document_title: Playground

question_text: the first model playground in the united states was

text: Playground

text: History

text: Through history, children played in their villages and neighbourhoods, especially in the streets and lanes near their homes.[2][3][4]

text: In the 19th century, developmental psychologists such as Friedrich Fröbel proposed playgrounds as a developmental aid, or to imbue children with a sense of fair play and good manners. In Germany, a few playgrounds were erected in connection to schools,[5] and the first purpose-built public-access playground was opened in a park in Manchester, England in 1859.[6]

text: However, it was only in the early 20th century, as the street lost its role as the default public space and became reserved for use by motor cars, that momentum built to remove children from the new dangers and confine them to segregated areas to play. In the United States, organisations such as the National Highway Protective Society highlighted the numbers killed by automobiles, and urged the creation of playgrounds, aiming to free streets for vehicles rather than children's play.[7][8] The Outdoor Recreation League provided funds to erect playgrounds on parkland, especially following the 1901 publication of a report on numbers of children being run down by cars in New York City.[9]

text: In tandem with the new concern about the danger of roads, educational theories of play, including by Herbert Spencer and John Dewey inspired the emergence of the reformist playground movement, which argued that playgrounds had educational value, improved attention in class, enhanced physical health, and reduced truancy.[10] Interventionist programs such as by the child savers sought to move children into controlled areas to limit 'delinquency'.[3] Meanwhile, at schools and settlement houses for poorer children with limited access to education, health services and daycare, playgrounds were included to support these institutions' goal of keeping children safe and out of trouble.[9]

text: One of the first playgrounds in the United States was built in San Francisco's Golden Gate Park in 1887.[11] In 1906 the Playground Association of America was founded and a year later Luther Gulick became president.[12] It later became the National Recreation Association and then the National Recreation and Park Association.[13] Urging the need for playgrounds, former President Theodore Roosevelt stated in 1907:

text: In post war London the landscape architect and children’s rights campaigner Lady Allen of Hurtwood introduced and popularised the concept of the ’junk playground’ - where the equipment was constructed from the recycled junk and rubble left over from the Blitz. She campaigned for facilities for children growing up in the new high-rise developments in Britain's cities and wrote a series of illustrated books on the subject of playgrounds, and at least one book on adventure playgrounds, spaces for free creativity by children, which helped the idea spread worldwide.[15]

text: Playgrounds in the Soviet Union

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Playgrounds were an integral part of urban culture in the USSR. In the 1970s and 1980s, there were playgrounds in almost every park in many Soviet cities. Playground apparatus was reasonably standard all over the country; most of them consisted of metallic bars with relatively few wooden parts, and were manufactured in state-owned factories. Some of the most common constructions were the carousel, sphere, seesaw, rocket, bridge, etc.

text: Design

text: Playground design is influenced by the intended purpose and audience. Separate play areas might be offered to accommodate very young children. Single, large, open parks tend to not to be used by older schoolgirls or less aggressive children, because there is little opportunity for them to escape more aggressive children.[16] By contrast, a park that offers multiple play areas is used equally by boys and girls.

text: Effects on child development

text: Professionals recognize that the social skills that children develop on the playground often become lifelong skill sets that are carried forward into their adulthood. Independent research concludes that playgrounds are among the most important environments for children outside the home. Most forms of play are essential for healthy development, but free, spontaneous play—the kind that occurs on playgrounds—is the most beneficial type of play.

text: Exciting, engaging and challenging playground equipment is important to keep children happy while still developing their learning abilities. These should be developed in order to suit different groups of children for different stages of learning, such as specialist playground equipment for nursery & pre-school children teaching them basic numeracy & vocabulary, to building a child's creativity and imagination with role play panels or puzzles.

text: There is a general consensus that physical activity reduces the risk of psychological problems in children and fosters their self-esteem.[citation needed] The American Chief Medical Officer’s report (Department of Health, 2004), stated that a review of available research suggests that the health benefits of physical activity in children are predominantly seen in the amelioration of risk factors for disease, avoidance of weight gain, achieving a peak bone mass and mental well-being.

text: Evidence suggests that children who participate in physical activity improve their self-esteem.[citation needed] Ekeland, Heian and Hagan (2005) and Gruber[17] found that exercise programmes had a significant positive effect on children's self-esteem.

text: Commentators argue that the quality of a child’s exercise experience can affect their self-esteem. Ajzen TPB (1991) promotes the notion that children’s self-esteem is enhanced through the encouragement of physical mastery and self-development. It can be seen that playgrounds provide an ideal opportunity for children to master physical skills, such as learning to swing, balance and climb. Personal development may be gained through the enhancement of skills, such as playing, communicating and cooperating with other children and adults in the playground.

text: It can also be seen that public and private playgrounds act as a preventative health measure amongst young people because they promote physical activity at a stage in children’s lives when they are active and not yet at risk from opting out of physical activity.[citation needed]

text: Children have devised many playground games and pastimes. But because playgrounds are usually subject to adult supervision and oversight, young children's street culture often struggles to fully thrive there. Research by Robin Moore[18] concluded shown that playgrounds need to be balanced with marginal areas that (to adults) appear to be derelict or wasteground but to children they are area's that they can claim for themselves, ideally a wooded area or field.

text: For many children, it is their favorite time of day when they get to be on the playground for free time or recess. It acts as a release for them from the pressures of learning during the day. They know that time on the playground is their own time.[citation needed]

text: A type of playground called a playscape can provide children with the necessary feeling of ownership that Moore describes above. Playscapes can also provide parents with the assurance of their child's safety and wellbeing, which may not be prevalent in an open field or wooded area.

text: Funding

text: In the UK, several organisations exist that help provide funding for schools and local authorities to construct playgrounds. These include the Biffa Award, which provides funding under the Small Grants Scheme; Funding Central, which offers support for voluntary organisations and social enterprises; and the Community Construction Fund, a flagship programme by Norfolk County Council.[19]

text: Safety

text: Safety, in the context of playgrounds, is generally understood as the prevention of injuries. Risk aversion and fear of lawsuits on the part of the adults who design playgrounds prioritizes injury prevention above other factors, such as cost or developmental benefit to the users.[20] It is important that children gradually develop the skill of risk assessment, and a completely safe environment does not allow that.

text: Sometimes the safety of playgrounds is disputed in school or among regulators. Over at least the last twenty years, the kinds of equipment to be found in playgrounds has changed, often towards safer equipment built with plastic. For example, an older jungle gym might be constructed entirely from steel bars, while newer ones tend to have a minimal steel framework while providing a web of nylon ropes for children to climb on. Playgrounds with equipment that children may fall off often use rubber mulch on the ground to help cushion the impact.[21]

text: Playgrounds are also made differently for different age groups. Often schools have a playground that is taller and more advanced for older schoolchildren and a lower playground with less risk of falling for younger children.

text: Safety discussions do not normally include an evaluation of the unintended consequences of injury prevention, such as older children who do not exercise at the playground because the playground is too boring.[22]

text: Safety efforts sometimes paradoxically increase the likelihood and severity of injuries because of how people choose to use playground equipment. For example, older children may choose to climb on the outside of a "safe" but boring play structure, rather than using it the way the designers intended. Similarly, rather than letting young children play on playground slides by themselves, some injury-averse parents seat the children on the adult's lap and go down the slide together.[23] This seems safer at first glance, but if the child's shoe catches on the edge of the slide, this arrangement frequently results in the child's leg being broken.[23] If the child had been permitted to use the slide independently, then this injury would not happen, because when the shoe caught, the child would have stopped sliding rather than being propelled down the slide by the adult's weight.[23]

text: Also concerning the safety of playgrounds is the material in which they are built. Wooden playgrounds act as a more natural environment for the children to play but can cause even more minor injuries. Slivers are the main concern when building with wood material. Wet weather is also a threat to children playing on wooden structures. Most woods are treated and do not wear terribly fast, but with enough rain, wooden playgrounds can become slippery and dangerous for children to be on.

text: Regulation

text: In the United States, the Consumer Product Safety Commission and the American National Standards Institute have created a Standardized Document and Training System for certification of Playground Safety Inspectors. These regulations are nationwide and provide a basis for safe playground installation and maintenance practices. ASTM F1487-07 deals with specific requirements regarding issues such as play ground layout, use zones, and various test criteria for determining play ground safety. ASTM F2373 covers public use play equipment for children 6–24 months old. This information can be applied effectively only by a trained C.P.S.I. A National Listing of Trained Playground Safety Inspectors is available for many states. A Certified Playground Safety Inspector (CPSI) is a career that was developed by the National Playground Safety Institute (NPSI) and is recognized nationally by the National Recreation and Park Association or N.R.P.A. (Some information sources offer interactive examples[24] of playground equipment that violates CPSC guidelines.)

text: In Australia, Standards Australia is responsible for the publication of the playground safety Standards AS/NS4422, AS/NZS4486.1 and AS4685 Parts 1 to 6. The University of Technology Sydney is responsible for the training and accreditation of playground inspectors.[25] The Register of Playground Inspectors Australia lists all the individuals who have been certified to inspector playgrounds within Australia.[26]

text: European Standards EN 1177 specifies the requirements for surfaces used in playgrounds. For each material type and height of equipment it specifies a minimum depth of material required.[27] EN 1176 covers playground equipment standards.[28][29] In the UK, playground inspectors can sit the examinations of the Register of Play Inspectors International at the three required levels - routine, operational and annual. Annual inspectors are able to undertake the post-installation inspections recommended by EN 1176.

text: Prevention strategies

text: Because the majority of playground injuries are due to falls from equipment, injury prevention efforts are primarily directed at reducing the likelihood of a child falling and reducing the likelihood of a severe injury if the child does fall. This is done by:

text:
reducing the maximum fall height of equipment, primarily by reducing the overall height of anything a child might climb on or into;
reducing the likelihood of falling from equipment, through using barriers, discouraging climbing, and making upper surfaces inconvenient or uncomfortable for climbing or sitting on; and
installing a more flexible surface under and around play equipment, so that a child who falls is less likely to break a bone.

text: How effective these strategies are at preventing injuries is debated by experts, because when playgrounds are made from padded materials, children often take more risks.[22][30]

text: Playground injury

text: Each year in the United States, emergency departments treat more than 200,000 children ages 14 and younger for playground-related injuries.[31][32] Approximately 156,040 (75.8%) of the 1999 injuries occurred on equipment designed for public use; 46,930 (22.8%) occurred on equipment designed for home use; and 2,880 (1.4%) occurred on homemade playground equipment (primarily rope swings).

text:
About 46% occurred in schools.
About 31% occurred in public parks.
About 10% occurred in commercial childcare centers.
About 3% occurred in home childcare.
About 3% occurred in apartment complexes.
About 2% occurred in fast food restaurants.
About 9% occurred in other locations.

text: From January 1990 to August 2000, CPSC received reports of 147 deaths to children younger than 15 that involved playground equipment.

text:
70% of those deaths occurred in home
30% of those deaths occurred in public use

text: Girls were involved in a slightly higher percentage of injuries (55%) than were boys (45%).

text: Injuries to the head and face accounted for 49% of injuries to children 0-4, while injuries to the arm and hand accounted for 49% of injuries to children ages 5–14. Approximately 15% of the injuries were classified as severe, with 3% requiring hospitalization. The most prevalent diagnoses were fractures (39%), lacerations (22%), contusions/abrasions (20%), strains/sprains (11%).

text: For children ages 0–4, climbers (40%) had the highest incidence rates, followed by slides (33%). For children ages 5–14, climbing equipment (56%) had the highest incidence rates, followed by swings (24%). Most injuries on public playground equipment were associated with climbing equipment (53%), swings (19%), and slides (17%).

text: Falls to the surface was a contributing factor in 79% of all injuries. On home equipment, 81% were associated with falls.

text: In 1995, playground-related injuries among children ages 14 and younger cost an estimated $1.2 billion.[33]

text: On public playgrounds, more injuries occur on climbers than on any other equipment.[32] On home playgrounds, swings are responsible for most injuries.[32]

text: Playgrounds in low-income areas have more maintenance-related hazards than playgrounds in high-income areas. For example, playgrounds in low-income areas had significantly more trash, rusty play equipment, and damaged fall surfaces.[34]

text: Unintended consequences

text: As a result of what some experts say is overprotectiveness driven by a fear of lawsuits, playgrounds have been designed to be, or at least to appear, excessively safe.[22] This overprotectiveness may protect the playground owner from lawsuits, but it appears to result in a decreased sense of achievement and increased fears in children.[22]

text: The equipment limitations result in the children receiving less value from the play time.[22] The enclosed, padded, constrained, low structures prevent the child from taking risks and developing a sense of mastery over his or her environment. Successfully taking a risk is empowering to children. For example, a child climbing to the top of a tall jungle gym feels happy about successfully managing the challenging climb to the top, and he experiences the thrill of being in a precarious, high position. By contrast, the child on a low piece of equipment, designed to reduce the incidence of injuries from falls, experiences no such thrill, sense of mastery, or accomplishment. Additionally, a lack of experience with heights as a child is associated with increased acrophobia (fear of heights) in adults.[22]

text: The appearance of safety encourages unreasonable risk-taking in children, who might take more reasonable risks if they correctly understood that it is possible to break a bone on the soft surfaces under most modern equipment.[22][30]

text: Finally, the playground that is designed to appear low-risk is boring, especially to older children.[22] As a result, they tend to seek out alternative play areas, which may be very unsafe.[22]

text: Risk management is an important life skill, and risk aversion in playgrounds is unhelpful in the long term. Experts studying child development such as Tim Gill have written about the over-protective bias in provision for children, particularly with playgrounds.[30] Instead of a constructed playground, allowing children to play in a natural environment such as open land or a park is sometimes recommended; children gain a better sense of balance playing on uneven ground, and learn to interpret the complexity and signals of nature more effectively.[30]

text: Types

text: Playgrounds can be

text:
Built by collaborative support of corporate and community resources to achieve an immediate and visible "win" for their neighborhood.
Public, free of charge, like at most rural elementary schools
Connected to a business, for customers only, e.g., at McDonald's, IKEA, and Chuck E. Cheese's.
For-Profit business with an entrance fee, like those at the (now defunct) Discovery Zone, Zoom Zoom's Indoor Playground in Ancaster, Ontario, Jungle Jam Indoor Playground, and Kidtastic Indoor Playground.
Non-Profit organizations for edutainment as children's museums and science centers, some charge admission, some are free.

text: Inclusive playgrounds

text: Universally designed playgrounds are created to be accessible to all children. There are three primary components to a higher level of inclusive play:

text:
physical accessibility;
age and developmental appropriateness; and
sensory-stimulating activity.

text: Some children with disabilities or developmental differences do not interact with playgrounds in the same way as typical children. A playground designed without considering these children's needs may not be accessible or interesting to them.

text: Most efforts at inclusive playgrounds have been aimed at accommodating wheelchair users. For example, rubber paths and ramps replace sand pits and steps, and some features are placed at ground level. Efforts to accommodate children on the autism spectrum, who may find playgrounds overstimulating or who may have difficulty interacting with other children, have been less common.[35]

text: Natural playgrounds

text: "Natural playgrounds" are play environments that blend natural materials, features, and indigenous vegetation with creative landforms to create purposely complex interplays of natural, environmental objects in ways that challenge and fascinate children and teach them about the wonders and intricacies of the natural world while they play within it.

text: Play components may include earth shapes (sculptures), environmental art, indigenous vegetation (trees, shrubs, grasses, flowers, lichens, mosses), boulders or other rock structures, dirt and sand, natural fences (stone, willow, wooden), textured pathways, and natural water features.

text:
A natural playground sandbox using creative landforms provides a place for Passive / Creative Play

Jacques-Laurent Agasse: The Playground, 1830

A water-based playground in Germany

Accessible public playground in the USA, 2007

Playground incorporating aquatic plant life. Sawara, Japan.

Hanging artificial fruit at a playground in Sri Lanka.

A playground under construction in Ystad 2016.

text: Playgrounds for adults

text: China and some countries in Europe have playgrounds designed for adults.[36] These are outdoor spaces that feature fitness equipment designed for use primarily by adults, such as chin-up bars.

text: Metaphorical uses

text: Playground is also used as a metaphor to describe a place for some types of play. For example, a laboratory may also be referred to as playground for a scientist.


document_title: Time in the United States

question_text: what are the time zones of the usa

question_tokens: what are the time zones of the usa

root

text: Time in the United States

text: History[edit]

text: Prior to the adoption of four standard time zones for the continental United States, many towns and cities set clocks based on sunsets and sunrises at their locations and by observing the Sun's zenith at noon (mean solar time). Dawn and dusk occur at different times but time differences between distant locations were barely noticeable prior to the 19th century because of long travel times and the lack of long-distance instant communications prior to the development of the telegraph.

tag: p

text: The use of local solar time became increasingly awkward as railways and telecommunications improved.[1] American railroads maintained many different time zones during the late 1800s. Each train station set its own clock making it difficult to coordinate train schedules and confusing passengers. Time calculation became a serious problem for people travelling by train (sometimes hundreds of miles in a day), according to the Library of Congress. Every city in the United States used a different time standard so there were more than 300 local sun times to choose from. Time zones were therefore a compromise, relaxing the complex geographic dependence while still allowing local time to be approximate with mean solar time. Railroad managers tried to address the problem by establishing 100 railroad time zones, but this was only a partial solution to the problem.[1]

text: Operators of the new railroad lines needed a new time plan that would offer a uniform train schedule for departures and arrivals. Four standard time zones for the continental United States were introduced at noon on November 18, 1883, when the telegraph lines transmitted time signals to all major cities.[2]

text: In October 1884, the International Meridian Conference at Washington DC adopted a proposal which stated that the prime meridian for longitude and timekeeping should be one that passes through the centre of the transit instrument at the Greenwich Observatory in the United Kingdom (UK). The conference therefore established the Greenwich Meridian as the prime meridian and Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) as the world's time standard. The US time-zone system grew from this, in which all zones referred back to GMT on the prime meridian.[1]

text: From GMT to UTC[edit]

text: GMT was superseded as the international civil time standard by Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) in 1960, when the International Radio Consultative Committee formalized the concept of Coordinated Universal Time, abbreviated as UTC. It is, within about 1 second, mean solar time at 0°.[3] It does not observe daylight saving time. It is one of several closely related successors to Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). For most purposes, UTC is considered interchangeable with GMT, but GMT is no longer precisely defined by the scientific community.

text: United States time zones[edit]

text: Standard time zones in the United States are currently defined at the federal level by law 15 USC §260.[4] The federal law also establishes the transition dates and times at which daylight saving time occurs, if observed. It is ultimately the authority of the Secretary of Transportation, in coordination with the states, to determine which regions will observe which of the standard time zones and if they will observe daylight saving time.[5] As of August 9, 2007, the standard time zones are defined in terms of hourly offsets from UTC.[6] Prior to this they were based upon the mean solar time at several meridians 15° apart west of Greenwich (GMT).

text: Only the full-time zone names listed below are official; abbreviations are by common use conventions, and duplicated elsewhere in the world for different time zones.

text: The United States uses nine standard time zones. As defined by US law[7] they are:

text:
The Atlantic standard time zone
The Eastern standard time zone
The Central standard time zone
The Mountain standard time zone
The Pacific standard time zone
The Alaska standard time zone
The Hawaii–Aleutian standard time zone
The Samoa standard time zone
The Chamorro standard time zone

tag: ol

text: View the standard time zone boundaries here.

text: Standard time and daylight saving time[edit]

text:
Time Zone
Standard Time
Daylight Time
States in Zone

Hawaii–Aleutian Time Zone
HST (UTC−10:00)
HDT (UTC−09:00)
Alaska, Hawaii (no DST)

Alaska Time Zone
AKST (UTC−09:00)
AKDT (UTC−08:00)
Alaska

Pacific Time Zone
PST (UTC−08:00)
PDT (UTC−07:00)
California, Washington, Oregon, Nevada, Idaho

Mountain Time Zone
MST (UTC−07:00)
MDT (UTC−06:00)
Arizona (no DST outside of Navajo Nation), Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Wyoming

Central Time Zone
CST (UTC−06:00)
CDT (UTC−05:00)
Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Wisconsin

Eastern Time Zone
EST (UTC−05:00)
EDT (UTC−04:00)
Connecticut, Florida, District of Columbia, Delaware, Georgia, Indiana, Kentucky, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Tennessee, Vermont, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia

tag: table

text: Zones used in the contiguous U.S.[edit]

text: From east to west, the times zones of the contiguous United States are:

text:
The Eastern standard time zone: (Zone R), which comprises roughly the states on the Atlantic coast and the eastern two thirds of the Ohio Valley.
The Central standard time zone: (Zone S), which comprises roughly the Gulf Coast, Mississippi Valley, and Great Plains.
The Mountain standard time zone: (Zone T), which comprises roughly the states and portions of states that include the Rocky Mountains.
The Pacific standard time zone: (Zone U), which comprises roughly the states on the Pacific coast, plus Nevada and the Idaho panhandle.

tag: ul

text: Zones used in states beyond the contiguous U.S.[edit]

text:
The Alaska standard time zone: (AKST; UTC−09:00; Zone V), which comprises most of the state of Alaska.
The Hawaii-Aleutian standard time zone: (or unofficially Hawaii Standard Time: HST) (HAST; UTC−10:00; zone W), which includes Hawaii and most of the length of the Aleutian Islands chain (west of 169°30′W).

text: Zones outside the states[edit]

text:
The Atlantic standard time zone: (AST; UTC−04:00; Zone Q), which comprises Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands.
The Samoa standard time zone (SST; UTC−11:00; Zone X), which comprises American Samoa.
The Chamorro standard time zone: (ChST; UTC+10:00; Zone K), which comprises Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands.

text: Minor Outlying Islands[edit]

text: Some United States Minor Outlying Islands are outside the time zones defined by 15 U.S.C. §260 and exist in waters defined by Nautical time. In practice, military crews may simply use Zulu time (UTC±00:00) when on these islands. Baker Island and Howland Island are in UTC−12, while Wake Island is in UTC+12:00. Because they exist on opposite sides of the International Date Line, it can, for example, be noon Thursday on Baker and Howland islands while simultaneously being noon Friday on Wake Island. Other outlying islands include Jarvis Island, Midway Atoll, Palmyra Atoll, and Kingman Reef (UTC−11:00); Johnston Atoll (UTC−10:00); and Navassa Island, Bajo Nuevo Bank, and Serranilla Bank (UTC−05:00).

text: Antarctic research stations[edit]

text: In Antarctica, the US research facility Palmer Station is in UTC−03:00, while McMurdo Station and Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station use UTC+12:00 in order to coordinate with their main supply base in New Zealand.

text: Boundaries between the zones[edit]

text: (Described from north to south along each boundary.)

text: Eastern/Central boundary[edit]

text:
roughly follows the border between Wisconsin (to the south and west) and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan (to the north and east); the Upper Peninsula counties that border Wisconsin (namely Gogebic, Iron, Dickinson, and Menominee counties) observe CT, all other counties in the U.P. observe ET
follows Lake Michigan
divides a small portion of Northwestern Indiana near Chicago from the rest of the state
follows the border between Illinois (west) and Indiana (east)
divides a small portion of Southwestern Indiana from the rest of the state
divides Kentucky in half roughly along a line that is west of Louisville, Kentucky running from northwest to southeast.
divides the region legally defined as East Tennessee, except for four counties adjoining Middle Tennessee, from the rest of Tennessee.
follows the border between Alabama (west) and Georgia (east), although Phenix City, Alabama and some nearby towns unofficially observe Eastern Time.
divides the Florida Panhandle along the Apalachicola River and Intracoastal Waterway just west of Tallahassee, Florida.

text: Central/Mountain boundary[edit]

text:
divides the southwest portion of North Dakota from the rest of the state
divides South Dakota roughly in half
divides the western third of Nebraska from the rest of the state
divides a very small portion of extreme western Kansas bordering Colorado (Greeley, Hamilton, Sherman, and Wallace counties) from the rest of the state (three other counties which border Colorado—Cheyenne, Morton, and Stanton counties—observe CST)
follows the border between New Mexico (west) and Oklahoma (east) (although the zone legally begins at the Oklahoma–New Mexico state line, Kenton in extreme northwestern Cimarron County, Oklahoma unofficially observes MST)
follows the border between New Mexico (west) and Texas (east)
divides El Paso County, Hudspeth County, and a portion of northwestern Culberson County that includes eastern Guadalupe Mountains National Park from the rest of Texas

text: Mountain/Pacific boundary[edit]

text:
follows the border between northern Idaho (to the west) and northwestern Montana (to the east)
turns west at 45°33.46′N 114°33.89′W / 45.55767°N 114.56483°W / 45.55767; -114.56483 (just south of Nez Perce Pass), and follows the Idaho County line to the Salmon River
follows the Salmon River west to the town of Riggins, where the Salmon River turns north. This puts almost all of northern Idaho in the Pacific time zone, except for the small loop described next.
turns north and follows the Salmon River to the Snake River at the Oregon border (at 45°51.3′N 116°47.5′W / 45.8550°N 116.7917°W / 45.8550; -116.7917). Interestingly, this loop to the north creates a curious situation where one can enter a more-westerly time zone by traveling east over one of the bridges across this portion of the Salmon River.
turns south and follows the Snake River between Oregon (west) and Idaho (east) to the northern border of Malheur County, Oregon
turns west and follows the northern border of Malheur County, Oregon to its western border, where it turns south
follows the western border of Malheur County to latitude 42.45° (42°27′ N), where it turns east, and returns to the Oregon/Idaho border
turns south and follows the border between Oregon (west) and Idaho (east)
turns east and follows the border between Idaho (north) and Nevada (south) along the 42nd parallel north to longitude 114.041726 W.
turns south and follows the border between Nevada (west) and Utah (east), except for following the west city limit line of West Wendover dividing it from the rest of Nevada, and putting it in the mountain time zone. Jackpot, Nevada, just south of the 42nd parallel and some 25 miles (40 km) west of the time zone south turn, also observes Mountain Time, on an unofficial basis.
follows the border between Nevada (west) and Arizona (east)
follows the border between California (west) and Arizona (east), mostly defined by the Colorado river, to the border between the U.S. and Mexico.

text: Daylight saving time[edit]

text: The Energy Policy Act of 2005 extended daylight saving time (DST) for an additional month beginning in 2007. The start of DST now occurs on the second Sunday in March and ends on the first Sunday in November.

text: Clocks will be set ahead one hour at 2 a.m. on the following start dates and set back one hour at 2 a.m. on these ending dates:

text:
Year
Start date
Ending date

2006
April 2
October 29

2007
March 11
November 4

2008
March 9
November 2

2009
March 8
November 1

2010
March 14
November 7

2011
March 13
November 6

2012
March 11
November 4

2013
March 10
November 3

2014
March 9
November 2

2015
March 8
November 1

2016
March 13
November 6

2017
March 12
November 5

2018
March 11
November 4

2019
March 10
November 3

2020
March 8
November 1

text: In response to the Uniform Time Act of 1966, each state of the US has officially chosen to apply one of two rules over its entire territory:

text:
Most use the standard time for their zone (or zones, where a state is divided between two zones), except for using daylight saving time during the summer months. Originally this ran from the last Sunday in April until the last Sunday in October. Two subsequent amendments, in 1986 and 2005, have shifted these days so that daylight saving time now runs from the second Sunday in March until the first Sunday in November.

Arizona time zones

Arizona and Hawaii use standard time throughout the year. However:

The Navajo Nation observes DST throughout its entire territory, including the portion that lies in Arizona. But the Hopi Nation, which is entirely surrounded by the Navajo Nation and is entirely in Arizona, does not observe DST. (See map inset right.)

In 2005, Indiana passed legislation which took effect on April 2, 2006, that placed the entire state on daylight saving time (see Time in Indiana). Before then, Indiana officially used standard time year-round, with the following exceptions:

The portions of Indiana that were on Central Time observed daylight saving time.
Also, some Indiana counties near Cincinnati and Louisville were on Eastern Time, but did (unofficially) observe DST.

text: Time representation[edit]

text: There exist more than one hundred clock towers in the United States; see Category:Clock towers in the United States.


document_title: Four-wheel drive

question_text: what was the first mass produced car to come from the factory with all-wheel steering

question_tokens: what was the first mass produced car to come from the factory with all-wheel steering

text: Four-wheel drive

text: Definitions[edit]

text: 4×4/4WD/AWD systems were developed in many different markets and used in many different vehicle platforms. There is no universally accepted set of terminology to describe the various architectures and functions.[1] The terms used by various manufacturers often reflect marketing rather than engineering considerations or significant technical differences between systems.[2][3] SAE International's standard J1952 recommends only the term All-Wheel-Drive with additional sub classifications which cover all types of AWD/4WD/4x4 systems found on production vehicles.[4]

text: Four-by-four (4×4) refers to the general class of vehicles. The first figure represents the total wheels (more precisely, axle ends), and the second, the number that are powered. Syntactically, 4×2 means a four-wheel vehicle that transmits engine torque to only two axle-ends: the front two in front-wheel drive or the rear two in rear-wheel drive.[5] Alternatively, a 6×4 vehicle has three axles, two of which provide torque to two wheel ends each.

text: Four wheel drive (4WD) refers to vehicles with two axles providing torque to four wheel ends. In the North American market the term generally refers to a system that is optimized for off-road driving conditions.[6] The term "4WD" is typically designated for vehicles equipped with a transfercase which switches between 2WD and 4WD operating modes, either manually or automatically.[7]

text: AWD[edit]

text: All wheel drive (AWD) historically was synonymous with "four-wheel drive" on four-wheeled vehicles, and six-wheel drive on 6×6s, and so on, being used in that fashion at least as early as the 1920s.[8][9] Today in North America the term is applied to both heavy vehicles as well as light passenger vehicles. When referring to heavy vehicles the term is increasingly applied to mean "permanent multiple-wheel drive" on 2×2, 4×4, 6×6 or 8×8 drive train systems that include a differential between the front and rear drive shafts.[10] This is often coupled with some sort of anti-slip technology, increasingly hydraulic-based, that allows differentials to spin at different speeds but still be capable of transferring torque from a wheel with poor traction to one with better. Typical AWD systems work well on all surfaces, but are not intended for more extreme off-road use.[10] When used to describe AWD systems in light passenger vehicles, it refers to a system that applies torque to all four wheels (permanently or on demand) and/or is targeted at improving on-road traction and performance (particularly in inclement conditions), rather than for off-road applications.[6]

text: Some all wheel drive electric vehicles solve this challenge using one motor for each axle, thereby eliminating a mechanical differential between the front and rear axles. An example of this is the dual motor variant of the Tesla Model S, which on a millisecond scale can control the torque distribution electronically between its two motors.[11]

text: IWD[edit]

text: Individual-wheel drive (IWD) was coined to identify those electric vehicles whereby each wheel is driven by its own individual electric motor. This system essentially has inherent characteristics that would be generally attributed to four-wheel drive systems like the distribution of the available torque to the wheels. However, because of the inherent characteristics of electric motors, torque can be negative, as seen in the Rimac Concept One and SLS AMG Electric. This can have drastic effects, as in better handling in tight corners.[12]

text: The term IWD can refer to a vehicle with any number of wheels. For example, the Mars rovers are 6-wheel IWD.

text: SAE Recommended Practices[edit]

text: Per the SAE International standard J1952 AWD is the preferred term for all the systems described above. The standard subdivides AWD systems into three categories.[4]

text: Part-Time AWD systems require driver intervention to couple and decouple the secondary axle from the primarily driven axle and these systems do not have a center differential (or similar device). The definition notes that part-time systems may have a low range.

text: Full-Time AWD systems drive both front and rear axles at all times via a center (inter-axle) differential. The torque split of that differential may be fix or variable depending on the type of center differential. This system can be used on any surface at any speed. The definition does not address inclusion or exclusion of a low range gear.

text: On-Demand AWD systems drive the secondary axle via an active or passive coupling device or "by an independently powered drive system". The standard notes that in some cases the secondary drive system may also provide the primary vehicle propulsion. On-demand systems function primarily with only one powered axle until torque is required by the second axle. At that point either a passive or active coupling sends torque to the secondary axle.

text: In addition to the above primary classifications the J1952 standard notes secondary classifications resulting in a total of eight system designations:

text:
Part-Time Non Synchro System
Part-Time Synchro System
Full-Time Fixed Torque System
Full-Time Variable Torque Passive System
Full-Time Variable Torque Active System
On-Demand Synchro Variable Torque Passive System
On-Demand Synchro Variable Torque Active System
On-Demand Independently Powered Variable Torque Active System

text: Design[edit]

text: Differentials[edit]

text: Two wheels fixed to the same axle turn at the same speed as a vehicle goes around curves. This either forces one to slip, if possible, to balance the apparent distance covered, or creates uncomfortable and mechanically stressful wheel hop. To prevent this the wheels are allowed to turn at different speeds using a mechanical or hydraulic differential. This allows one driveshaft to independently drive two output shafts, axles that go from the differential to the wheel, at different speeds.

text: The differential does this by distributing angular force (in the form of torque) evenly, while distributing angular velocity (turning speed) such that the average for the two output shafts is equal to that of the differential ring gear. When powered each axle requires a differential to distribute power between the left and right sides. When power is distributed to all four wheels a third or 'center' differential can be used to distribute power between the front and rear axles.

text: The described system handles extremely well, as it is able to accommodate various forces of movement and distribute power evenly and smoothly, making slippage unlikely. Once it does slip, however, recovery is difficult. If the left front wheel of a 4WD vehicle slips on an icy patch of road, for instance, the slipping wheel will spin faster than the other wheels due to the lower traction at that wheel. Since a differential applies equal torque to each half-shaft, power is reduced at the other wheels, even if they have good traction. This problem can happen in both 2WD and 4WD vehicles, whenever a driven wheel is placed on a surface with little traction or raised off the ground. The simplistic design works acceptably well for 2WD vehicles. It is much less acceptable for 4WD vehicles, because 4WD vehicles have twice as many wheels with which to lose traction, increasing the likelihood that it may happen. 4WD vehicles may also be more likely to drive on surfaces with reduced traction. However, since torque is divided amongst four wheels rather than two, each wheel receives approximately half the torque of a 2WD vehicle, reducing the potential for wheel slip.

text: Limiting slippage[edit]

text: Many differentials have no way of limiting the amount of engine power that gets sent to its attached output shafts. As a result, if a tire loses traction on acceleration, either because of a low-traction situation (e.g., - driving on gravel or ice) or the engine power overcomes available traction, the tire that is not slipping receives little or no power from the engine. In very low traction situations, this can prevent the vehicle from moving at all. To overcome this, there are several designs of differentials that can either limit the amount of slip (these are called 'limited-slip' differentials) or temporarily lock the two output shafts together to ensure that engine power reaches all driven wheels equally.

text: Locking differentials work by temporarily locking together a differential's output shafts, causing all wheels to turn at the same rate, providing torque in case of slippage. This is generally used for the center differential, which distributes power between the front and the rear axles. While a drivetrain that turns all wheels equally would normally fight the driver and cause handling problems, this is not a concern when wheels are slipping.

text: The two most common factory-installed locking differentials use either a computer-controlled multi-plate clutch or viscous coupling unit to join the shafts, while other differentials more commonly used on off-road vehicles generally use manually operated locking devices. In the multi-plate clutch the vehicle's computer senses slippage and locks the shafts, causing a small jolt when it activates, which can disturb the driver or cause additional traction loss. In the viscous coupling differentials the shear stress of high shaft speed differences causes a dilatant fluid in the differential to become solid, linking the two shafts. This design suffers from fluid degradation with age and from exponential locking behavior.[citation needed] Some designs use gearing to create a small rotational difference that hastens torque transfer.

text: A third approach to limiting slippage is taken by a Torsen differential. A Torsen differential allows the output shafts to receive different amounts of torque. This design does not provide for traction when one wheel is spinning freely, where there is no torque, but provides excellent handling in less extreme situations.[citation needed] A typical Torsen II differential can deliver up to twice as much torque to the high traction side before traction is exceeded at the lower traction side.

text: A fairly recent innovation in automobiles is electronic traction control. Traction control typically uses a vehicle's braking system to slow a spinning wheel. This forced slowing emulates the function of a limited-slip differential, and, by using the brakes more aggressively to ensure wheels are being driven at the same speed, can also emulate a locking differential. It should be noted that this technique normally requires wheel sensors to detect when a wheel is slipping, and only activates when wheel slip is detected. Therefore, there is typically no mechanism to actively prevent wheel slip (i.e., you can't "lock the differential" in advance of wheel slip), rather the system is designed to expressly permit wheel slip to occur, and then attempt to send torque to the wheels with the best traction. If preventing all-wheel slip is a requirement, this is a limiting design.

text: Operating Modes[edit]

text: The architecture of an AWD/4WD system can be described by describing its possible operating modes.[1] A single vehicle may have the ability to operate in multiple modes depending on driver selection. Mohan describes the modes as follows:

text: Two Wheel Drive (2WD) Mode - In this mode only one axle (typically the rear axle) is driven. The drive to the other axle is disconnected. The operating torque split ratio is 0:100.

text: Four Wheel Drive (4WD) Mode - Here, depending on the nature of torque transfer to the axles, we can define three sub-modes (below).

text: History[edit]

text: Late 1800s[edit]

text: In 1893, before the establishment of a modern automotive industry in Britain, English engineer Bramah Joseph Diplock patented a four-wheel-drive system for a steam-powered traction engine,[13] including four-wheel steering and three differentials, which was subsequently built. The development also incorporated Bramah's Pedrail wheel system in what was one of the first four-wheel-drive automobiles to display an intentional ability to travel on challenging road surfaces. It stemmed from Bramagh's previous idea of developing an engine that would reduce the amount of damage to public roads.

text: Ferdinand Porsche designed and built a four-wheel-driven electric vehicle for the k. u. k. Hofwagenfabrik Ludwig Lohner & Co. in Vienna in 1899, presented to the public during the 1900 World Exhibition in Paris. The vehicle was a series hybrid car, that used an electric hub motor at each wheel, powered by batteries, which were in turn charged by a gasoline-engine generator.[14][15] It was clumsily heavy and due to its unusual status the so-called Lohner-Porsche is not frequently given its credit as the first four-wheel-driven automobile.

text: The world's first four-wheel-drive car directly powered by an internal combustion engine, commissioned for the Paris to Madrid race of 1903, the Spyker 60 H.P., was presented that year by Dutch brothers Jacobus and Hendrik-Jan Spijker of Amsterdam.[16][17] The two-seat sports car featured permanent four-wheel drive and was also the first car ever equipped with a six-cylinder engine, as well as four-wheel braking. Later used as a hill-climb racer, it is now an exhibit in the Louwman Museum (the former Nationaal Automobiel Museum) in the Hague, the Netherlands.[18]

text: Designs for four-wheel drive in America came from the Twyford Company of Brookville, Pennsylvania in 1905, six were made there around 1906; one still exists and is displayed annually.[19] The second American four-wheel-drive vehicle was built in 1908 by (what became) the Four Wheel Drive Auto Company (FWD) of Wisconsin (not to be confused with the term "FWD" as an acronym for front-wheel drive). FWD would later produce around 15,000 of its four-wheel-drive Model B trucks for the British and American armies during World War I.[20] Approximately 11,500 of the Jeffery or Nash Quad models (1913–1919) were similarly used. The Quad not only came with four-wheel drive and four-wheel brakes, but also featured four-wheel steering.[20]

text: The Reynolds-Alberta Museum has a four-wheel-drive vehicle, named "Michigan", from 1905 in an unrestored storage. The American Marmon-Herrington Company was founded in 1931 to serve a growing market for moderately priced four-wheel-drive vehicles. Marmon-Herrington specialized in converting Ford trucks to four-wheel drive and got off to a successful start by procuring contracts for military aircraft refueling trucks, 4×4 chassis for towing light weaponry,[21] commercial aircraft refueling trucks, and an order from the Iraqi Pipeline Company for what were the largest trucks ever built at the time.

text: Daimler-Benz also has a history in four-wheel drive. In 1907 the Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft had built a four-wheel-driven vehicle called Dernburg-Wagen, also equipped with four-wheel steering, that was used by German colonial civil servant, Bernhard Dernburg, in Namibia. Mercedes and BMW, in 1926, introduced a rather sophisticated four-wheel drive, the G1, the G4 and G4 following. The 1937 Mercedes-Benz G5 and BMW 325 4×4 featured full-time four-wheel drive, four-wheel steering, three locking differentials, and fully independent suspension. They were produced because of a government demand for a four-wheel-drive passenger vehicle. The modern G-series/Wolf such as the G500 and G55 AMG still feature some of the attributes, with the exception of fully independent suspension since it can compromise ground clearance. The Unimog is another Mercedes truck.

text: Starting in 1936, Japanese company Tokyu Kurogane Kogyo built approximately 4,700 four-wheel-drive roadsters, called the Kurogane Type 95 reconnaissance car, used by the Imperial Japanese Army from 1937 until 1944, during the Second Sino-Japanese War. Three different bodystyles were manufactured; a 2-door roadster, a 2-door pickup truck and a 4-door phaeton, all equipped with a transfer case that engaged the front wheels, powered by a 1.3 litre, 2-cylinder, air-cooled OHV V-twin engine.[22]

text: The first Russian produced four-wheel-drive vehicle, also in part for civilian use, was the GAZ-61, developed in the Soviet Union in 1938. "Civilian use" may be a bit of a misnomer, as most if not all were used by the Soviet government and military (as command cars), but the GAZ-61-73 version is the first four-wheel drive vehicle with a normal closed sedan body. Elements of the chassis were used in subsequent military vehicles such as the 1940 GAZ-64 and the 1943 GAZ-67, as well as the post-war GAZ-69, and the properly civilian GAZ-M-72, based on the rear-wheel drive GAZ-20 "Victory" and built from 1955-1958. Soviet civilian life did not allow the proliferation of civilian products such as the Jeep in North America, but through the 1960s the technology of Soviet 4×4 vehicles stayed on par with British, German, and American models, even exceeding it in some aspects, and for military purposes just as actively developed, produced and used.

text: It was not until "go-anywhere" vehicles were needed for the military on a large scale, that four-wheel drive found its place. The World War II Jeep, originally developed by American Bantam but mass-produced by Willys and Ford, became the best-known four-wheel-drive vehicle in the world during the war.[23]

text: Willys introduced the model CJ-2A in 1945, the first full-production four-wheel-drive vehicle for sale in the general marketplace. Thanks to the ubiquitous World War II jeep's success, its rugged utilitarianism set the pattern for many four-wheel drive vehicles to come.[24]

text: The similarly boxy, also inline-4 powered Land Rover appeared at the Amsterdam Motor Show in 1948. Originally conceived as a stop-gap product for the struggling Rover car company, despite chronic under-investment it succeeded far better than the passenger cars. Inspired by a Willys MB that was frequently run off-road on the farm belonging to chief engineer Maurice Wilks, Land Rover developed the more refined yet still off-road capable luxury 4WD Range Rover in the 1970s.

text: With the acquisition of the "Jeep" name in 1950 Willys had cornered the brand. Its successor, Kaiser Jeep, introduced a revolutionary 4WD wagon called the Wagoneer in 1963. Not only was it technically innovative, with independent front suspension and the first automatic transmission coupled to 4WD, it was equipped and finished as a regular passenger automobile.[25] In effect, it was the ancestor of the modern SUV. The luxury Rambler or Buick V8s powered Super Wagoneer produced from 1966 to 1969 raised the bar even higher.

text: Jensen applied the Formula Ferguson (FF) full-time all-wheel-drive system to 318 units of their Jensen FF built from 1966 to 1971, marking the first time 4WD was used in a production GT sports car.[26] While most 4WD systems split torque evenly, the Jensen split torque roughly 40% front, 60% rear by gearing the front and rear at different ratios.

text: American Motors (AMC) acquired Kaiser's Jeep Division in 1970 and quickly upgraded and expanded the entire line of off-road 4WD vehicles. With its added roadworthiness, the top range full-size Grand Wagoneer continued to compete with traditional luxury cars.[27] Partially hand-built, it was relatively unchanged during its production through 1991, even after Chrysler's buyout of AMC.

text: Subaru introduced the category-expanding Leone in 1972, an inexpensive compact station wagon with a light-duty, part-time four-wheel drive system that could not be engaged on dry pavement. In September AMC introduced Quadra Trac full-time AWD for the 1973 model year Jeep Cherokee and Wagoneer.[28] Thanks to full-time AWD, which relieved the driver of getting out to lock hubs and having to manually select between 2WD and 4WD modes, it dominated all other makes in FIA rally competition. Gene Henderson and Ken Pogue won the Press-on-Regardless Rally FIA championship with a Quadra Trac equipped Jeep in 1972.[29]

text: American Motors introduced the innovative Eagle for the 1980 model year.[30] These were the first American mass production cars to use the complete front-engine, four-wheel drive system.[31] The AMC Eagle was offered as a sedan, coupe, and station wagon with permanent automatic all-wheel-drive passenger models. The new Eagles combined Jeep technology with an existing and proven AMC passenger automobile platform. They ushered a whole new product category of "sport-utility" or crossover SUV. AMC's Eagles came with the comfort and high-level appointments expected of regular passenger models and used the off-road technology for an extra margin of safety and traction.[32]

text: The Eagle's thick viscous fluid center differential provided quiet and smooth transfer of power that was directed proportionally to the axle with the greatest traction. This was a true full-time system operating only in four-wheel drive without undue wear on suspension or driveline components. There was no low range in the transfer case. This became the forerunner of the designs that followed from other manufacturers.[33] The automobile press at the time tested the traction of the Eagles and described it as far superior to the Subaru's and that it could beat many so-called off-road vehicles. Four Wheeler magazine concluded that the AMC Eagle was "The beginning of a new generation of cars."[34]

text: The Eagles were popular (particularly in the snowbelt), had towing capacity, and came in several equipment levels including sport and luxury trims. Two additional models were added in 1981, the sub-compact SX/4 and Kammback. A manual transmission and a front axle-disconnect feature were also made available for greater fuel economy. During 1981 and 1982 a unique convertible was added to the line. The Eagle's monocoque body was reinforced for the conversion and had a steel targa bar with a removable fiberglass roof section.[35] The Eagle station wagon remained in production for one model year after Chrysler acquired AMC in 1987.

text: Audi also introduced a permanently all-wheel-driven road-going car, the Audi Quattro, in 1980. Audi's chassis engineer, Jörg Bensinger, had noticed in winter tests in Scandinavia that a vehicle used by the German Army, the Volkswagen Iltis, could beat any high-performance Audi. He proposed developing a four-wheel-drive car, that would also be used for rallying to improve Audi's conservative image. The Audi Quattro system became a feature on production cars.

text: In 1987, Toyota also developed a car built for competition in rally campaigns.[36] A limited number of road-going FIA Homologation Special Vehicle Celica GT-Four (known as Toyota Celica All-Trac Turbo in North America) were produced. The All-Trac system was later available on serial production Toyota Camry, Toyota Corolla, and Toyota Previa models.

text: Some of the earliest mid-engined four-wheel-drive cars were the various road-legal rally cars made for Group B homologation, such as the Ford RS200 made from 1984 to 1986. In 1989, niche maker Panther Westwinds created a mid-engined four-wheel-drive, the Panther Solo 2.

text: In the United States, as of late 2013, AWD vehicles comprised 32 per cent of new light vehicle sales, up five per cent since 2008.[37] This is in large part due to the popularity of the crossover.[37] Most crossovers offer the popular technology, in spite of it increasing vehicle price and fuel consumption.[38] Car manufacturers have inundated consumers with marketing proclaiming AWD as a safety feature, although the advantage of AWD over FWD is in accelerating, not braking or steering.[39] Tests have shown that though AWD gives improved acceleration in wintery conditions, it does not help with braking.[40]

text: In 2008, Nissan introduced the GT-R featuring a rear-mounted transaxle. The AWD system requires two drive shafts, one main shaft from the engine to the transaxle and differential and a second drive shaft from the transaxle to the front wheels.[41]

text: Uses[edit]

text: Road racing[edit]

text: Spyker is credited with building and racing the first ever four-wheel racing car, the Spyker 60 HP in 1903.[42][17]

text: Bugatti created a total of three four-wheel-drive racers, the Type 53, in 1932, but the cars were notorious for having poor handling.

text: Miller produced the first 4WD car to qualify for the Indianapolis 500, the 1938 Miller Gulf Special.

text: Ferguson Research Ltd. built the front-engine P99 Formula One car that actually won a non-World Championship race with Stirling Moss in 1961. In 1968, Team Lotus raced cars in the Indy 500 and three years later in Formula 1 with the Lotus 56, that had both turbine engines and 4WD, as well as the 1969 4WD-Lotus 63 that had the standard 3-litre V8 Ford Cosworth engine. Matra also raced a similar MS84, and McLaren entered their M9A in the British Grand Prix, while engine manufacturers Ford-Cosworth produced their own version which was tested but never raced. All these F1 cars were considered inferior to their RWD counterparts, as the advent of aerodynamic downforce meant that adequate traction could be obtained in a lighter and more mechanically efficient manner, and the idea was discontinued, even though Lotus tried repeatedly.

text: Nissan and Audi had success with all-wheel drive in road racing with the former's advent of the Nissan Skyline GT-R in 1989. So successful was the car that it dominated the Japanese circuit for the first years of production, going on to bigger and more impressive wins in Australia before weight penalties eventually levied a de facto ban on the car. Most controversially was the win pulled off at the 1990 Macau Grand Prix where the car led from start to finish. Audi's dominance in the Trans-Am Series in 1988 was equally controversial as it led to a weight penalty mid season and to a rule revision banning all-AWD cars, its dominance in Super Touring eventually led to a FIA ban on AWD system in 1998.

text: New 2011 24 Hours of Le Mans regulations may revive AWD/4WD in road racing, though such systems are only allowed in new hybrid-powered Le Mans Prototypes.[43] One example is the Audi R18 e-tron quattro (winner of 2012 race, the first ever hybrid/4WD to win Le Mans), utilizing an electric motor in the front axle while combining the engine motor in the rear.[44]

text: In heavy trucks[edit]

text: Medium-duty trucks and Heavy-duty trucks have recently adopted 4×4 drive-trains. 4×4 medium-duty trucks became common after Ford Motor Company began selling Ford Super Duty trucks. The Super Duty trucks shared many parts between the light duty and medium duty, reducing production costs. The Dana 60 front axle is used on both medium- and light-duty Super Duty trucks. Furthermore, the Big Three share/shared parts between the companies reducing costs. The Dana S 110 is currently being used for the rear drive, under Ford and Ram's medium-duty trucks. The Dana 110 was also used on the General Motors 4×4s as well. Ram Trucks began selling medium-duty trucks, 4×4 and 4×2, in 2008. General Motors sold a 4×4 for model years 2005-2009.

text:
GM 4×4 medium-duty trucks

Heavy duty International Workstar

Ford medium-duty 4×4 drive train

text: In construction equipment[edit]

text: Volvo introduced the Model 646 four-wheel drive backhoe loader in 1977.[45] Case Corporation followed suit in the U.S. in 1987.[citation needed]

text: Terminology[edit]

text: In engineering terms, "four-wheel drive" designates a vehicle with power delivered to four wheel ends spread over at least two axles. The term 4×4 (pronounced four by four) was in use to describe North American military four-wheel-drive vehicles as early as the 1940s,[46] with the first number indicating the number of wheel ends on a vehicle and the second indicating the number of driven wheels.

text: Trucks with dual tires on the rear axle and two driven axles are designated as 4×4s despite having six wheels because the paired rear wheels behave as a single wheel for traction and classification purposes. True 6×6 vehicles which have three powered axles, and are classified as 6×6s regardless of how many wheels they have. Examples of these with two rear, one front axle are the 6-wheeled Pinzgauer, which is popular with defense forces around the globe, and 10-wheeled GMC CCKW made famous by the U.S. Army in World War II.

text: 4-wheeler (or four-wheeler) is a related term applying to all-terrain vehicles, and not to be confused with four-wheel drive. The "four" in the instance referring to the vehicle having four wheels, not necessarily all driven.

text: Unusual systems[edit]

text: Prompted by a perceived need for a simple, inexpensive all-terrain vehicle for oil exploration in North Africa, the French motor manufacturer Citroën developed the 2CV Sahara in 1958. Unlike other 4×4 vehicles which use a conventional transfer case to drive the front and rear axle, the Sahara had two engines, each independently driving a separate axle, with the rear engine facing backwards. The two throttles, clutches and gear change mechanisms could be linked, so the two 12 hp (9 kW) 425 cc (26 cu in) engines could run together, or they could be split and the car driven solely by either engine. Combined with twin fuel tanks and twin batteries (which could be set up to run either or both engines), the redundancy of two separate drive trains meant that they could make it back to civilization even after major mechanical failures. Only around 700 of these cars were built, and only 27 are known to exist today.[47]

text: BMC experimented with a twin-engine Mini Moke (dubbed the "Twini Moke") in the mid-1960s, but never put it into production. This made advantage of the Mini's 'power pack' layout, with a transverse engine and the gearbox in the engine sump. Simply by fitting a second engine/gearbox unit across the rear, a rudimentary 4×4 system could be produced. Early prototypes had separate gear levers and clutch systems for each engine. Later versions sent for evaluation by the British Army had more user-friendly linked systems.

text: In 1965, A. J. M. Chadwick patented a 4WD system, GB 1113068, that used hemispherical wheels for an all-terrain vehicle. Twenty years later, B. T. E. Warne, patented, GB 2172558, an improvement on Chadwick's design that did not use differential gear assemblies. By using near-spherical wheels with provision to tilt and turn each wheel co-ordinatively, the driven wheels maintain constant traction. Furthermore, all driven wheels steer and, as pairing of wheels is not necessary, vehicles with an odd number of wheels are possible without affecting the system's integrity. Progressive deceleration is made possible by dynamically changing the front-to-rear effective wheel diameter ratios.

text: Suzuki Motors introduced the Suzuki Escudo Pikes Peak Edition in 1996. Earlier Suzuki versions were twin engined, from 1996 on the engine is a twin-turbocharged 2.0 L V6, mated to a sequential 6-speed manual transmission.

text: Nissan Motors has developed a system called E-4WD. It is designed for cars that are normally front-wheel drive, however the rear wheels are powered by electric motors. This system was introduced in some variants of the Nissan Cube and Tiida. (This is similar to the system used on the Ford Escape Hybrid AWD.[48])

text: Chrysler's Jeep Division debuted the twin engine, 670 hp (500 kW) Jeep Hurricane concept at the 2005 North American International Auto Show in Detroit. This vehicle has a unique "crab crawl" capability, which allows it to rotate 360° in place. This is accomplished by driving the left wheels as a pair and right wheels as a pair, as opposed to driving the front and rear pairs. A central gearbox allows one side to drive in the opposite direction to the other. It also has dual Hemi V8s.

text: Some hybrid vehicles such as the Lexus RX400h provide power to an AWD system through a pair of electric motors, one to the front wheels and one to the rear. In the case of the AWD model version of the Lexus RX400h (and its Toyota-branded counterpart, the Harrier hybrid), the front wheels can also receive drive power directly from the vehicle's gasoline engine as well as via the electric motors, whereas the rear wheels derive power only from the second electric motor. Transfer of power is managed automatically by internal electronics based on traction conditions and need, making this an all-wheel-drive system.

text: The 4RM system used in the Ferrari FF in 2011 is unique in that it has a rear transaxle with secondary front transaxle connected directly to the engine. The car operates primarily as a rear wheel drive vehicle. Clutches in the front transaxle engage when the rear wheels slip. Drive to the front wheels is transmitted through two infinitely-variable clutch packs which are allowed to 'slip' to give the required road wheel speeds. The front transaxle has three gears, two forward, and reverse. The two forward gears of the front transmission match the lower four forward gears of the rear transmission. It is not used in higher gears. The connection between this gearbox and each front wheel is via independent haldex-type clutches, without a differential. Due to the difference in ratios the clutches continually slip and only transmit, at most, 20% of the engine's torque.[49]

text: Introduction to off-roaders[edit]

text:
Year
Manufacturer
Model/Series
Mass
Military

1941
GAZ
GAZ-64

x

1941
Willys-Overland
Willys MA/MB

x

1941
Volkswagen
Typ 128 Schwimmwagen

x

1945
Willys
CJ-2A
x

1946
Dodge
Power Wagon

x

1947
Jeep
Willys truck
x

1948
Ford
F-series
x

1948
Rover
Land Rover Series
x

1951
Alfa Romeo
Alfa Romeo Matta

x

1951
Austin Motor Company
Austin Champ

x

1951
Fiat
Fiat Campagnola

x

1951
Nissan
Nissan Patrol
x

1954
Toyota
Land Cruiser
x

1956
Auto Union
DKW Munga

x

1963
Kaiser Jeep
Wagoneer (SJ)
x

1968
Suzuki
Lj10
x

1970
British Leyland
Range Rover
x

1972
UAZ
UAZ-469

x

1976
Lada
Lada Niva
x

1979
Mercedes-Benz
G-Class
x

1982
Mitsubishi
Pajero
x

text: Introduction to passenger cars[edit]

text:
Year
Manufacturer
Model/Series
Mass
Small series

1938
GAZ
GAZ-61

x (238)

1955
GAZ
GAZ M-72

x (4677 units)

1966
Jensen
Jensen FF

x (320 units)

1972
Subaru
Subaru Leone
x

1980
American Motors
AMC Eagle
x

1980
Audi
Audi Quattro
x

1982
Renault
Renault 18 Combi 4×4
x

1983
Fiat
Fiat Panda 4×4
x

1984
Alfa Romeo
Alfa 33 4×4
x

1984
Mitsubishi
Mitsubishi Cordia 4WD Turbo
x

1984
Volkswagen
Volkswagen Passat Syncro
x

1984
Peugeot
Peugeot 205 T16

x (200 units)

1985
BMW
BMW 325iX
x

1985
Lancia
Lancia Delta HF 4WD
x

1985
Mazda
Mazda 323 4WD
x

1985
Suzuki
Suzuki Samurai
x

1986
Toyota
Toyota Celica GT-Four All-Trac Turbo
x

1986
Ford
Ford RS200

x (220 units)

1987
Mercedes-Benz
Mercedes W124 4MATIC
x

1987
Porsche
Porsche 959

x (292 units)

1988
Opel
Opel Vectra 4×4
x

1988
Pontiac
Pontiac 6000 STE AWD
x

1989
Citroën
Citroën BX
x

1990
Chevrolet
Chevrolet Astro Full-time AWD

x

1991
Lamborghini
Lamborghini Diablo VT

x

1991
Bugatti
Bugatti EB110

x (ca. 300 units)

1992
Fiat
Tempra 4×4
x

1997
Volvo
850 AWD
x

2001
Jaguar
Jaguar X-Type
x

2008
Saab
Saab 9-3 Turbo X
x

2010
Dacia
Dacia Duster
x

2011
Ferrari
Ferrari FF

x (ca. 800 units)

text: Systems by design type[edit]

text: Center differential with mechanical lock[edit]

text:
Alfa Romeo 164 Q4 (central viscous coupling, epicyclic unit and Torsen rear differential)
Alfa Romeo 155 Q4 (central epicyclic unit, Ferguson viscous coupling and Torsen rear differential)
AMC Eagle (central viscous coupling)
Audi - Quattro Coupé, 80, 90, 100 & 200 (locking center and rear differentials) - up to 1987
Audi Q7 -double pinion 50/50 with lockup clutch pack
BMW 3 series and 5 series in the 1980s - planetary center differential with a 37-63 (front-back) torque split and viscous lock (also in rear differential but not front differential)
Chevrolet Rounded-Line K Fleetside, K Stepside, K Blazer, and K Suburban - permanent four-wheel drive (1973-1979) two-speed New Process 203 transfer case, center differential with 50:50 torque split and lock. An Eaton Automatic Differential Lock was optional for the rear hypoid differential.
Ford - Escort (RS 2000 16v 4×4 models and RS Cosworth), Sierra Cosworth, Sierra and Granada 4×4 models,
Dodge Power Wagon - permanent four-wheel drive (1974-1979) two-speed New Process 203 transfer case, center differential with 50:50 torque split and lock.
Ford Expedition (1997–present) and Expedition EL/Max (2007–present) - automatic ControlTrac four-wheel drive with two-speed dual range BorgWarner transfer case and intelligent locking center multi-disc differential
Ford Explorer (1995–2010) - automatic ControlTrac four-wheel drive with two-speed dual range BorgWarner transfer case and intelligent locking center multi-disc differential
Ford F-Series - permanent four-wheel drive (1974-1979) two-speed New Process 203 transfer case, center differential with 50:50 torque split and lock.
GMC Rounded-Line K Wideside, K Fenderside, K Jimmy, and K Suburban - permanent four-wheel drive (1973-1979) two-speed New Process 203 transfer case, center planetary differential with 50:50 torque split and lock. An Eaton Automatic Differential Lock was optional for the rear hypoid differential.
H1 & Humvee NVG 242HD AMG open center differential, locked center differential, Neutral, low range locked. Also Torsen1 differential at the front and rear axle, The H1 moved to Torsen2 when ABS was added. The H1 Alpha had optional locking differentials in place of torsens
Hummer H2, H3 40/60 planetary with lock
Jeep Grand Cherokee, Commander (except models equipped with Quadra-Trac I)
Jeep Liberty, Jeep Cherokee (XJ), Dodge Durango (Select-Trac) - NV 242 transfer case- rear drive, open center differential, locked center differential, Neutral, low range
Full size Jeeps with Borg Warner QuadraTrac: limited slip center differential, 50/50 locked center differential. Low range could be used in locked or unlocked mode, allowing for use of low range on pavement.
Land Rover Defender (and Series III V8 models)
Land Rover Discovery/LR3
Land Rover Freelander
Lada Niva (VAZ-2121) - full-time 4WD using open center differential. Transfer case with high/low range and manual central diff lock. Low range selectable in locked or unlocked mode, allowing use on pavement.
Lexus RX300 -viscous coupling across the otherwise open center differential.
Lincoln Navigator (1998–2006) - automatic ControlTrac four-wheel drive with two-speed dual range BorgWarner transfer case and intelligent locking center multi-disc differential

Navigator and Navigator L (2007–present) use one-speed single range transfer case, no reduction gearing

Mercedes-Benz Unimog (locking center and rear with up to 10 low range gears).
Mercedes-Benz G-Class (locking center and lockers on both front- and rear axle)
Mercedes-Benz GL-Class - 4Matic all-wheel-drive system
Mitsubishi Pajero (also known as Montero or Shogun)
Porsche Cayenne - 38/62 planetary with lockup clutch pack
Range Rover Classic 1970–1995 all full-time 4WD either plate LSD, manual lock or Ferguson viscous centre differential.
Range Rover 2nd Gen. 1994–2002 full-time 4WD Ferguson viscous centre differential
Suzuki Grand Vitara/Escudo (2005 and later models, excepting the XL-7) -full-time 4WD using limited-slip center differential, off-road 4WD with selectable center differential lock and low range transfer case 4 mode (4h, 4h lock, 4l n), traction control and electronic stability control
Subaru - manual transmissions come with 50/50 viscous-type center differential; performance models include a planetary differential with computer regulated lockup; automatic transmission models have an electronically controlled variable transfer clutch.
Toyota Land Cruiser
Toyota Sequoia (Multi-mode)
Volkswagen Touareg -double pinion 50/50 with lockup clutch pack

text: Torsen center differential[edit]

text:
Alfa Romeo Q4s - with (Torsen T-3):

156 Crosswagon and Sportwagon
159
Brera, Spider

Audis with quattro - various iterations of Torsen, the T-3 starting from the 2007 B7 RS4

80, 90 & Coupé (Typ 89)
100 & 200
A4, S4, RS4
A5 & S5
A6, S6, RS6
A8, S8
Q5, Q7

Bentley Continental GT, Bentley Continental Flying Spur (2005) initially Torsen T-2, current have T-3
Chevrolet Trailblazer SS Torsen T-3
Lexus GX470, Toyota Land Cruiser Prado 120 Torsen T-3
Range Rover 3rd Gen. 2002–2009
Toyota 4Runner (only Limited V8 model & 2010 Limited V6 model) Torsen T-3 with lock
Toyota FJ Cruiser (only manual models) Torsen T-3 with lock
Toyota Hilux Surf Torsen T-3 with lock
Toyota Land Cruiser 200/2008/V8 Torsen T-3 with lock
Toyota Sequoia (North America) (only 2005-07 Models)
Volkswagen Passenger Cars with 4motion:

Volkswagen Passat Torsen T-2 (B5.5 model, not latest B6 model with transverse engine)
Volkswagen Phaeton Torsen T-2

text: Non-locking center differential[edit]

text:
BMW 3-series and X5 between 2001 and xDrive - planetary center differential with permanent 38-62 (front-back) torque split #
Cadillac Escalade, STS AWD, SRX AWD (The first two generations had a viscous clutch on the center differential) #
Chrysler 300C AWD#
Dodge Ramcharger 1974–1981 - NP203 FullTime 4WD Transfer Case
Dodge Magnum, Charger AWD #
GMC Yukon Denali, XL Denali, Sierra Denali #
Mercedes 4MATIC cars, R class, and ML class (note some MLs had low range) #
Plymouth Trailduster 1974–1981 - NP203 FullTime 4WD Transfer Case
Toyota Highlander #
Toyota Sienna AWD (-2010 only) #

text: The above systems ending with "#" function by selectively using the traction control system (via ABS) to brake a slipping wheel.

text: Multiple-clutch systems[edit]

text:
Acura RL, RDX (SH-AWD) Right and left axle shaft
Acura MDX SH-AWD & VTM4
Ford Explorer - Ford's full-time shift-on-the-fly Intelligent 4WD System (I-4WD) on the 2011 Explorer with Terrain Management System and RSC (Roll Stability Control), Curve Control functionality, HDC (Hill Descent Control) and HAA (Hill Ascent Assist).[50][51]
Honda Ridgeline
Honda Pilot
Infiniti FX (ATTESA E-TS)
Mercedes-Benz 1st generation 4MATIC (normally rear-drive, automatic clutch in transfer case engages 4WD on demand)
Mitsubishi GTO MR/3000GT VR-4
Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution Series S-AWC
2010 Mitsubishi Outlander GT S-AWC
Mitsubishi Outlander (2003–2006) independent front and rear axle coupling, and Active Center Differential.
Nissan GT-R (ATTESA E-TS)
Nissan Skyline GT-R (ATTESA E-TS and ATTESA E-TS-PRO) front axle coupling, rear differential locking
Nissan Skyline GTS4 (ATTESA E-TS)
Nissan A31 Cefiro SE4 (ATTESA E-TS)
Porsche 959 PSK front axle coupling, rear differential locking
Saab 9-3, Saab 9-5, Saab 9-4X (Saab XWD).

text: Multi-plate clutch coupling[edit]

text:
Audi A3 quattro, Audi S3, Audi TT quattro, Audi R8 (with Haldex Traction)
BMW xDrive: latest 3 Series, latest 5 series, X3, latest X5 series
Chevrolet Equinox (GMPCA)
Chrysler Pacifica (BorgWarner ITM3e) (on 2007 model)
Dodge Nitro (Quadra-Trac 1)
Dodge Caliber
Ford: Escape, Freestyle, Edge, Fusion, Five Hundred (Freestyle, FiveHundred Haldex Traction based)(Escape Control Trac II, based)
Honda CR-V, HR-V, Element
Hyundai Santa Fe, Hyundai Tucson Borg-Warner ITM 3e magnetic multi-plate clutch coupling
Hyundai Veracruz IMJ magnetic multi-plate clutch coupling
Infiniti: G35x, M35x
Jeep Compass (Freedom Drive)
Jeep Grand Cherokee and SRT8 NVG 249, 247
Land Rover Freelander 2/LR2 (also Haldex Traction)[52]
Lamborghini: AWD variants VT series (viscous traction)
Lincoln: MKS, MKZ
Mazdaspeed6 (a power takeoff unit linked to clutch pack with torque sensitive rear differential)
Mazda: Tribute, CX-7, CX-9 (tribute Control Trac II, based)
Mercury: Milan, Montego, Mariner (Montego Haldex Traction-based)
Mitsubishi Outlander (current generation)
Nissan Murano automatic with manual lockup switch
Porsche 911 AWD variants (a version of BorgWarner ITM3e) — excluding the 964-series Porsche 911 Carrera 4 31/69 planetary center differential
Pontiac Torrent (GMPCA)
Subaru low powered automatic transmission models
Subaru Legacy, Outback, Impreza, Forester, Tribeca automatic transmission models: mechanical front drive, clutch coupled rear axle.
Suzuki: SX4, XL7, Aerio, Swift/Cultus based Subaru Justy. (viscous clutch)
Toyota RAV4 - from 2005 (third generation only)
Toyota Sienna AWD (2011 and newer only)
Volkswagen Golf 4motion, Volkswagen Jetta 4motion, Volkswagen Tiguan 4motion, Volkswagen Passat (B6) 4motion (initially viscous coupling, later with Haldex Traction)
Volvo: S40, S60, S80, V50, V70, XC70, XC90 (Visco system until 2003; then all Haldex Traction-based)

text: Note: the above all function like 2WD when multi-plate clutch coupling is not engaged (with exception of Subaru models), and like 4WD highrange in a part-time 4WD system when the clutch is engaged (usually by computer although some allow manual control). Some in this category have varying degrees of control in the torque distribution between front and rear by allowing some of the clutches in a multi-plate clutch coupling to engage and slip varying amounts. An example of a system like this is the BorgWarner i-Trac(TM) system. Note: the Haldex Traction-based car list was created from the list on Haldex Traction corporate web site: Haldex Cars. A version of the BorgWarner ITM3e system is used on 2006 and up Porsche 911TT's. The Borg-Warner ITM 3e is also used in the 2006-now Hyundai Santa Fe and the Hyundai Tucson. In the Hyundais, the ITM 3e acts like a full-time AWD with 95:5 normal torque split. In extreme conditions, the system can be locked in a 50:50 split via the 4WD LOCK button.

text: Part-time[edit]

text: These are vehicles that have no center differential. Since there is no center differential to allow for speed differences between the front and rear wheels when turning, a small amount of tire slippage must occur during turns. When used on slick surfaces, this is not a problem, but when turning on dry pavement, the tires grip, then are forced to slip, then grip again, and so on, until the turn is completed. This causes the vehicle to exhibit a 'hopping' sensation. Using an engaged part-time 4WD system on a hard surface is not recommended, as damage to the drive-line eventually occurs.

text:
Chevrolet Rounded-Line K Fleetside, K Stepside, K Blazer, and K Suburban - conventional four-wheel drive (1973-1987) or shift-on-the-move four-wheel drive (1981-1987) two-speed New Process 205 or 208 transfer case. 0:100 torque split in Two High. 50:50 torque split lock in Four High and Four Low. An Eaton Automatic Differential Lock was optional for the rear hypoid differential. Note Rounded-Line "K" Pickups and Utilities were temporarily renamed to "V" for 1987
Chevrolet Tahoe, Trailblazer (LT1 and LT3 models only), Tracker, Suburban, Silverado, Avalanche, Colorado, S-10 series, K5 Blazer
Dodge Power Wagon (a Ram version with front and rear differential locks)
Dodge Ram, Dakota
Dodge Nitro (Quadra-Trac 2)
Ford F series
Ford Explorer (1991-1994) & Sport Trac
Ford Ranger
Geo Tracker
GMC Rounded-Line K Wideside, K Fenderside, K Jimmy, and K Suburban - conventional four-wheel drive (1973-1987) or shift-on-the-move four-wheel drive (1981-1987) two-speed New Process 205 or 208 transfer case. 0:100 torque split in Two High. 50:50 torque split lock in Four High and Four Low. An Eaton Automatic Differential Lock was optional for the rear hypoid differential. Note Rounded-Line "K" Pickups and Utilities were temporarily renamed to "V" for 1987
GMC Envoy, Yukon, Sierra, Jimmy, Sonoma
Infiniti QX56 (All-mode 4WD) Auto-engages 4WD with slip
Isuzu i-series, Isuzu Wizard
Jeep Cherokee (Quadra-Trac 2)
Jeep Cherokee (XJ), Jeep Comanche, Jeep Grand Cherokee (ZJ), Jeep Liberty (Command-Trac)
Jeep Wrangler (Rubicon model has locking front and rear differentials)
Kia Sorento (some 2002-2009 models with 2WD/4HI/4LO - mostly LX)
Land Rover Series I, II & III (except V8 models)
Lincoln Mark LT
Mazda B-series
Mercedes-Benz G-Class
Mitsubishi Raider
Nissan Patrol
Nissan Terrano II
Nissan Armada, Pathfinder (All-mode 4WD) Auto-engages 4WD with slip
Nissan Titan, Xterra, Frontier (rear locker an option)
Subaru Loyale, GL/DL, BRAT Front/4wd/4wd lo, Justy 4WD
Suzuki Sidekick (pre-2005 models, and XL-7), Jimny, Vitara
Toyota Hilux
Toyota Tacoma (rear locking differential optional)
Toyota Tundra TRD
Toyota FJ Cruiser (automatic transmission models) (also locking rear differential)
Toyota 4Runner (only SR5 and pre 2010 Limited V6 models, 2010 Trail edition V6 models) (also locking rear differential on 2010 V6)


document_title: List of National Basketball Association single-game scoring leaders

question_text: who holds the most points in a nba game

question_tokens: who holds the most points in a nba game

text: Key[edit]

text:
^
Denotes player who is currently active in the NBA

*
Denotes player who has been inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame

Occurred in playoff competition

Player's team lost the game

MP
Minutes played
FGM
Field goals made
FGA
Field goal attempts

3PM
3-point field goals made
3PA
3-point field goal attempts
DNP
Did not play

FTM
Free throws made
FTA
Free throw attempts

text: List[edit]

text:
Rank
Points
Player
Date
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
Team
Opponent
Score
MP
FGM
FGA
3PM
3PA
FTM
FTA
Notes
Ref.

Scoring by quarter

1
100
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain*
000000001962-03-02-0000March 2, 1962
23
18
28
31
Philadelphia Warriors
New York Knicks
169–147
48
36
63
—
—
28
32
[A]
[1][2] [3][4][5]

2
81
Bryant, KobeKobe Bryant
000000002006-01-22-0000January 22, 2006
14
12
27
28
Los Angeles Lakers
Toronto Raptors
122–104
41:56
28
46
7
13
18
20
[B]
[6][7][8]

3
78
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain*
000000001961-12-08-0000December 8, 1961
—
—
—
—
Philadelphia Warriors
Los Angeles Lakers
147–151
63
31
62
—
—
16
31
[C]
[5]

4
73
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain*
000000001962-01-13-0000January 13, 1962
—
—
—
—
Philadelphia Warriors
Chicago Packers
135–117
48
29
48
—
—
15
25
[D]
[5]

73
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain*
000000001962-11-16-0000November 16, 1962
—
—
—
—
San Francisco Warriors
New York Knicks
127–111
48
29
43
—
—
15
19
[E]
[9]

73
Thompson, DavidDavid Thompson*
000000001978-04-09-0000April 9, 1978
32
21
9
11
Denver Nuggets
Detroit Pistons
137–139
43
28
38
—
—
17
20
[F]

7
72
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain*
000000001962-11-03-0000November 3, 1962
—
—
—
—
San Francisco Warriors
Los Angeles Lakers
115–127
—
29
48
—
—
14
18

[9]

8
71
Baylor, ElginElgin Baylor*
000000001960-11-15-0000November 15, 1960
—
—
—
—
Los Angeles Lakers
New York Knicks
123–108
45
28
48
—
—
15
18
[G]

71
Robinson, DavidDavid Robinson*
000000001994-04-24-0000April 24, 1994
18
6
19
28
San Antonio Spurs
Los Angeles Clippers
112–97
44
26
41
1
2
18
25
[H]
[10][11]

10
70
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain*
000000001963-03-10-0000March 10, 1963
—
—
—
—
San Francisco Warriors
Syracuse Nationals
148–163
48
27
38
—
—
16
22

[9]

70
Booker, DevinDevin Booker^
March 24, 2017
10
9
23
28
Phoenix Suns
Boston Celtics
120–130
45
21
40
4
11
24
26
[I]

12
69
Jordan, MichaelMichael Jordan*
000000001990-03-28-0000March 28, 1990
16
15
20
18
Chicago Bulls
Cleveland Cavaliers
117–113
50
23
37
2
6
21
23
[J]
[12][13][14]

13
68
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain*
000000001967-12-16-0000December 16, 1967
14
15
15
24
Philadelphia 76ers
Chicago Bulls
143–123
—
30
40
—
—
8
22

68
Maravich, PetePete Maravich*
000000001977-02-25-0000February 25, 1977
17
14
17
20
New Orleans Jazz
New York Knicks
124–107
43
26
43
—
—
16
19

15
67
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain*
000000001961-03-09-0000March 9, 1961
—
—
—
—
Philadelphia Warriors
New York Knicks
135–126
—
27
37
—
—
13
17

67
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain*
000000001962-02-17-0000February 17, 1962
—
—
—
—
Philadelphia Warriors
St. Louis Hawks
121–128
48
26
44
—
—
15
20

[5]

67
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain*
000000001962-02-25-0000February 25, 1962
—
—
—
—
Philadelphia Warriors
New York Knicks
135–149
48
25
38
—
—
17
22

[5]

67
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain*
000000001963-01-11-0000January 11, 1963
—
—
—
—
San Francisco Warriors
Los Angeles Lakers
129–134
—
28
47
—
—
11
17

[9]

19
66
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain*
000000001969-02-09-0000February 9, 1969
17
17
22
10
Los Angeles Lakers
Phoenix Suns
134–116
48
29
35
—
—
8
18
[K]

20
65
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain*
000000001962-02-13-0000February 13, 1962
—
—
—
—
Philadelphia Warriors
Cincinnati Royals
132–152
48
24
40
—
—
17
30

[5]

65
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain*
000000001962-02-27-0000February 27, 1962
—
—
—
—
Philadelphia Warriors
St. Louis Hawks
147–137
48
25
43
—
—
15
20

[5]

65
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain*
000000001966-02-07-0000February 7, 1966
—
—
—
—
Philadelphia 76ers
Los Angeles Lakers
132–125
—
28
43
—
—
9
20

65
Bryant, KobeKobe Bryant
000000002007-03-16-0000March 16, 2007
4
19
9
24
Los Angeles Lakers
Portland Trail Blazers
116–111
49:58
23
39
8
12
11
12
[L]
[15]

24
64
Baylor, ElginElgin Baylor*
000000001959-11-08-0000November 8, 1959
13
12
17
22
Minneapolis Lakers
Boston Celtics
136–115
—
25
47
—
—
14
19
[M]

64
Barry, RickRick Barry*
000000001974-03-26-0000March 26, 1974
—
—
23
22
Golden State Warriors
Portland Trail Blazers
143–120
43
30
45
—
—
4
5

64
Jordan, MichaelMichael Jordan*
000000001993-01-16-0000January 16, 1993
22
8
11
16
Chicago Bulls
Orlando Magic
124–128
47
27
49
1
5
9
11
[N]
[16]

27
63
Fulks, JoeJoe Fulks*
000000001949-02-10-0000February 10, 1949
—
—
—
—
Philadelphia Warriors
Indianapolis Jets
108–87
—
27
56
—
—
9
14
[O]

63
Baylor, ElginElgin Baylor*
000000001961-12-08-0000December 8, 1961
—
—
—
—
Los Angeles Lakers
Philadelphia Warriors
151–147
—
23
55
—
—
17
24
[P]
[17]

63
West, JerryJerry West*
000000001962-01-17-0000January 17, 1962
—
—
—
—
Los Angeles Lakers
New York Knicks
129–121
39
22
36
—
—
19
22

63
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain*
000000001962-12-14-0000December 14, 1962
—
—
—
—
San Francisco Warriors
Los Angeles Lakers
118–120
—
24
41
—
—
15
20

[9]

63
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain*
000000001964-11-26-0000November 26, 1964
—
—
—
—
San Francisco Warriors
Philadelphia 76ers
117–128
—
27
58
—
—
9
20

63
Gervin, GeorgeGeorge Gervin*
000000001978-04-09-0000April 9, 1978
20
33
10
DNP
San Antonio Spurs
New Orleans Jazz
132–153
33
23
49
—
—
17
20
[Q]

63
Jordan, MichaelMichael Jordan*
000000001986-04-20-0000April 20, 1986
17
6
13
18
Chicago Bulls
Boston Celtics
131–135
53
22
41
0
0
19
21
[R]

34
62
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain*
000000001962-01-14-0000January 14, 1962
—
—
—
—
Philadelphia Warriors
Boston Celtics
136–145
48
27
45
—
—
8
10

[5]

62
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain*
000000001962-01-17-0000January 17, 1962
—
—
—
—
Philadelphia Warriors
St. Louis Hawks
136–130
53
24
48
—
—
14
20
[S]
[5]

62
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain*
000000001962-01-21-0000January 21, 1962
—
—
—
—
Philadelphia Warriors
Syracuse Nationals
139–132
53
25
42
—
—
12
17
[T]
[5]

62
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain*
000000001963-01-29-0000January 29, 1963
—
—
—
—
San Francisco Warriors
New York Knicks
123–103
—
27
44
—
—
8
17

[9]

62
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain*
000000001964-11-15-0000November 15, 1964
—
—
—
—
San Francisco Warriors
Cincinnati Royals
122–106
—
26
44
—
—
10
21

62
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain*
000000001966-03-03-0000March 3, 1966
—
—
—
—
Philadelphia 76ers
San Francisco Warriors
135–125
—
26
39
—
—
10
19

62
McGrady, TracyTracy McGrady*
000000002004-03-10-0000March 10, 2004
7
21
24
10
Orlando Magic
Washington Wizards
108–99
45:50
20
37
5
14
17
26

[18]

62
Bryant, KobeKobe Bryant
000000002005-12-20-0000December 20, 2005
15
17
30
DNP
Los Angeles Lakers
Dallas Mavericks
112–90
32:53
18
31
4
10
22
25
[U]
[19][20]

62
Anthony, CarmeloCarmelo Anthony^
000000002014-01-24-0000January 24, 2014
20
17
19
6
New York Knicks
Charlotte Bobcats
125–96
38:39
23
35
6
11
10
10
[V]
[21]

43
61
Mikan, GeorgeGeorge Mikan*
000000001952-01-20-0000January 20, 1952
18
18
—
—
Minneapolis Lakers
Rochester Royals
91–81
—
22
45
—
—
17
21
[W]

61
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain*
000000001961-12-09-0000December 9, 1961
—
—
—
—
Philadelphia Warriors
Chicago Packers
135–113
48
28
48
—
—
5
10

[5]

61
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain*
000000001962-02-22-0000February 22, 1962
—
—
—
—
Philadelphia Warriors
St. Louis Hawks
139–121
48
21
36
—
—
19
34

[5]

61
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain*
000000001962-02-28-0000February 28, 1962
—
—
—
—
Philadelphia Warriors
Chicago Packers
128–119
48
24
46
—
—
13
17

[5]

61
Baylor, ElginElgin Baylor*
000000001962-04-14-0000April 14, 1962
18
15
13
15
Los Angeles Lakers
Boston Celtics
126–121
—
22
46
—
—
17
19
[X]

61
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain*
000000001962-11-21-0000November 21, 1962
—
—
—
—
San Francisco Warriors
Cincinnati Royals
139–143
—
27
52
—
—
7
15

[9]

61
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain*
000000001962-12-11-0000December 11, 1962
—
—
—
—
San Francisco Warriors
Syracuse Nationals
136–124
—
27
57
—
—
7
11

[9]

61
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain*
000000001962-12-18-0000December 18, 1962
—
—
—
—
San Francisco Warriors
St. Louis Hawks
130–110
—
26
53
—
—
9
14

[9]

61
Jordan, MichaelMichael Jordan*
000000001987-03-04-0000March 4, 1987
14
10
7
26
Chicago Bulls
Detroit Pistons
125–120
43
22
39
0
0
17
18
[Y]
[22][23][24]

61
Jordan, MichaelMichael Jordan*
000000001987-04-16-0000April 16, 1987
15
17
16
13
Chicago Bulls
Atlanta Hawks
114–117
41
22
38
0
3
17
21
[Z]
[25][26][27][28][29]

61
Malone, KarlKarl Malone*
000000001990-01-27-0000January 27, 1990
17
13
20
11
Utah Jazz
Milwaukee Bucks
144–96
33
21
26
0
0
19
23

[30]

61
O'Neal, ShaquilleShaquille O'Neal*
000000002000-03-06-0000March 6, 2000
10
16
16
19
Los Angeles Lakers
Los Angeles Clippers
123–103
44:52
24
35
0
0
13
22
[AA]
[31]

61
Bryant, KobeKobe Bryant
000000002009-02-02-0000February 2, 2009
18
16
12
15
Los Angeles Lakers
New York Knicks
126–117
36:48
19
31
3
6
20
20

[32]

61
James, LeBronLeBron James^
000000002014-03-03-0000March 3, 2014
11
13
25
12
Miami Heat
Charlotte Bobcats
124–107
41:12
22
33
8
10
9
12
[AB]
[33][34]

57
60
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain*
000000001961-12-01-0000December 1, 1961
—
—
—
—
Philadelphia Warriors
Los Angeles Lakers
138–117
48
22
47
—
—
16
26

[5]

60
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain*
000000001961-12-29-0000December 29, 1961
—
—
—
—
Philadelphia Warriors
Los Angeles Lakers
123–118
48
24
43
—
—
12
19
[AC]
[5]

60
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain*
000000001969-01-26-0000January 26, 1969
18
9
10
23
Los Angeles Lakers
Cincinnati Royals
126–113
—
22
36
—
—
16
24
[AD]

60
King, BernardBernard King*
000000001984-12-25-0000December 25, 1984
21
19
11
9
New York Knicks
New Jersey Nets
114–120
41
19
30
0
0
22
26

[35]

60
Bird, LarryLarry Bird*
000000001985-03-12-0000March 12, 1985
12
11
19
18
Boston Celtics
Atlanta Hawks
126–115
43
22
36
1
4
15
16
[AE]
[36]

60
Chambers, TomTom Chambers
000000001990-03-24-0000March 24, 1990
14
21
14
11
Phoenix Suns
Seattle SuperSonics
121–95
42
22
32
0
0
16
18

[37][38][39][40]

60
Iverson, AllenAllen Iverson*
000000002005-02-12-0000February 12, 2005
17
12
11
20
Philadelphia 76ers
Orlando Magic
112–99
42:01
17
36
2
5
24
27

[41][42]

60
Arenas, GilbertGilbert Arenas
000000002006-12-17-0000December 17, 2006
12
5
12
15
Washington Wizards
Los Angeles Lakers
147–141
49:00
17
32
5
12
21
27
[AF]
[43]

60
Bryant, KobeKobe Bryant
000000002007-03-22-0000March 22, 2007
13
11
19
17
Los Angeles Lakers
Memphis Grizzlies
121–119
45:11
20
37
3
7
17
18
[AG]
[44]

60
Bryant, KobeKobe Bryant
000000002016-04-13-0000April 13, 2016
15
7
15
23
Los Angeles Lakers
Utah Jazz
101–96
42
22
50
6
21
10
12
[AH]
[45][46]

60
Klay Thompson^
December 5, 2016
17
23
20
DNP
Golden State Warriors
Indiana Pacers
142–106
29
21
33
8
14
10
11
[AI]
[47]