderships (such as the kingdoms led by Gulukhulu, Xihlomulo of the Valozyi, Maxakadzi of the Van'wanati, and Ngomani of the Vaxika).[7]

text: When Soshangane (whom the name "Shangaan" is taken from) and other Ngoni invaders raided Mozambique later during the 1820s, the Tsonga people who were already living prior under Dutch colonialism in South Africa did not form a part of the Ngoni Shangaan empire (and were often hostile to it) and they had already been speaking the Xitsonga language through dialects such as Xin'walungu, Xihlanganu, Xidzonga etc within the Transvaal.[8] Such Tsonga tribes have never been subjects of the Gaza Shangaan empire and have always retained their senior traditional leadership even during the governance of the Apartheid homeland system. The misconception that they were all united by a single leader appears to be false as most of the people who organised the early Tsonga/Tonga groupings would still be integrated within South Africa even if the Mfecane Nguni wars did not happen. In short, the tribal identity of the Tsonga people is not simply reduced to the aftermath of the Mfecane and the name "Tsonga" therefore  classifies the entire Xitsonga-speaking communities who share a common heritage within the Xitsonga language, customs, and traditions; whereas "Shangaan" classifies the Ngoni people (Amashangane) who assimilated into those communities between 1815 and 1920 but still largely identify with Nguni customs.

text: In modern South Africa, the integration of such tribes has led to a social cohesion drive where some of the Tsonga people believe they face an identity crisis as a result of perceived tribalism of the Ndwandwe Shangaan tribe against the original Tsonga tribes.[9]. Another factor is the Gaza-Shangaan people's association with past slavery and the oppression and exploitation that the Shona, Kalanga, and Tsonga people suffered under the rule of the Gaza Empire, which has been well documented by reliable sources and is a subject of much controversy and debate.[10][11]

text: Clan structures[edit]

text: The Tsonga ethnic group has been united by the gradual assimilation of various nearing tribes found in abundance within Mozambique, Zimbabwe, and South Africa respectively. Historical research indicates that the development of a common language (Xitsonga) as well as cultural integration within the Tsonga ethnic group has been occurring ever since the 1200s (over 800 years ago).[3] It is possible that different waring groups sought to establish protection alliances and thus integrated their tribes into a common establishment or to secure trade. Language appears to be the dominant factor in uniting the Tsonga tribes, similarly to the Venda people who are also of various tribes united by the Venda language. It is apparent that the Tsonga people have never been united by a single leader but by various tribal kingdoms that fought for dominance over time, who were eventually overcame by internal conflicts as well as the impact of colonial rule. However there is evidence to suggest that the earliest most dominant Tsonga kingdom within South African territory from the 1600s to the late 1900s was the Mhinga Dynasty, who founded Malamulele (the Rescuer) and further formed the leadership of the Gazankulu territorial authority around the 1960s in what is today the eastern parts of the Limpopo province.[12][13] The Van'wanati clan according to Henry A. Junod (1912) are also the ones who assimilated the Baloyi and Vanyayi clans who left the Kalanga country and became Tsonga-speaking.[2] The Tsonga people themselves still recognize their respective tribal origins and have also embraced the Tsonga national identity, which unites them linguistically and culturally within South Africa.

text: Xitsonga-speaking communities after 1890 (through a related dialect or sub dialect):

text:
Vatsonga-Van'wanati
Vatsonga-Valoyi
Vatsonga-Varhonga
Vatsonga-Vatembe
Vatsonga-Vadjonga
Vatsonga-Vanhlanganu
Vatsonga-Vabila
Vatsonga-Vahlengwe
Vatsonga-Vaxika
Vatsonga-Vaxingwidzi
Vatsonga-Vankomati
Vatsonga-Valambya
Vatsonga-Vandawu
Vatsonga-Vankuna
Vatsonga-Vamhlave
Vatsonga-Machangana

text: Population[edit]

text: In total, there were 7, 3 million Tsonga speakers in 2011, divided mainly between South Africa and Mozambique. South Africa was home to 3,3 million Tsonga speakers in the 2011 population census, while Mozambique accounted for 4 million speakers of the language. A small insignificant number of speakers included 15 000 Tsonga speakers in Swaziland and roughly 18 000 speakers in Zimbabwe.[1]

text: In South Africa, Tsonga people were concentrated in the following municipal areas during the 2011 population census: Greater Giyani Local Municipality (248,000 people), Bushbuckridge Local Municipality (320,000 people), Greater Tzaneen Local Municipality (195,000 people), Ba-Phalaborwa Local Municipality (80,000 people), Makhado Local Municipality (170,000 people), Thulamela Local Municipality (220,000 people), City of Tshwane (280,000 people), City of Johannesburg (290,000 people), and Ekurhuleni (260,000 people). In the following municipalities, Tsonga people are present but they are not large enough or are not significant enough to form a dominant community in their shere of influence, in most cases, they are less than 50,000 people in each municipality. At the same time, they are not small enough to be ignored as they constitute the largest minority language group. They are as follows: Greater Letaba Local Municipality (28,00 people), Mbombela Local Municipality (26,000) people, Nkomazi Local Municipality (28,500) people, Mogalakwena Local Municipality (31,400 people), Madibeng Local Municipality (51,000), Moretele Local Municipality (34,000), and Rustenburg Local Municipality (30,000). The provincial breakdown of Tsonga speakers, according to the 2011 census, are as follows: Limpopo Province (1,006,000 people, Mpumalanga Province (415,000 people, Gauteng Province (800,000 people and North West Province (110,000 people. Overall, Tsonga speakers constitutes 4.4% of South Africa's total population.[1]

text: Economy[edit]

text: The Tsonga traditional economy is based on mixed agriculture and pastoralism. Cassava is the staple; corn (maize), millet, sorghum, and other crops are also grown. Women do much of the agricultural work,while men and teenage boys take care of domestic animals (a herd of cows, sheep, and goats) although some men grow cash crops. Most Tsongas now depend on wage labour for cash, many migrating to South Africa to find work.[14]

text: Culture[edit]

text: Tsonga men traditionally attend the initiation school for circumcision called Matlala (KaMatlala) or Ngoma (e Ngomeni) after which they are regarded as men. Young teenage girls attend an initiation school that old Vatsonga women lead called Khomba, and initiates are therefore called tikhomba (khomba- singular, tikhomba- plural). Only virgins are allowed to attend this initiation school where they will be taught more about womanhood, how to carry themselves as tikhomba in the community, and they are also readied for marriage.

text: The Vatsonga people living along the Limpopo River in South Africa have recently gained a significant amount of attention for their low-tech, lo-fi electronic dance music Xitsonga Traditional and otherwise promoted as Tsonga Disco, electro, and Tsonga ndzhumbha. The more traditional dance music of the Tsonga people was pioneered by the likes of General MD Shirinda, Fanny Mpfumo, Matshwa Bemuda, and Thomas Chauke, while the experimental genres of Tsonga disco and Tsonga ndzhumbha have been popularized by artists such as Joe Shirimani, Penny Penny,  Peta Teanet, and Benny Mayengani. The more westernized type of sound which includes a lot of English words, sampled vocals and heavy synthesizers is promoted as Shangaan electro in Europe and has been pioneered by the likes of Nozinja, the Tshetsha Boys, and DJ Khwaya. The Tsonga people are also known for a number of traditional dances such as the Makhwaya, Xighubu, Mchongolo and Xibelani dances.

text: Traditional beliefs and healers[edit]

text: Like most Bantu cultures, the Tsonga people have a strong acknowledgment of their ancestors, who are believed to have a considerable effect on the lives of their descendants. The traditional healers are called n'anga.[15] Legend has it that the first Tsonga diviners of the South African lowveld were a woman called Nkomo We Lwandle (Cow of the Ocean) and a man called Dunga Manzi (Stirring Waters).[15] A powerful water serpent, Nzunzu (Ndhzhundzhu), allegedly captured them and submerged them in deep waters. They did not drown, but lived underwater breathing like fish. Once their kin had slaughtered a cow for Nzunzu, they were released and emerged from the water on their knees as powerful diviners with an assortment of potent herbs for healing.[15] Nkomo We Lwandle and Dunga Manzi became famous healers and trained hundred of women and men as diviners.

text: Among the Tsongas, symptoms such as persistent pains, infertility and bouts of aggression can be interpreted as signs that an alien spirit has entered a person's body.[15] When this occurs, the individual will consult a n'anga to diagnose the cause of illness. If it has been ascertained that the person has been called by the ancestors to become a n'anga, they will become a client of a senior diviner who will not only heal the sickness, but also invoke the spirits and train them to become diviners themselves.[15] The legend of the water serpent is re-enacted during the diviner's initiation, by ceremoniously submerging the initiates in water from which they emerge as diviners.

text: The kind of spirits that inhabit a person are identified by the language they speak. There are generally the Ngoni (derived from the word Nguni), the Ndau and the Malopo. The Ndau spirit possesses the descendants of the Gaza soldiers who had slain the Ndau and taken their wives.[16]

text: Once the spirit has been converted from hostile to benevolent forces, the spirits bestow the powers of divination and healing on the nganga.[15]

text: Notable Tsonga people[edit]

text: The following is a list of notable Tsonga people who have their own Wikipedia articles.

text:
Hudson William Edison Ntsanwisi (Former Chief Minister of Gazankulu)
Cassius Baloyi (South African Boxer)
Collins Chabane (South African politician)
Eduardo Mondlane (Founding President of FRELIMO)
Gito Baloi (Mozambicam musician)
Penny Penny (South African Musician)
Jeff Maluleke (South African musician)
Trevor Nyakane (South African rugby union player)
Graça Machel (Former South African and Mozambican First Lady)
Herman Mashaba (Founder of Black Like Me and Executive Mayor of the City of Johannesburg)
Joaquim Chissano (Former President of Mozambique)
Jomo Sono (South African Football Legend; Owner of Jomo Cosmos)
Lizha James (Mozambican musician and celebrity)
Mbhazima Shilowa (former Gauteng Premier)
Samora Moisés Machel (Former President of Mozambique)
Sam Nzima (Photographer of famous Hector Pieterson, his sister Anotinette Sithole and Mbuyisa Makhubo picture)
Tito Mboweni (Former South African Reserve Bank Governor)
Thomas Chauke (Tsonga musician)
DJ Brian (Radio personality,Club DJ and an entrepreneur)
Floyd Shivambu (South African Politician, Deputy President of the Economic Freedom Fighters)
Lucky Baloyi (South African footballer)
Nice Rikhotso (South African Producer)
Benny Mayengani (South African musician)
Richard Hasani Chauke (South African scientist)
Prince Rhangani (South African musician and producer)
Risenga Buttler Maluleke (Director General Statistics of SA)
Joe Shirimani (South African musician and producer)
Tinyiko Maluleke (South African Political analyst)
Sho Madjozi (South African musician)
Salvador Pedro Maiaze (Mozambican Musician and celebrity)
Basani Maluleke (African Bank CEO)
Hlengani Mathebula (Chief Officer SARS)
Tshikani Lewis Khoza (South African scientist)


document_title: Suez Canal

question_text: when was the suez canal taken by egypt

question_tokens: when was the suez canal taken by egypt

text: Suez Canal

text: Precursors[edit]

text: Ancient west–east canals were built to facilitate travel from the Nile River to the Red Sea.[9][10][11] One smaller canal is believed to have been constructed under the auspices of Senusret II[12] or Ramesses II.[9][10][11] Another canal, probably incorporating a portion of the first,[9][10] was constructed under the reign of Necho II, but the only fully functional canal was engineered and completed by Darius I.[9][10][11]

text: 2nd millennium BCE[edit]

text: The legendary Sesostris (likely either Pharaoh Senusret II or Senusret III of the Twelfth dynasty of Egypt[12][13]) may have started work on an ancient canal joining the Nile with the Red Sea (1897 BC – 1839 BC), when an irrigation channel was constructed around 1850 BC that was navigable during the flood season, leading into a dry river valley east of the Nile River Delta named Wadi Tumelat.[14] (It is said that in ancient times the Red Sea reached northward to the Bitter Lakes[9][10] and Lake Timsah.[15][16])

text: In his Meteorology, Aristotle wrote:

text: One of their kings tried to make a canal to it (for it would have been of no little advantage to them for the whole region to have become navigable; Sesostris is said to have been the first of the ancient kings to try), but he found that the sea was higher than the land. So he first, and Darius afterwards, stopped making the canal, lest the sea should mix with the river water and spoil it.[17]

text: Strabo wrote that Sesostris started to build a canal, and Pliny the Elder wrote:

text: 165. Next comes the Tyro tribe and, the harbour of the Daneoi, from which Sesostris, king of Egypt, intended to carry a ship-canal to where the Nile flows into what is known as the Delta; this is a distance of over 60 miles. Later the Persian king Darius had the same idea, and yet again Ptolemy II, who made a trench 100 feet wide, 30 feet deep and about 35 miles long, as far as the Bitter Lakes.[18]

text: In the second half of the 19th century, French cartographers discovered the remnants of an ancient north–south canal past the east side of Lake Timsah and ending near the north end of the Great Bitter Lake.[19] This proved to be the celebrated canal made by the Persian king Darius I, as his stele commemorating its construction was found at the site. (This ancient, second canal may have followed a course along the shoreline of the Red Sea when it once extended north to Lake Timsah.[16][19]) In the 20th century the northward extension of this ancient canal was discovered, extending from Lake Timsah to the Ballah Lakes.[20] This was dated to the Middle Kingdom of Egypt by extrapolating the dates of ancient sites along its course.[20]

text: The reliefs of the Punt expedition under Hatshepsut, 1470 BC, depict seagoing vessels carrying the expeditionary force returning from Punt. This suggests that a navigable link existed between the Red Sea and the Nile.[21] Recent excavations in Wadi Gawasis may indicate that Egypt's maritime trade started from the Red Sea and did not require a canal.[citation needed] Evidence seems to indicate its existence by the 13th century BC during the time of Ramesses II.[9][22][23][24]

text: Canals dug by Necho, Darius I and Ptolemy[edit]

text: Remnants of an ancient west–east canal through the ancient Egyptian cities of Bubastis, Pi-Ramesses, and Pithom were discovered by Napoleon Bonaparte and his engineers and cartographers in 1799.[10][25][26][27][28]

text: According to the Histories of the Greek historian Herodotus,[29] about 600 BC, Necho II undertook to dig a west–east canal through the Wadi Tumilat between Bubastis and Heroopolis,[10] and perhaps continued it to the Heroopolite Gulf and the Red Sea.[9] Regardless, Necho is reported as having never completed his project.[9][10]

text: Herodotus was told that 120,000 men perished in this undertaking, but this figure is doubtless exaggerated.[30] According to Pliny the Elder, Necho's extension to the canal was about 57 English miles,[10] equal to the total distance between Bubastis and the Great Bitter Lake, allowing for winding through valleys.[10] The length that Herodotus tells, of over 1000 stadia (i.e., over 114 miles (183 km)), must be understood to include the entire distance between the Nile and the Red Sea[10] at that time.

text: With Necho's death, work was discontinued. Herodotus tells that the reason the project was abandoned was because of a warning received from an oracle that others would benefit from its successful completion.[10][31] Necho's war with Nebuchadnezzar II most probably prevented the canal's continuation.

text: Necho's project was completed by Darius I of Persia, who ruled over Ancient Egypt after it had been conquered by his predecessor Cambyses II.[32] It may be that by Darius's time a natural[10] waterway passage which had existed[9] between the Heroopolite Gulf and the Red Sea[33] in the vicinity of the Egyptian town of Shaluf[10] (alt. Chalouf[34] or Shaloof[16]), located just south of the Great Bitter Lake,[10][16] had become so blocked[9] with silt[10] that Darius needed to clear it out so as to allow navigation[10] once again. According to Herodotus, Darius's canal was wide enough that two triremes could pass each other with oars extended, and required four days to traverse. Darius commemorated his achievement with a number of granite stelae that he set up on the Nile bank, including one near Kabret, and a further one a few miles north of Suez. The Darius Inscriptions read:[35]

text: Saith King Darius: I am a Persian. Setting out from Persia, I conquered Egypt. I ordered this canal dug from the river called the Nile that flows in Egypt, to the sea that begins in Persia. When the canal had been dug as I ordered, ships went from Egypt through this canal to Persia, even as I intended.

text: The canal left the Nile at Bubastis. An inscription[36] on a pillar at Pithom records that in 270 or 269 BC, it was again reopened, by Ptolemy II Philadelphus. In Arsinoe,[10] Ptolemy constructed a navigable lock, with sluices, at the Heroopolite Gulf of the Red Sea,[33] which allowed the passage of vessels but prevented salt water from the Red Sea from mingling with the fresh water in the canal.[37]

text: Receding Red Sea and the dwindling Nile[edit]

text: The Red Sea is believed by some historians to have gradually receded over the centuries, its coastline slowly moving southward away from Lake Timsah[15][16] and the Great Bitter Lake.[9][10] Coupled with persistent accumulations of Nile silt, maintenance and repair of Ptolemy's canal became increasingly cumbersome over each passing century.

text: Two hundred years after the construction of Ptolemy's canal, Cleopatra seems to have had no west–east waterway passage,[9][10] because the Pelusiac branch of the Nile, which fed Ptolemy's west–east canal, had by that time dwindled, being choked with silt.[9][10]

text: Old Cairo to the Red Sea[edit]

text: By the 8th century, a navigable canal existed between Old Cairo and the Red Sea,[9][10] but accounts vary as to who ordered its construction—either Trajan or 'Amr ibn al-'As, or Omar the Great.[9][10] This canal was reportedly linked to the River Nile at Old Cairo[10] and ended near modern Suez.[9][38] A geography treatise by Dicuil reports a conversation with an English monk, Fidelis, who had sailed on the canal from the Nile to the Red Sea during a pilgrimage to the Holy Land in the first half of the 8th century[39]

text: The Abbasid Caliph al-Mansur is said to have ordered this canal closed in 767 to prevent supplies from reaching Arabian detractors.[9][10]

text: Repair by al-Ḥākim[edit]

text: Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah is claimed to have repaired the Cairo to Red Sea passageway,[9][10] but only briefly, circa 1000 AD,[9][10] as it soon "became choked with sand."[10] However, we are told that parts of this canal still continued to fill in during the Nile's annual inundations.[9][10]

text: Conception by Venice[edit]

text: The successful 1488 navigation of southern Africa by Bartolomeu Dias opened a direct maritime trading route to India and the spice islands, and forever changed the balance of Mediterranean trade. One of the most prominent losers in the new order, as former middlemen, was the former spice trading center of Venice.

text: Venetian leaders, driven to desperation, contemplated digging a waterway between the Red Sea and the Nile—anticipating the Suez Canal by almost 400 years—to bring the luxury trade flooding to their doors again. But this remained a dream.

text: Despite entering negotiations with Egypt's ruling Mamelukes, the Venetian plan to build the canal was quickly put to rest by the Ottoman conquest of Egypt in 1517, led by Sultan Selim I[40]

text: Napoleon's discovery of an ancient canal[edit]

text: During the French campaign in Egypt and Syria in late 1798, Napoleon showed an interest in finding the remnants of an ancient waterway passage. This culminated in a cadre of archaeologists, scientists, cartographers and engineers scouring northern Egypt.[41][42] Their findings, recorded in the Description de l'Égypte, include detailed maps that depict the discovery of an ancient canal extending northward from the Red Sea and then westward toward the Nile.[41][43]

text: Later, Napoleon, who would become French Emperor in 1804, contemplated the construction of a north–south canal to connect the Mediterranean with the Red Sea. But the plan was abandoned because it wrongly concluded that the waterway would require locks to operate. These would be very expensive and take a long time to construct. This decision was based on an erroneous belief that the Red Sea was 10 m (33 ft) higher than the Mediterranean. The error was the result of using fragmentary survey measurements taken in wartime during Napoleon's Egyptian Expedition.[44] In 1819 the Pacha of Egypt undertook some canal work.[45]

text: However, as late as 1861, the unnavigable ancient route discovered by Napoleon from Bubastis to the Red Sea still channeled water in spots as far east as Kassassin.[10]

text: History[edit]

text: Interim period[edit]

text: Although the alleged difference in sea levels could be problematic for construction, the idea of finding a shorter route to the east remained alive. In 1830, F. R. Chesney submitted a report to the British government that stated that there was no difference in altitude and that the Suez Canal was feasible, but his report received no further attention. Lieutenant Waghorn established his "Overland Route", which transported post and passengers to India via Egypt. Linant de Bellefonds, a French explorer of Egypt, became chief engineer of Egypt's Public Works. In addition to his normal duties, he surveyed the Isthmus of Suez and made plans for the Suez Canal. French Saint-Simonianists showed an interest in the canal and in 1833, Barthélemy Prosper Enfantin tried to draw Muhammad Ali's attention to the canal but was unsuccessful. Alois Negrelli, the Austrian railroad pioneer, became interested in the idea in 1836. In 1846, Prosper Enfantin's Société d'Études du Canal de Suez invited a number of experts, among them Robert Stephenson, Negrelli and Paul-Adrien Bourdaloue to study the feasibility of the Suez Canal (with the assistance of Linant de Bellefonds). Bourdaloue's survey of the isthmus was the first generally accepted evidence that there was no practical difference in altitude between the two seas. Britain, however, feared that a canal open to everyone might interfere with its India trade and therefore preferred a connection by train from Alexandria via Cairo to Suez, which was eventually built by Stephenson.

text: Construction by the Suez Canal Company[edit]

text: In 1854 and 1856, Ferdinand de Lesseps obtained a concession from Sa'id Pasha, the Khedive of Egypt and Sudan, to create a company to construct a canal open to ships of all nations. The company was to operate the canal for 99 years from its opening. De Lesseps had used his friendly relationship with Sa'id, which he had developed while he was a French diplomat in the 1830s. As stipulated in the concessions, Ferdinand convened the International Commission for the piercing of the isthmus of Suez (Commission Internationale pour le percement de l'isthme des Suez) consisting of 13 experts from seven countries, among them John Robinson McClean, later President of the Institution of Civil Engineers in London, and again Negrelli, to examine the plans developed by Linant de Bellefonds, and to advise on the feasibility of and the best route for the canal. After surveys and analyses in Egypt and discussions in Paris on various aspects of the canal, where many of Negrelli's ideas prevailed, the commission produced a unanimous report in December 1856 containing a detailed description of the canal complete with plans and profiles.[46] The Suez Canal Company (Compagnie universelle du canal maritime de Suez) came into being on 15 December 1858 and work started on the shore of the future Port Said on 25 April 1859.

text: The excavation took some 10 years using forced labour (corvée) of Egyptian workers during the first years. Some sources estimate that over 30,000 people were working on the canal at any given period, that more than 1.5 million people from various countries were employed, and that thousands of labourers died, many of them from cholera and similar epidemics.[47][48]

text: The British government had opposed the project from the outset to its completion. As one of the diplomatic moves against the canal, it disapproved of the use of "slave labour" of forced workers. The British Empire was the major global naval force and officially condemned the forced work and sent armed Bedouins to start a revolt among workers. Involuntary labour on the project ceased, and the viceroy condemned the corvée, halting the project.[49]

text: Angered by the British opportunism, de Lesseps sent a letter to the British government remarking on the British lack of remorse a few years earlier when forced workers died in similar conditions building the British railway in Egypt.

text: Initially international opinion was skeptical and Suez Canal Company shares did not sell well overseas. Britain, Austria, and Russia did not buy a significant number of shares. However, with assistance from the Cattaui banking family, and their relationship with James de Rothschild of the French House of Rothschild bonds and shares were successfully promoted in France and other parts of Europe.[50] All French shares were quickly sold in France. A contemporary British skeptic claimed "One thing is sure... our local merchant community doesn't pay practical attention at all to this grand work, and it is legitimate to doubt that the canal's receipts... could ever be sufficient to recover its maintenance fee. It will never become a large ship's accessible way in any case."[51]

text: The canal opened under French control on 17 November 1869. Although numerous technical, political, and financial problems had been overcome, the final cost was more than double the original estimate. The opening was performed by Khedive Isma'il Pasha of Egypt and Sudan, and at Ismail's invitation French Empress Eugenie in the Imperial yacht L'Aigle piloted by Napoléon Coste, who was bestowed by the Khedive the Ottoman Order of the Medjidie.

text: The first ship to follow L'Aigle through the canal was the British P&O liner Delta.[52][53] Although L'Aigle was officially the first vessel through the canal, HMS Newport, captained by George Nares, passed through it first. On the night before the canal was due to open, Captain Nares navigated his vessel, in total darkness and without lights, through the mass of waiting ships until it was in front of L'Aigle. When dawn broke, the French were horrified to find that the Royal Navy was first in line and that it would be impossible to pass them. Nares received both an official reprimand and an unofficial vote of thanks from the Admiralty for his actions in promoting British interests and for demonstrating such superb seamanship.[54] An Anchor Line ship, the S.S. Dido, became the first to pass through the Canal from South to North[55][56].

text: After the opening, the Suez Canal Company was in financial difficulties. The remaining works were completed only in 1871, and traffic was below expectations in the first two years. De Lesseps therefore tried to increase revenues by interpreting the kind of net ton referred to in the second concession (tonneau de capacité) as meaning a ship's cargo capacity and not only the theoretical net tonnage of the "Moorsom System" introduced in Britain by the Merchant Shipping Act in 1854. The ensuing commercial and diplomatic activities resulted in the International Commission of Constantinople establishing a specific kind of net tonnage and settling the question of tariffs in its protocol of 18 December 1873.[57] This was the origin of the Suez Canal Net Tonnage and the Suez Canal Special Tonnage Certificate, both of which are still in use today.

text: Company rule after opening[edit]

text: The canal had an immediate and dramatic effect on world trade. Combined with the American transcontinental railroad completed six months earlier, it allowed the world to be circled in record time. It played an important role in increasing European colonization of Africa. The construction of the canal was one of the reasons for the Panic of 1873, because goods from the Far East were carried in sailing vessels around the Cape of Good Hope and were stored in British warehouses. As sailing vessels were not adaptable for use through the canal, because the prevailing winds of the Mediterranean blow from west to east, British entrepôt trade suffered.[58] External debts forced Said Pasha's successor, Isma'il Pasha, to sell his country's share in the canal with the help of both Yacoub Cattaui and Lionel de Rothschild both of whom he was personal friends with for £4,000,000 (about £89.1 million in 2017) to the United Kingdom in 1875, but French shareholders still held the majority. Lionel de Rothschild agreed to underwrite the loan for the British government after Yacoub Cattaui negotiated the terms and financially engineered the transaction on behalf of Egypt with Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli, who was a personal friend of both Yacoub Cattaui and Lionel de Rothschild. However, the Prime Minister was later accused by William Ewart Gladstone of undermining Britain's constitutional system, because he had not referred to, or obtained consent from Parliament when purchasing the shares with funding from the Rothschilds.[59]

text: The Convention of Constantinople in 1888 declared the canal a neutral zone under the protection of the British, who had occupied Egypt and Sudan at the request of Khedive Tewfiq to suppress the Urabi Revolt against his rule. The revolt went on from 1879 to 1882. As a result of British involvement on the side of Khedive Tewfiq, Britain gained control of the canal in 1882. The British defended the strategically important passage against a major Ottoman attack in 1915, during the First World War.[60] Under the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936, the UK retained control over the canal. The canal was again strategically important in the 1939–1945 Second World War, and Italo-German attempts to capture it were repulsed during the North Africa Campaign, during which the canal was closed to Axis shipping. In 1951 Egypt repudiated the treaty and in October 1954 the UK agreed to remove its troops. Withdrawal was completed on 18 July 1956.

text: Suez Crisis[edit]

text: Because of Egyptian overtures towards the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States withdrew their pledge to support the construction of the Aswan Dam. Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser responded by nationalizing the canal on 26 July 1956[61] and transferring it to the Suez Canal Authority, intending to finance the dam project using revenue from the canal. On the same day that the canal was nationalized Nasser also closed the Straits of Tiran to all Israeli ships.[62] This led to the Suez Crisis in which the UK, France, and Israel invaded Egypt. According to the pre-agreed war plans under the Protocol of Sèvres, the Israelis invaded the Sinai Peninsula, forcing Egypt to engage them militarily, and allowing the Anglo-French partnership to declare the resultant fighting a threat to stability in the Middle East and enter the war - officially to divide the two forces but in reality to regain the Canal and bring down the Nasser government.

text: To save the British from what he thought was a disastrous action and to stop the war from a possible escalation, Canadian Secretary of State for External Affairs Lester B. Pearson proposed the creation of the first United Nations peacekeeping force to ensure access to the canal for all and an Israeli withdrawal from the Sinai Peninsula. On 4 November 1956, a majority at the United Nations voted for Pearson's peacekeeping resolution, which mandated the UN peacekeepers to stay in Sinai unless both Egypt and Israel agreed to their withdrawal. The United States backed this proposal by putting pressure on the British government through the selling of sterling, which would cause it to depreciate. Britain then called a ceasefire, and later agreed to withdraw its troops by the end of the year. Pearson was later awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. As a result of damage and ships sunk under orders from Nasser the canal was closed until April 1957, when it was cleared with UN assistance.[63] A UN force (UNEF) was established to maintain the free navigability of the canal, and peace in the Sinai Peninsula.

text: According to the historian Abd aI-Azim Ramadan, Nasser's decision to nationalize the Suez Canal was his alone, made without political or military consultation. The events leading up to the nationalization of the Suez Canal Company, as other events during Nasser’s rule, showed Nasser’s inclination to solitary decision making. Ramadan considered Nasser to be far from a rational, responsible leader.[64]

text: Arab–Israeli wars of 1967 and 1973[edit]

text: In May 1967, Nasser ordered the UN peacekeeping forces out of Sinai, including the Suez Canal area. Israel objected to the closing of the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping. The canal had been closed to Israeli shipping since 1949, except for a short period in 1951–1952.

text: After the 1967 Six Day War, Israeli forces occupied the Sinai peninsula, including the entire east bank of the Suez Canal. Unwilling to allow the Israelis to use the canal, Egypt immediately imposed a blockade which closed the canal to all shipping until 5 June 1975. As a result, 15 cargo ships, known as the "Yellow Fleet", were trapped in the canal for over eight years.

text: In 1973, during the Yom Kippur War, the canal was the scene of a major crossing by the Egyptian army into Israeli-occupied Sinai and a counter-crossing by the Israeli army to Egypt. Much wreckage from this conflict remains visible along the canal's edges.[citation needed] After the Yom Kippur War the United States initiated Operation Nimbus Moon. The amphibious assault ship USS Inchon (LPH-12) was sent to the Canal, carrying 12 RH-53D minesweeping helicopters of HM-12. These partly cleared the canal between May and December 1974. She was relieved by the LST USS Barnstable County (LST1197). The British Royal Navy initiated Operation Rheostat and Task Group 65.2 provided for Operation Rheostat One[65] (six months in 1974), the minehunters HMS Maxton, HMS Bossington, and HMS Wilton, the Fleet Clearance Diving Team (FCDT)[66] and HMS Abdiel, a practice minelayer/MCMV support ship; and for Operation Rheostat Two[67] (six months in 1975) the minehunters HMS Hubberston and HMS Sheraton, and HMS Abdiel. When the Canal Clearance Operations were completed, the canal and its lakes were considered 99% clear of mines. The canal was then reopened by Egyptian President Anwar Sadat aboard an Egyptian destroyer, which led the first convoy northbound to Port Said in 1975.[68] At his side stood the Iranian Crown Prince Reza Pahlavi, delegated to represent his father, Mohammed Reza Pahlavi, the Shah of Iran. The cruiser USS Little Rock was the only American naval ship in the convoy.[69]

text: The UNEF mandate expired in 1979. Despite the efforts of the United States, Israel, Egypt, and others to obtain an extension of the UN role in observing the peace between Israel and Egypt, as called for under the Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty of 1979, the mandate could not be extended because of the veto by the Soviet Union in the UN Security Council, at the request of Syria. Accordingly, negotiations for a new observer force in the Sinai produced the Multinational Force and Observers (MFO), stationed in Sinai in 1981 in coordination with a phased Israeli withdrawal. It is there under agreements between the United States, Israel, Egypt, and other nations.[70]

text: Bypass expansion[edit]

text: In the summer of 2014, months after taking office as President of Egypt, Abdel Fattah el-Sisi ordered the expansion of the Ballah Bypass from 61 metres wide to 312 metres wide for 35 kilometers. The project was called the New Suez Canal, as it would allow ships to transit the canal in both directions simultaneously.[71][72] The project cost more than $8 billion and was completed within one year. Sisi declared the expanded channel open for business in a ceremony on 6 August 2015.[73]

text: Timeline[edit]

text:
Circa 1799 – Napoleon Bonaparte conquers Egypt and orders a feasibility analysis. This reports a supposed 10-metre (33 ft) difference in sea levels and a high cost, so the project is put on hold.
Circa 1840 – A second survey finds the first analysis incorrect. A direct link between the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea is possible and not as expensive as previously estimated.
30 November 1854 – The former French consul in Cairo, Ferdinand Marie de Lesseps, obtains the first license for construction and subsequent operation from the Viceroy for a period of 99 years.
6 January 1856 – de Lesseps is provided with a second, more detailed license.

Container ship Hanjin Kaohsiung transiting the Suez Canal

15 December 1858 – de Lesseps establishes the "Compagnie Universelle du Canal Maritime de Suez", with Said Pasha acquiring 22% of the Suez Canal Company; the majority is controlled by French private holders.
25 April 1859 – construction officially starts.
17 November 1869 – The canal is opened, owned and operated by Suez Canal Company.
18 December 1873 – The International Commission of Constantinople establishes the Suez Canal Net Ton and the Suez Canal Special Tonnage Certificate (as known today)
25 November 1875 – Britain becomes a minority share holder in the company, acquiring 44%, with the remainder being controlled by French business syndicates.
20 May 1882 – Britain invades Egypt, with French assistance, and begins its occupation of Egypt.
25 August 1882 – Britain takes control of the canal.
2 March 1888 – The Convention of Constantinople renews the guaranteed right of passage of all ships through the canal during war and peace; these rights were already part of the licenses awarded to de Lesseps, but are recognised as international law.
14 November 1936 – Following a new treaty, Britain theoretically pulls out of Egypt, but establishes the 'Suez Canal Zone' under its control.

USS America (CV-66), an American aircraft carrier in the Suez Canal

13 June 1956 – Suez Canal Zone is restored to Egyptian sovereignty, following British withdrawal and years of negotiations.
26 July 1956 – Egypt nationalizes the company; its Egyptian assets, rights and obligations are transferred to the Suez Canal Authority, which compensates the previous owners at the established pre-nationalization price. Egypt closes the canal to Israeli shipping as part of a broader blockade involving the Straits of Tiran and the Gulf of Aqaba.
31 October 1956 to 24 April 1957 – the canal is blocked to shipping following the Suez Crisis, a conflict that leads to Israeli, and later French and British, occupation of the canal zone.
22 December 1956 – The canal zone is restored to Egyptian control, following French and British withdrawal, and the landing of UNEF troops.
5 June 1967 to 10 June 1975 – the canal is blocked by Egypt, following the war with Israel; it becomes the front line during the ensuing War of Attrition and the 1973 war, remaining closed to international shipping, until general agreement was near.
1 January 2008 – New rules of navigation passed by the Suez Canal Authority come into force.
6 August 2015 – The new canal extensions are opened.

text: Leadership[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Presidents of the Suez Canal Company (1858–1956):

text:
Ferdinand de Lesseps (15 December 1858 – 7 December 1894)
Jules Guichard (17 December 1892 – 17 July 1896) (acting for de Lesseps to 7 December 1894)
Auguste-Louis-Albéric, prince d'Arenberg (3 August 1896 – 1913)
Charles Jonnart (19 May 1913 – 1927)
Louis de Vogüé (4 April 1927 – 1 March 1948)
François Charles-Roux (4 April 1948 – 26 July 1956)

text: Chairmen of the Suez Canal Authority (1956–present):

text:
Doctor Mohamed Helmy Bahgat Badawy (26 July 1956 – 9 July 1957)
Engineer Mahmoud Younis (10 July 1957 – 10 October 1965)
Engineer Mashhour Ahmed Mashhour (14 October 1965 – 31 December 1983)
Engineer Mohamed Ezzat Adel (1 January 1984 – December 1995)
Admiral Ahmed Ali Fadel (22 January 1996 – Aug 2012)
Admiral Mohab Mamish (2012 – present)

text: Layout and operation[edit]

text: When built, the canal was 164 km (102 mi) long and 8 m (26 ft) deep. After several enlargements, it is 193.30 km (120.11 mi) long, 24 m (79 ft) deep and 205 metres (673 ft) wide.[74] It consists of the northern access channel of 22 km (14 mi), the canal itself of 162.25 km (100.82 mi) and the southern access channel of 9 km (5.6 mi).[75]

text: The so-called New Suez Canal, functional since 6 August 2015,[76] currently has a new parallel canal in the middle part, with its length over 35 km (22 mi). The current parameters of the Suez Canal, including both individual canals of the parallel section are: depth 23 to 24 metres (75 to 79 ft) and width at least 205 to 225 metres (673 to 738 ft) (that width measured at 11 metres (36 ft) of depth).[77]

text:
[hide]
[

v
t
e

]
Suez Canal

Legend

km

Mediterranean Sea

Approaches(Southward convoy waiting area)

0.0
[show]Port Said

lighthouse, fishing harbour, cruise terminal

Port Said (city), former headquarters

Port Said harbour, Port Fuad (city),

East Port, SCCT container terminal

E-class turning dock

Shohada 25 January Bridge

51.5

Ballah (former by-pass)

59.9

Eastern lane: second shipping lane, New Suez Canal[78]

El Ferdan Railway Bridge

76.5
Ismaïlia, SCA headquarters

Lake Timsah

95.0
Deversoir

Great Bitter Lake

Small Bitter Lake

Ahmed Hamdi Tunnel

overhead powerline

162
[show]Suez, Suez Port

Petroleum Dock, Port Tewfik

Gulf of Suez(Northward convoy waiting area)

Red Sea

Legend:

Navigable canal

Anchorage

Dock, industrial or logistical area

Village or town, feature

Railroad (defunct) with swing bridge

text: Capacity[edit]

text: The canal allows passage of ships up to 20 m (66 ft) draft or 240,000 deadweight tons and up to a height of 68 m (223 ft) above water level and a maximum beam of 77.5 m (254 ft) under certain conditions.[79][80] The canal can handle more traffic and larger ships than the Panama Canal, as Suezmax dimensions are greater than both Panamax and New Panamax. Some supertankers are too large to traverse the canal. Others can offload part of their cargo onto a canal-owned boat to reduce their draft, transit, and reload at the other end of the canal.

text: Navigation[edit]

text: The canal has no locks because of the flat terrain, and the minor sea level difference between each end is inconsequential for shipping. As the canal has no sea surge gates, the ports at the ends would be subject to the sudden impact of tsunamis from the Mediterranean Sea and Red Sea, according to a 2012 article in the Journal of Coastal Research.[81]

text: There is one shipping lane with passing areas in Ballah-Bypass near El Qantara and in the Great Bitter Lake. On a typical day, three convoys transit the canal, two southbound and one northbound. The passage takes between 11 and 16 hours at a speed of around 8 knots (15 km/h; 9 mph). The low speed helps prevent erosion of the banks by ships' wakes.

text: By 1955, about two-thirds of Europe's oil passed through the canal. Around 8% of world sea trade is carried via the canal. In 2008, 21,415 vessels passed through the canal and the receipts totaled $5.381 billion,[79] with an average cost per ship of $251,000.

text: New Rules of Navigation came into force on 1 January 2008, passed by the board of directors of the Suez Canal Authority (SCA) to organise vessels' transit. The most important amendments include allowing vessels with 62-foot (19 m) draught to pass, increasing the allowed breadth from 32 metres (105 ft) to 40 metres (130 ft) (following improvement operations), and imposing a fine on vessels using divers from outside the SCA inside the canal boundaries without permission. The amendments allow vessels loaded with dangerous cargo (such as radioactive or flammable materials) to pass if they conform with the latest amendments provided by international conventions.

text: The SCA has the right to determine the number of tugs required to assist warships traversing the canal, to achieve the highest degree of safety during transit.[82]

text: Operation[edit]

text: As of July 2015, the canal was too narrow for free two-way traffic, so ships pass in convoys and they use bypasses. The by-passes are 78 km (48 mi) out of 193 km (120 mi) (40%). From north to south, they are: Port Said by-pass (entrances) 36.5 km (23 mi), Ballah by-pass & anchorage, 9 km (6 mi), Timsah by-pass 5 km (3 mi), and the Deversoir by-pass (northern end of the Great Bitter Lake) 27.5 km (17 mi). The bypasses were completed in 1980.

text: Typically, it takes a ship 12 to 16 hours to transit the canal. The canal's 24-hour capacity is about 76 standard ships.[83]

text: In August 2014, Egypt chose a consortium that includes the Egyptian army and global engineering firm Dar Al-Handasah to develop an international industrial and logistics hub in the Suez Canal area,[84] and began the construction of a new canal section from km 60 to km 95 combined with expansion and deep digging of the other 37 km of the canal.[85] This will allow navigation in both directions simultaneously in the 72 km long central section of the canal. These extensions were formally opened on 6 August 2015 by President Al-Sisi.[6][86][87]

text: Convoy sailing[edit]

text: Since the canal does not cater to unregulated two-way traffic, all ships transit in convoys on regular times, scheduled on a 24-hour basis. Each day, a single northbound convoy starts at 04:00 from Suez. At dulka lane sections, the convoy uses the eastern route.[88][89][90] Synchronised with this convoy's passage is the southbound convoy. It starts at 03:30 from Port Said and so passes the Northbound convoy in the two-lane section[clarification needed].

text: Canal crossings[edit]

text: From north to south, the crossings are:

text:
The Suez Canal Bridge (30°49′42″N 32°19′03″E / 30.828248°N 32.317572°E / 30.828248; 32.317572 (Suez Canal Bridge)), also called the Egyptian-Japanese Friendship Bridge, a high-level road bridge at El Qantara. In Arabic, al qantara means "arch". Opened in 2001, it has a 70-metre (230 ft) clearance over the canal and was built with assistance from the Japanese government and by Kajima.[91]
El Ferdan Railway Bridge (30°39′25″N 32°20′02″E / 30.657°N 32.334°E / 30.657; 32.334 (El Ferdan Railway Bridge)) 20 km (12 mi) north of Ismailia (30°35′N 32°16′E / 30.583°N 32.267°E / 30.583; 32.267 (Ismailia)) was completed in 2001 and is the longest swing-span bridge in the world, with a span of 340 m (1100 ft). The previous bridge was destroyed in 1967 during the Arab-Israeli conflict. The current bridge is no longer functional due to the expansion of the Suez Canal, as the parallel shipping lane completed in 2015 just east of the bridge lacks a structure spanning it.
Pipelines taking fresh water under the canal to Sinai, about 57 km (35 mi) north of Suez, at 30°27.3′N 32°21.0′E / 30.4550°N 32.3500°E / 30.4550; 32.3500 (Fresh-water pipelines).
Ahmed Hamdi Tunnel (30°5′9″N 32°34′32″E / 30.08583°N 32.57556°E / 30.08583; 32.57556 (Ahmed Hamdi Tunnel)) south of the Great Bitter Lake (30°20′N 32°23′E / 30.333°N 32.383°E / 30.333; 32.383 (Great Bitter Lake)) was built in 1983. Because of leakage problems, a new water-tight tunnel[92] was built inside the old one from 1992 to 1995.
The Suez Canal overhead powerline crossing (29°59′46″N 32°34′59″E / 29.996°N 32.583°E / 29.996; 32.583 (Suez Canal overhead powerline crossing)) was built in 1999.

text: A railway on the west bank runs parallel to the canal for its entire length.

text: Six new tunnels for cars and trains are also planned across the canal.[93] Currently the Ahmed Hamdi is the only tunnel connecting Suez to the Sinai.

text: Alternative routes[edit]

text: Cape Agulhas[edit]

text: The main alternative is around Cape Agulhas, the southernmost point of Africa, commonly referred as the Cape of Good Hope route. This was the only sea route before the canal was constructed, and when the canal was closed. It is still the only route for ships that are too large for the canal. In the early 21st century, the Suez Canal has suffered from diminished traffic due to piracy in Somalia, with many shipping companies choosing to take the long route instead.[94][95] Between 2008 and 2010, it is estimated that the canal lost 10% of traffic due to the threat of piracy, and another 10% due to the financial crisis. An oil tanker going from Saudi Arabia to the United States has 2,700 mi (4,345 km) longer to go when taking the route south of Africa rather than the canal.[96]

text: Before the canal's opening in 1869, goods were sometimes offloaded from ships and carried overland between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea.[97]

text: Northern Sea Route[edit]

text: In recent years, the shrinking Arctic sea ice has made the Northern Sea Route feasible for commercial cargo ships between Europe and East Asia during a six-to-eight-week window in the summer months, shortening the voyage by thousands of miles compared to that through the Suez Canal. According to polar climate researchers, as the extent of the Arctic summer ice pack recedes the route will become passable without the help of icebreakers for a greater period each summer.[98][99][100]

text: The Bremen-based Beluga Group claimed in 2009 to be the first Western company to attempt using the Northern Sea Route without assistance from icebreakers, cutting 4000 nautical miles off the journey between Ulsan, Korea and Rotterdam, the Netherlands.[101]

text: Negev desert railroad[edit]

text: Israel has declared that it will construct a railroad through the Negev desert to compete with the canal, with construction partly financed by China.[102]

text: Environmental impact[edit]

text: The opening of the canal created the first salt-water passage between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. Although the Red Sea is about 1.2 m (4 ft) higher than the eastern Mediterranean,[103] the current between the Mediterranean and the middle of the canal at the Bitter Lakes flows north in winter and south in summer. The current south of the Bitter Lakes is tidal, varying with the tide at Suez.[3] The Bitter Lakes, which were hypersaline natural lakes, blocked the migration of Red Sea species into the Mediterranean for many decades, but as the salinity of the lakes gradually equalised with that of the Red Sea the barrier to migration was removed, and plants and animals from the Red Sea have begun to colonise the eastern Mediterranean. The Red Sea is generally saltier and more nutrient-poor than the Atlantic, so the Red Sea species have advantages over Atlantic species in the less salty and nutrient-rich eastern Mediterranean. Accordingly, most Red Sea species invade the Mediterranean biota, and only few do the opposite. This migratory phenomenon is called Lessepsian migration (after Ferdinand de Lesseps) or "Erythrean invasion". Also impacting the eastern Mediterranean, starting in 1968, was the operation of Aswan High Dam across the Nile. While providing for increased human development, the project reduced the inflow of freshwater and ended all natural nutrient-rich silt entering the eastern Mediterranean at the Nile Delta. This provided less natural dilution of Mediterranean salinity and ended the higher levels of natural turbidity, additionally making conditions more like those in the Red Sea.[citation needed]

text: Invasive species originated from the Red Sea and introduced into the Mediterranean by the canal have become a major component of the Mediterranean ecosystem and have serious impacts on the ecology, endangering many local and endemic species. About 300 species from the Red Sea have been identified in the Mediterranean, and there are probably others yet unidentified. The Egyptian government's intent to enlarge the canal has raised concerns from marine biologists, fearing that this will worsen the invasion of Red Sea species.[104]

text: Construction of the canal was preceded by cutting a small fresh-water canal called Sweet Water Canal from the Nile delta along Wadi Tumilat to the future canal, with a southern branch to Suez and a northern branch to Port Said. Completed in 1863, these brought fresh water to a previously arid area, initially for canal construction, and subsequently facilitating growth of agriculture and settlements along the canal.[105]