document_title: That '70s Show

question_text: who sings the theme song on that 70's show

question_tokens: who sings the theme song on that 70 's show

text: That '70s Show

text: Cast[edit]

text: Teens[edit]

text:
Topher Grace as Eric Forman (seasons 1–7; uncredited guest season 8): Eric is a nice guy, geeky, physically slight and somewhat clumsy. He is a smart-aleck with a fast wit and a deadpan sense of humor. He convinces his parents to let his best friend Steven Hyde move in with them, making Hyde like a brother. His father, Red, is always hard on him. For seven seasons Eric is in a relationship with his longtime love and neighbor Donna Pinciotti. He decides to become a teacher after high school and he leaves the series at the end of the seventh season to teach in Africa. Although mentioned in every episode, he does not appear during the final season until the end of the series finale.
Mila Kunis as Jackie Burkhart: The youngest member of the group, Jackie starts the series as the pretty, spoiled rich, selfish, often times annoying immature girl. She likes to give thoughtless and superficial advice, which occasionally turns out to be correct. As the series progresses she becomes more genuine, after her father, a crooked politician, goes to jail and her fortunes take a reversal. Partly as a result of these changes, Donna and she become better friends. By the end of the series, Jackie had dated three of the four males of the group: Kelso, Hyde and Fez.
Ashton Kutcher as Michael Kelso (seasons 1–7; special guest season 8): The dumb pretty boy of the group wants to coast through life on his good looks. Often referred to as "The King" in many episodes, he spends the first half of the series in a relationship with the equally vapid Jackie, but their relationship comes to an end when Laurie (Eric's older sister) reveals their affairs to Jackie. He fathers a baby girl named Betsy from a librarian named Brooke during the seventh season. He becomes a police officer but gets kicked off the force because he does just about everything wrong. He gets a job as a security guard at a Playboy Club in Chicago and leaves the series during the eighth and final season. Kelso, along with Eric, returns for the series finale.
Danny Masterson as Steven Hyde: Eric's best friend and the anti-establishment member of the group. By the end of season one, the Formans allow Hyde to move in after he was abandoned by his mother, making him a foster brother to Eric. Hyde has a witty, blunt and sarcastic sense of humor and a rebellious personality. He is also smart and the other group members often ask for his advice. Although Hyde dates Jackie for three seasons, in the final season he marries an exotic dancer named Samantha. Hyde later discovers Samantha was married to another man when she married him. As Donna points out in "My Fairy King", that means Hyde and Samantha are not legally married. In the seventh season, Hyde meets his biological father (William Barnett, played by Tim Reid), a wealthy black businessman (making Hyde, who was presumed white, biracial). Barnett, who owns a chain of record stores, makes Hyde first an office worker, then a manager and later the owner of the Point Place record store. He also previously worked for Leo in a Photo Hut earlier in the series.
Laura Prepon as Donna Pinciotti: Eric's longtime girlfriend (and briefly fiancée). Donna is tall, intelligent, good-looking. Although she does not agree with what Jackie represents in the beginning of the series, they become friends. Donna is in a relationship with Eric for seven seasons (despite their break-up during season 4). She has brief romances with Casey, Michael's brother and Randy during the final season and quickly ends it. She rekindles her relationship with Eric at the end of the show's finale.
Wilmer Valderrama as Fez: The horny foreign exchange student of the group whose hormones are usually out of control. His country of origin is never named. He enjoys eating candy, drinking beer and looking at pornography. He constantly flirts with Jackie and Donna and often makes romantic advances toward them. Initially, he has trouble getting attention from girls, but during the eighth season he becomes a ladies' man. He is in love with Jackie throughout the series but his love is not reciprocated until the eighth season when they become a couple.
Josh Meyers as Randy Pearson (season 8): Hyde's employee at the record store. He is introduced in the final season. Randy appears laid back, gentle, polite and a ladies' man, although many of his flaws surface later, encompassing parts of the departed Kelso and Eric's personalities and other attributes. Tall (like Kelso), he tends to spout witty one-liners (like Eric), and makes silly voices. He forms a friendship with Red after showing Red how good he is at fixing things. While Hyde, Jackie, Donna and Kelso embrace him as a new member of their group, Fez initially does not, but soon warms up to him. Randy dates Donna for the majority of season eight, but she later breaks up with him. The two end on good terms and remain friends. He makes a brief appearance in the series finale.

text: Adults[edit]

text:
Debra Jo Rupp as Kitty Forman: Red's wife and mother of Eric and Laurie, and Hyde's informally adoptive mother, Kitty is a cheerful, doting mother, but can also be assertive when pushed. A nurse by profession, she drinks heavily and is a former smoker. Her major mood swings are usually attributed to menopause, although the lack of affection and attention from her daughter (Laurie) and her mother (Bea) is also partly to blame. She is also a nurturing mother figure to Eric's rather dysfunctional friends, especially Fez.
Kurtwood Smith as Red Forman: Kitty's husband, father of Eric and Laurie, and Hyde's adoptive father. A conservative Navy combat veteran, he served in World War II and the Korean War. Despite his mean exterior, Red also displays a soft side. His hobbies include working with his power tools, drinking beer, watching television, reading the newspaper, hunting and fishing.
Lisa Robin Kelly (seasons 2–3; recurring season 1; special appearance 5), Christina Moore (recurring, season 6) as Laurie Forman: Eric's attractive but promiscuous, manipulative and dishonest older sister. She flunked out of college during the first season and moves back home with her parents. Laurie enjoys tormenting Eric and manipulating her parents. She is promiscuous, often seen with various men, mainly Eric's friend Kelso, who cheats on his girlfriend Jackie. Eric, Hyde and Donna often mock her promiscuity. She also has a strained relationship with her mother who thinks of her as a freeloader. She leaves the series during the third season, but returns in a recurring role during the fifth. In season five, she marries Fez to prevent him from getting deported. She leaves the series again during season 6 and is never seen again. During the seventh season, she is mentioned as having moved to Canada, where, as Eric puts it drolly, "bottomless dancing is legal".
Tanya Roberts as Midge Pinciotti (seasons 1–3; special guest appearance seasons 6–7): Bob's wife, Donna's mother, and Kitty's best friend, Midge is the sexy neighborhood mom about whom Eric and his male friends fantasized when coming of age. Although often dim-witted, she later adopts some feminist ideals. She is written out of the series in 2001 after the third season after leaving Bob and moving to California. She returns during the sixth and seventh seasons in a limited recurring role. She is temporarily replaced in Bob's heart by the aggressive, assertive Joanne (played by Mo Gaffney), tall like Midge but not as pretty. She and Bob meet in a supermarket. Red and Joanne almost immediately take a mutual dislike to each other.
Don Stark as Bob Pinciotti: Midge's husband and Donna's father. Bob often brags about his service in the National Guard, which invariably irritates Red, a veteran of foreign wars. Bob is known for walking around his house with his robe wide open and no underwear. He eats constantly, even in bed. Bob is almost always in a good mood and is a ladies' man. His best friend is Red, who usually considers him to be a nuisance. He usually takes the brunt of Red's abuse in a jolly manner.
Tommy Chong as Leo Chingkwake (seasons 4 & 8; special guest seasons 2–3 & 7): A hippie, and the owner of a Foto Hut at which Hyde once worked, Leo is an Army veteran who served in World War II, where he was awarded a Purple Heart. Leo often puts play before work and maintains an easy-going attitude in most things, business included. He disappears from the series after season four, but is later referenced in season five's "The Battle of Evermore" when the gang goes on a mission to find him, but with no luck. He returns in season seven and remains on the series until the show's end. In Season 8, he gets a new job working for Hyde at Grooves.

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired

First aired
Last aired

1
25
August 23, 1998 (1998-08-23)
July 26, 1999 (1999-07-26)

2
26
September 28, 1999 (1999-09-28)
May 22, 2000 (2000-05-22)

3
25
October 3, 2000 (2000-10-03)
May 22, 2001 (2001-05-22)

4
27
September 25, 2001 (2001-09-25)
May 21, 2002 (2002-05-21)

5
25
September 17, 2002 (2002-09-17)
May 14, 2003 (2003-05-14)

6
25
October 29, 2003 (2003-10-29)
May 19, 2004 (2004-05-19)

7
25
September 8, 2004 (2004-09-08)
May 18, 2005 (2005-05-18)

8
22
November 2, 2005 (2005-11-02)
May 18, 2006 (2006-05-18)

text: Timeline[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The creators had wanted the show to have a 1970s "feel" from the beginning, so opted to set the series later in the decade, when trends and political ideologies had become firmly established and disseminated. The idea that the duration of the series would carry sociopolitical undertones also necessitated a chain of social events which could influence the characters. Thus, 1976 was chosen, which allowed episodes set within a short time frame to address streaking, the sexual revolution, the Equal Rights Amendment, the 1973 oil crisis, and the presidencies of Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford, all of which were culturally influential events that occurred in the earlier years of the 1970s. The shift to 1977 during the last half of the first season also allowed the inclusion of the first Star Wars movie, which premiered in May 1977.

text: Throughout the first two seasons, episodes opened with title cards showing the season/month and year (example: Late Spring, 1977 or June 1977). These, however, were largely abandoned after season 2, with few subsequent episodes using them. However, they were used again in the final episode, showing "December 31, 1979 10:45 a.m." From the premiere onward, the episode's year could be determined by the registration tags on Eric's Vista Cruiser at the end of the opening and closing credits. The final episode's closing credits showed an "80" year tag.

text: The show was set in May 1976 in the August 23, 1998 premiere. After 12 episodes, the series transitioned to 1977. The 23rd episode, "Grandma's Dead", was also set in 1976, because it was supposed to be the season finale of season 1. The show remained in 1977 for the next two seasons. Near the end of the third season, the series transitioned to 1978 until early in the sixth season. The remaining episodes took place in 1979, and the series finale abruptly ends during a New Year's Eve party as the characters reach "one" during a countdown to January 1, 1980.

text: The show's unexpected longevity (it was the only series to debut on Fox in 1998 to survive cancellation) combined with the first season jump to 1977 necessitated a slow-down of the series' timeline. Over time, this proved problematic from a narrative standpoint, as nearly every year featured a Thanksgiving and/or Christmas episode, and the teen-aged actors playing high-school student characters all aged into their mid-20s by the time their characters graduated from high school after five seasons (except Mila Kunis, who was not quite 20). As the series timeline sped up and slowed down with more rapidity near the series' climax, the timeline necessitated that several major events depicted as having occurred months apart would have in fact happened within weeks or even days of one another.

text: The timeline issues experienced on the show were not unprecedented, as other period-specific TV series have had similar issues. Most notably, M*A*S*H aired for 11 seasons despite the Korean War only lasting three years. Additionally, many TV series over the years that take place in the present time have characters age faster than normal while other characters age naturally.

text: Eighth season and series finale[edit]

text: The character of Eric Forman was written out of the series at the end of the seventh season, as Topher Grace wanted to move on with his career.[2] Ashton Kutcher switched to a recurring guest role when he also chose to depart following the seventh season.[2] However, Kelso had not been written out yet, so to give better closure to the character, Kutcher appeared in the first four episodes of the eighth season (credited as a special guest star) and later returned for the finale. Tommy Chong (who began reappearing by late season 7 after a long absence) became a regular again to help fill Kelso's role as the dimwit of the group. Eric was originally supposed to be replaced by his new friend Charlie, played by Bret Harrison, as an "innocent character", who proved fairly popular with audiences, but the character was killed off after Harrison was offered a lead role in the series The Loop.[3] Another new character named Randy Pearson, played by Josh Meyers, was introduced to take the place of both Eric and, to a lesser extent, Charlie.[4] Another new character, Samantha, a stripper played by Judy Tylor, was added as Hyde's wife for nine episodes. The location of the show's introductory theme song was changed from the Vista Cruiser to the circle. Both Eric and Kelso returned for the series' final episode, although Topher Grace was uncredited.

text: The eighth season was announced as the final season of the show on January 17, 2006,[5] and "That '70s Finale" was filmed a month later on February 17, 2006, first airing on May 18, 2006.[6]

text: Production[edit]

text: Title[edit]

text: The working titles for the show were Teenage Wasteland (named after the lyric from The Who's "Baba O'Riley"), The Kids Are Alright (named after The Who's song of the same name), Feelin' All Right, and Reeling in the Years (named after Steely Dan's song of the same name). However, due to the denials of these three songs from the 1970s (including Pete Townshend's denial of using his two songs for each of the two titles), and Fox Network's decision that Feelin' All Right was not too memorable, co-creator Bonnie Turner suggested that the show should be titled That '70s Show, which became the official title.[7]

text: Opening[edit]

text: Theme song[edit]

text: The show usually opens with the theme song, "In the Street", written by Alex Chilton and Chris Bell of the band Big Star. The original version of the song appeared on Big Star's 1972 debut album #1 Record. In 2000, Chilton confirmed that he was paid $70 in royalties each time the show aired, an amount he thought ironic, given the show's title.[8]

text: Big Star's original version of the song was not used on the show. Instead, a cover version sung by Todd Griffin was used as the theme song for the show's first season. Beginning in the second season, the theme song was performed by the band Cheap Trick. Unlike previous versions of the song, Cheap Trick ended the song with the repeated phrase "We're all alright!" quoting the ending of their 1978 hit song "Surrender".[9]

text: Both versions of the song (Todd Griffin and Cheap Trick) used on the show end with somebody yelling "Hello, Wisconsin!" In Griffin's version, Masterson is the one yelling "Hello, Wisconsin!"[10] while it is unknown who yells it in Cheap Trick's version during the opening. On the soundtrack, That '70s Album (Rockin'), Cheap Trick's lead singer Robin Zander yells "Hello, Wisconsin!"[11] Alternate holiday versions of the theme song were arranged for Halloween and Christmas specials, using organ music and bells, respectively.

text: Opening credits[edit]

text: Opening credits for seasons 1–7 showed members of the cast driving in Eric's car singing the theme song together. At the conclusion of the opening, a shot of a 1970s-style Wisconsin license plate (black letters/numbers on a yellow background) is seen, showing the year in which the episode was taking place in the bottom right corner. During the first season's opening, a single shot of the group is used; beginning with season 2, numerous alternating shots were used of the cast in various groupings (including the adult cast members, who had not appeared in the first season's opening).

text: After Topher Grace and Ashton Kutcher left the series, the opening credits were reworked for season 8 to feature close-up shots of each of the actors singing (or mouthing) a line of the theme song in the Circle (for example, Mila Kunis "Hanging Out...;" Danny Masterson "Down the Street"). The only actors to not say or do anything in the new opening credits were Kurtwood Smith and Tommy Chong, with the exception of the first episode of season 8, when Chong sings the last "We're all alright". Smith looks at the camera frowning and rolls his eyes. Chong looks around the room, confused as he hears "Hello, Wisconsin!" The final episode omits most of the opening sequence and instead only shows the license plate shot.

text: Elements of the show[edit]

text: The 1970s[edit]

text: This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (November 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The show addressed social issues of the 1970s such as sexism, sexual attitudes, generational conflict, the economic hardships of the 1970s recession, mistrust of the American government by blue-collar workers, and underage drinking, including teenage drug use. The series also highlighted developments in the entertainment industry, including the television remote ("the clicker"), reruns, VCR, and cable TV; the video games Pong and Space Invaders; the cassette tape and Disco; MAD magazine; and Eric's obsession with Star Wars.[12] The show has been compared to Happy Days, which was similarly set 20 years before the time in which it aired.[13]

text: Beginning with the second season, the show focused less on the sociopolitical aspects of the story. For example, the dynamic of the relationship between Eric and Donna was altered in later seasons to more closely resemble the relationships of other "power couples" on teen dramas. Likewise, the first season of the show featured a recurring, more dramatic storyline in which the Formans were in danger of losing their home due to Red's hours being cut back at the auto parts plant where he worked. Storylines in later seasons were generally presented more comically and less dramatically.

text: The show also featured guest-starring actors from 1970s TV shows, such as Mary Tyler Moore, Valerie Harper and Betty White (The Mary Tyler Moore Show), Tom Poston and Jack Riley (The Bob Newhart Show), Pamela Sue Martin (The Hardy Boys/Nancy Drew Mysteries), Tim Reid and Howard Hesseman (WKRP in Cincinnati), Eve Plumb, Barry Williams and Christopher Knight (The Brady Bunch), Tom Bosley and Marion Ross (Happy Days), Monty Hall (Let's Make A Deal), Gavin MacLeod (The Love Boat and The Mary Tyler Moore Show), Don Knotts, Richard Kline and Jenilee Harrison (Three's Company), and Danny Bonaduce and Shirley Jones (The Partridge Family). Series recurring cast member Tanya Roberts also starred in a popular show in the 1970s (Charlie's Angels).

text: Beginning with season 5, each episode in the series is named after a song by a rock band that was famous in the 1970s: Led Zeppelin (season 5), The Who (Season 6), The Rolling Stones (season 7), and Queen (season 8, except for the finale, titled "That '70s Finale").[14]

text: Split screens[edit]

text: One device in the show is to present a split screen in which two pairs of characters speak. One character is usually seeking advice on a problem with a character in the second pairing and the other character advises them. Although the conversations appear to mirror each other, notable differences often occur. It is most often used by the couples of the show, with each member of the couple being advised on the relationship. For example, in the episode "Who Wants It More?", Donna and Eric tell Jackie and Hyde that they have been holding out on each other sexually for three days and that maybe they should cave. Both Jackie and Hyde tell Donna and Eric not to cave or the "caver" will be owned by the other.

text: Dream sequences[edit]

text: The show includes character daydream sequences, some of which refer to or parody fads and films of the time, such as Star Wars, Rocky, and Grease.

text: The character picturing the dream sometimes also narrates it, but regardless, the other characters present see the same dream. In the episode "Stone Cold Crazy", Jackie mentioned she liked the song playing in Fez's dream sequence. The sequences are usually introduced by a wobbling screen transition. Sometimes, the transition is absent when the characters who imagine the scene believe they are real (for example, Eric's dream about Donna in "Eric's Birthday" or Jackie's dream about Hyde proposing in "It's All Over Now").

text: In the 100th episode, "That '70s Musical", all singing scenes were Fez's dream sequences.

text: The circle[edit]

text: In the circle, a group of characters, usually the teenagers, sit in a circle (generally in Eric's basement, though occasionally elsewhere), as the camera pans, stopping at each character as he or she speaks. It was usually apparent that the characters are under the influence of marijuana. Thick clouds of smoke, frequent coughing and an extreme wide-angle lens added to the "drug-induced" feel, although the audience never saw anyone actually smoking the drug. Also, no visible drug-related paraphernalia were seen, such as bongs or joint papers. Characters never spoke the word "marijuana" while in the circle (except in one episode "Reefer Madness"), often referring to it as "stuff" or a "stash". In the episode "Bye-Bye Basement", Theo (Leo's cousin) refers to "weed"; in "The Relapse", Kelso tells Fez that the concrete wall behind the gym is used mostly for "smoking weed and beating up freshmen;" in "Ski Trip" Kitty asks Eric why he is taking so much oregano to Jackie's ski lodge; in "Eric's Burger Job", Kelso blames his "roach clip" when the water bed pops on which he is sitting at a party; in two episodes ("That Wrestling Show" and "Hyde Moves In") Eric and Hyde can be seen wearing shirts with the words "Cannabis Sativa" written on a Campbell's soup can; and in "The Pill" Red, referring to Kelso, exclaims, "That kid's on dope!" A gimmick related to the circle and the marijuana smoking was Eric watching the kitchen wall moving erratically, although this technique was also used to show that Eric was drunk.

text: As the series progressed, the circle became one of the series' recurring features. The only four episodes where the whole gang is in the circle are "Class Picture", "I'm A Boy", "Substitute", and in the series finale. During the eighth and final season, the circle sans smoke replaced the Vista Cruiser as the setting of the opening credits.

text: The stupid helmet[edit]

text: The stupid helmet refers to a replica of a Green Bay Packers helmet that a character is forced to wear after having done or said something deemed stupid by the rest of the gang. Eric had to wear it when he said he wanted to propose to Donna and Fez wore it when he started banging his head on the table after trying to help Kelso keep Jackie. The helmet can be seen in the Forman basement on a shelf behind the cast. When the series concluded in 2006, the last one up the staircase had to call Red a "dumbass", something he always called the kids. Since Kelso was the last one up, he grabbed the helmet.

text: The water tower[edit]

text: In many episodes, the teenaged characters often hang out on a local water tower. At the end of several water tower segments, at least one character falls off (usually Kelso). When Charlie Richardson (played by Bret Harrison) fell off and died in season 8, the water tower was renamed in his honor.

text: After Charlie's death, Kelso fell off again, but survived, leading him to believe he was "invincible". In the "Water Tower episode", the gang painted a marijuana leaf on the tower, but it looked more like a green hand giving the finger. In the episode "The Immigrant Song (a.k.a. Fez Gets Busted)" Kelso paints Jackie and his names on the tower to annoy Hyde just before falling and ending up in the hospital. During this episode, Fez paints his manhood on the tower but only gets as far as drawing a circle when the police arrive to arrest him. Kelso was known to fall off the water tower once in every grade since middle school. Jackie and Fez share their first official kiss on the tower in the show's finale.

text: Scene transitions[edit]

text: In the first season, scene transitions (also known as bumpers) consisted of animated smiley buttons[15] or still images of faces from the 1970s with only the mouth moving using Syncro-Vox, usually yelling, in a rock form, "Yeahhh!" or something similar (ex. Farrah Fawcett saying "Yeah!" or Richard Nixon saying "Are you ready to rock and roll?") The smiley buttons were removed for re-runs and home video, replaced with flowers likewise exploding, replicating, deflating or bouncing around. Sometimes they would be visuals of lava lamps with the show's logo plummeting to the bottom of the screen in front of it.

text: Beginning in season 2, transitions featured the characters doing something in front of a colorful, psychedelic, lava lamp-like background. These transitions featured the most prominent characters of the episode usually dancing, falling or making facial expressions. The music accompanying these colorful sequences would match the tone of the episode and characters.

text: By the show's final season, new transitions were created to accommodate cast changes (e.g. Donna's hair color, Leo continuing as a series regular and the insertion of Randy).

text: "Nobody's Fault But Mine (2)" is the only episode where Laurie Forman is featured in a transition. Tanya Roberts is the only regular actor not to be featured in a transition.

text: The Vista Cruiser[edit]

text: Many of the show's episodes featured Eric and the rest of the kids in or around Eric's "Aztec Gold" 1969 Oldsmobile Vista Cruiser, handed down to Eric by Red. For the first seven seasons of the show, the show's introduction showed the cast inside the Vista Cruiser.

text: The show's pronunciation of "Vista Cruiser", with emphasis on "Cruiser" conflicted with the pronunciation of author George Plimpton in the Oldsmobile television advertisement for the 1969 Vista Cruiser, where he pronounced the two words with the emphasis on "Vista".[16]

text: That particular station wagon was bought by Wilmer Valderrama at the show's conclusion from Carsey-Werner for US$500.[17]

text: In August 2009, the show's Vista Cruiser was named third-greatest television car ever by MSN Autos.[18]

text: Running gags and catchphrases[edit]

text: This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (August 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: In one of the show's major running gags, Red often threatens to punish Eric with many variations of catchphrase, "kicking your ass". For example, in "Kitty and Eric's Night Out", Red mistakenly thinks Eric offended Kitty, so Red says, "I swear I'll kick his ass!" In "Eric's Hot Cousin", Eric tries to get out of something by claiming he's sleepwalking and Red says, "And I'm about to be sleep-kicking your ass", and, in "Prank Day", when Red gets covered in oatmeal, Eric tries to explain that it was just a prank that had gone "horribly, horribly wrong" Red says, "Well, I have a prank, too. One where my foot doesn't plow through your ass. Let's hope it doesn't go horribly, horribly wrong!" Several of the running gags were shown in edited clips for the series finale.

text: Some other notable running gags and catchphrases are:

text:
Red's favorite insult is "dumbass", the origin of which is revealed in "Halloween". Ironically, Eric is the first character to say "dumbass" in "Eric's Burger Job" (season 1 episode 5). The insult is adopted by the whole gang and even occasionally by Kitty. Red regularly comes up with new choice insults such as "kettlehead" (which refers to Kelso).
Fez's country of origin is never revealed. Sometimes, Fez is about to disclose where he is from, or at least hint at it, but something happens to prevent him from doing so, like someone entering the room as seen in "Stolen Car", or Fez rambling in "Love of My Life".[19]
Fez's real name was also never revealed. Even Fez stood for FES, Foreign Exchange Student.[20][21] Red often calls Fez by some exotic foreign name when he is speaking directly to him.
Someone, usually Kelso, falls off the Water Tower.[22]
The word "burn", a term used by a character after something bad or offensive happens at another character's expense, although it is more often used by Kelso. According to Kelso in "Dine and Dash", a good burn consists of two elements: "You didn't see it coming; parts of it really hurt."
Hyde would usually give Kelso a punch in the arm for either his stupidity or bad behavior.
Kelso yells "Ow, my eye!" when Hyde rough-houses with him. For example, in the episode "Class Picture", a series of flashbacks feature Hyde beating up Kelso. While the two are out of the immediate sight of the audience, Kelso yells, "Ow, my eye!" and the scene cuts to the next flashback. This gag is repeated several times throughout the series, although the only time Kelso appears with an injured eye is in "Jackie's Cheese Squeeze" after he was punched by Todd, Jackie's manager. On that occasion, Kelso did not yell, "Ow, my eye!"[23]
Fez uses the phrase "Good day", followed by another cast member saying, "But Fez..." and Fez immediately interrupts with an exclamatory, "I said good day!" In some instances, the words vary, but the interaction is the same.
Eric has a never-ending streak of quoting Star Wars. In several episodes, he relates things to Star Wars, or quotes the film. In times of trouble, he brings a toy light saber and his going-away present from Donna was her dressing up as Princess Leia.
Everyone who calls Eric's action figures "dolls" is always loudly corrected by Eric: "They're action figures!"
Kitty often uses alcohol or her use is mentioned, particularly after she starts menopause during the fifth season.
Fez's sex life or usually lack thereof. Often Fez accidentally reveals some perverse behavior he performed, like hiding in Donna's room.[24]
The best thing to do or the best solution can be found by "The Circle".[25]
Eric's attempted "secret" money stash locations are known by everyone.[26][27]
Guest stars from 1970s sitcoms would often have an inside joke referring to their earlier series.
Kitty will often laugh in situations she finds awkward.

text: British remake[edit]

text: In 1999, the show was remade by the ITV network in the United Kingdom as Days Like These using almost verbatim scripts with minor changes to cultural references.[28]

text: Merchandise[edit]

text: Home media[edit]

text: That '70s Show was released on DVD in Regions 1, 2 and 4 by Fox Home Entertainment at an increment of two seasons per year between 2004 and 2008 and a complete series release on October 14, 2008. Mill Creek Entertainment released all eight seasons between 2011 and '13 and released a complete series set on May 14, 2013. On March 6, 2012, Mill Creek released the first season on Blu-ray and season two on October 16, 2012. On November 3, 2015, Mill Creek Entertainment released That '70s Show The Complete Series on Blu-ray 1080p with 5.1 DTS-HD Master Audio and 1.78:1 widescreen aspect ratio.[29]

text: Soundtracks[edit]

text: Several prominent songs from the decade can be heard on the series, and two soundtracks were released in 1999. The first is a collection of funk, soul, and disco, called That '70s Album (Jammin'). The second is a collection of album-oriented rock songs, called That '70s Album (Rockin'). AllMusic gave both albums 3 out of 5 stars in their reviews.[30][31]

text: Reception[edit]

text: American ratings[edit]

text: Over the course of its run, the series was a consistent performer for Fox, becoming one of their flagship shows. Its eight seasons, consisting of 200 episodes, made it Fox's second-longest-running live-action sitcom ever behind Married... with Children, though That '70s Show did not have the same ratings success.

text:
Season
Episodes
Timeslot
Premiere
Season finale
Rank
Viewers
(in millions)

1
1998–99
25
Sunday 8:30
August 23, 1998
July 26, 1999
49[32]
11.7

2
1999–2000
26
Tuesday 8:30
September 28, 1999
May 22, 2000
86[33]
9.0

3
2000–01
25
Tuesday 8:00
October 3, 2000
May 22, 2001
65[34]
10.8

4
2001–02
27
September 25, 2001
May 21, 2002
67[35]
9.1

5
2002–03
25
Tuesday 8:00 (2002)
Wednesday 8:00 (2003)
September 17, 2002
May 14, 2003
52[36]
10.4

6
2003–04
25
Wednesday 8:00
October 29, 2003
May 19, 2004
49[37]
10.0

7
2004–05
25
September 8, 2004
May 18, 2005
85[38]
7.0

8
2005–06
22
Wednesday 8:00 (2005)
Thursday 8:00 (2006)
November 2, 2005
May 18, 2006
103[39]
5.8

text: Awards[edit]

text: Over the course of its run, the series was nominated for a substantial number of awards, including 16 Primetime Emmy Awards. The only win for the series at this event came in 1999, when Melina Root was awarded the Emmy for Outstanding Costume Design for a Series for "That Disco Episode". Additionally, the show was nominated for a large number of Teen Choice Awards, with both Ashton Kutcher and Wilmer Valderrama winning on three occasions.


document_title: Irish whiskey

question_text: how many types of irish whiskey are there

root

text: Irish whiskey

text: History[edit]

text: Early origins[edit]

text: The word 'whiskey' (or whisky) comes from the Irish (or 'Gaelic') uisce beatha, meaning water of life. Irish whiskey was one of the earliest distilled drinks in Europe, arising around the 12th century (see Distilled beverage). It is believed that Irish monks brought the technique of distilling perfumes back to Ireland from their travels to the Mediterranean countries around 1000 A.D. The Irish then modified this technique to obtain a drinkable spirit. Although termed "whiskey", the spirit produced during this period would have differed from what we currently recognise as whiskey. The uisce beatha or whiskey produced in historical times would not have been aged, and was often flavoured with aromatic herbs such as mint, thyme or anise.[4] Irish Mist, a whiskey liqueur launched in 1963, is purportedly based on such a recipe.

tag: p

text: Although known to have occurred for hundreds of years, records of whiskey production in Ireland can be difficult to come by, particularly in the earlier years when production was unregulated. Even in later years, as production was frequently illicit, official records bear little reflection of reality.[4] In addition, as many Irish records were traditionally oral, rather than written, details on early production are likely lost.[4]

text: The oldest known written record of whiskey comes from Ireland in 1405 in the Irish Annals of Clonmacnoise, where it was written that the head of a clan died after "taking a surfeit of aqua vitae" at Christmas, and its first known mention in Scotland dates from 1494.[5] However, it is known that by 1556 whiskey was widespread, as an Act passed by the English Parliament declared whiskey to be "a drink nothing profitable to be drunken daily and used is now universally through the realm of Ireland". This Act also made it technically illegal for anyone other than "the peers, gentlemen and freemen of larger towns" to distil spirits without a licence from the Lord Deputy.[4] However, as Crown control did not extend far beyond the Pale, a fortified area around Dublin, this had little effect.[4]

text: The start of licensed distillation[edit]

text: In 1608, King James I granted one such licence to Sir Thomas Phillips, a landowner in Bushmills, County Antrim.[6] It is through this licence that the Old Bushmills Distillery lays claim to being the oldest surviving grant of licence to distil in the world. However, the current Bushmills distillery and company was not registered to trade until 1784[6] which allows the Kilbeggan Distillery (formerly Locke's Distillery), founded by the McManus family in Kilbeggan, County Westmeath, which has been licensed and distilling since 1757 (not counting the period between 1954 and 2007) to lay claim to the title of the oldest licensed distillery in Ireland.[7] Kilbeggan also has what is believed to be the oldest operational copper pot still in the world, over 250 years old.[8][9]

text: In 1661, the Crown introduced a tax on whiskey production in Britain and Ireland.[4] Therefore, in theory, all whiskey distillers in Ireland were to register and pay taxes. Although Crown control now extended far beyond the Pale, there is limited official record of whiskey distillation during this period. One reason for this, is that until 1761 registration was done on a voluntary basis.[4] Therefore, as registration entailed paying a tax, it was much avoided for obvious reasons.[4] Another reason, is that those tasked with enforcing the law were frequently local landlords, and if their tenants were the illicit distillers, it was not in their best interests to enforce the law.[4] However, it is known that more distillation occurred than is officially recorded, as when registration later became compulsory, several registrations detail the use of existing facilities.[4]

text: From a regulatory perspective, the introduction of this Act is a historical milestone as it provides a clear distinction between licit and illicit whiskey distillation in Ireland. For many years following the introduction of this Act, whiskey produced by registered distillers was known as "Parliament whiskey",[4] while that produced by illicit producers was, and still is referred to as Poitín, a Gaelic term meaning "small pot" (often anglicised as poteen) in reference to the small pot stills used by the illicit distillers. However, although traditionally the product of illicit production, many legal varieties of Poitín have come to market in recent years.

text: In the 18th century, demand for whiskey in Ireland grew significantly, driven both by strong population growth, and by displacing the demand for imported spirits.[10] Growth in the latter is very much visible in the share of Irish duties paid on legal spirits in the late 1700s. In 1770, whiskey only accounted for 25% of the total duty on spirits received by the exchequer, while duty on imported rum accounted for 51%, with the remainder divided equally between brandy and gin.[11] However, by 1790, only twenty years later, whiskey's share accounted for 66%.[11]

text: As a consequence of this increased demand, some distillers prioritized quantity over quality, to the detriment of their product.[4] This prompted parliament to pass an Act in 1759 prohibiting distillers from using any ingredient other than malt, grain, potatoes or sugar in the production of whiskey, and specifically prohibiting several unsavory ingredients.[4] Another consequence, was that the potential revenue lost to the exchequer through the under-reporting of output at legal distilleries, and the tax avoidance of illicit producers became more significant, prompting parliament to introduce another Act of Parliament. This was enacted in 1779 and significantly reformed how the taxes payable on whiskey production were calculated.[4] Previously, taxes were payable on production volumes, which were subject to manipulation. However, this Act removed the potential for under-reporting by making taxes payable on a distillery's potential output (based on the capacity of its pot stills), rather than its actual, or reported output.[10] In addition, the Act penalised smaller distillers in an attempt to reduce reporting fraud.[12]

text: Due to the stringency of this Act, which made assumptions about output (for instance, a 500-gallon pot still was assumed to produce 33,075 gallons a month)[13] and the minimum numbers of days which a still was in operation per annum (112),[10] many of the smaller, or less efficient registered distilleries were forced underground. In 1779, when the Act was introduced, there were 1,228 registered distilleries in Ireland, however, by 1790, this number had fallen to 246, and by 1821, there were just 32 licensed distilleries in operation.[4][10] This had the effect of concentrating licit distillation in a smaller number of distilleries based mainly in the larger urban centres, such as Cork and Dublin, which offered better markets for legal producers.[10] Whereas, in the rural areas distillation became a more illicit activity. In particular, in the northwest of Ireland, where agricultural lands were poorer and poitín provided a supplemental source of income to the tenant farmers, an income which landlords were again slow to curtail as it would have weakened their abilities to pay rent.[10] The scale of this illicit activity was such, that one surveyor estimated that duty was paid on only 2% of the spirit consumed in northwestern provinces of Ulster and Connaught,[14] while Aeneas Coffey (an excise officer at the time, and later inventor of the Coffey Still) estimated that there were over 800 illicit stills in operation in Inishowen, County Donegal alone.[4] By contrast, illicit distillation in Munster and Leinster was less extensive.[10]

text: By some measures the Act was successful, as the volume of whiskey on which excise was paid increased from 1.2 million to 2.9 million gallons.[10][14] In addition, it prompted capital investments in establishing larger distilleries (which were more easily regulated), due to the need for economies of scale to profit from legal distillation.[10] However, when demand for whiskey increased in the early 1800s, due to population growth, and changing consumption patterns (which saw it becoming more ingrained in Irish cultural activities),[10] much of the demand was initially met by small-scale illicit distillers who did not need to pay tax or comply with the restrictions of the 1779 Act.[10] In fact, so much illicit spirit was available during this period that the licensed distillers in Dublin complained that it could obtained "as openly in the streets as they sell a loaf of bread".[15]

text: Reform and expansion[edit]

text: In 1823, the authorities, acknowledging the problems with the licensing system, cut the duties by half,[10] and published an Excise Act which significantly reformed the existing legislation, making legal distillation much more attractive.[4] In particular, the reforms removed the need for distillers to rush production in order to produce as much (or more) whiskey than duties would be paid on, leading to improvements in fuel efficiency and product quality, as distillers could operate the stills at a more appropriate pace.[10] In addition, restrictions on the type and capacity of stills used were removed, granting distillers more freedom to tailor their equipment.[10] Another significant reform, was a change to how duty was paid. Previously, duty was charged monthly, based on still output, meaning that distilleries paid tax on whiskey before it was sold.[10] However, under the reforms, duty was to be paid only when the whiskey was actually sold, making its storage in bond more attractive, as less of the distillery's working capital would be tied up in stock.[10]

text: Together, these reforms greatly improved the distilling landscape, leading to a drop in illicit whiskey production, and a boom in investment in legal distilleries. In 1821, two years before the reforms, there were 32 licensed distilleries in Ireland. However, just four years after the reforms, this number had risen to 82 in 1827, while by 1835 it had reached 93, a 19th-century peak.[10] The increased attractiveness of legal distillation is evident in the scale of the equipment used. Prior to the Excise Act of 1823, the largest pot still in Ireland had a capacity of just 750 gallons. However, by 1825, just two years later, the Midleton Distillery would open with a 31,618-gallon pot still, which remains the largest ever built;[13] the largest pot stills currently in operation in the world (as of 2014), located next door in the New Midleton Distillery, are roughly half this size, at 16,498 gallons (75,000 litres).[16]

text: Though domestic demand would reduce somewhat in the mid-1800s, due to the Temperance movement of the 1830s, and the Great Famine of the 1840s, during which a million died, between 1823 and 1900, whiskey output in Ireland increased fourfold,[4] and with access to the overseas markets provided by the British Empire, Irish whiskey became the most popular spirit in the World, with "Dublin whiskey" being particularly well regarded.[13]

text: Dublin whiskey peak[edit]

text: In the early 1800s, Ireland was the largest spirit market in the United Kingdom, with demand for spirit exceeding that even of more populous England.[10] Therefore, as capacities expanded, Ireland became the largest producer of spirits in the United Kingdom, and Dublin, then the largest market for spirits in Ireland, emerged as a major distilling centre. By 1823, Dublin boasted the five largest licensed distilleries in the country.[10][17] At their peak, the distilleries in Dublin would grow to become the largest in the world, with a combined output of almost 10 million gallons per annum, the largest of which, Roe's Thomas Street Distillery, had an output exceeding 2 million gallons per annum.[13] By 1878, the reputation of Dublin whiskey was such that Distillers Company Ltd., a Scottish distilling firm, having built a distillery in Dublin, claimed that Dublin whiskey could sell for a 25% premium over other Irish whiskey, and that it had a demand five times that of Scotch at the time. Although these figures are likely inflated, they give an indication of the esteem in which Dublin whiskey was held, even by Scottish distillers.[13] During this period, the four largest Dublin distilling firms, of John Jameson, William Jameson, John Powers and George Roe (all family run, and collectively known as the "Big Four") came to dominate the Irish distilling landscape. The chief output of these distilleries, known as single or "pure pot still" whiskey, was made from a mix of malted and unmalted barley, and solely distilled in pot stills. The style, having initially emerged as a means of avoiding a 1785 tax on malt, endured although the tax had been later repealed.[18] In fact, even by the late 1880s, only two of Ireland's then 28 existing distilleries were producing single malt whiskey, the rest steadfast in their devotion to "pure pot still".[18]

text: In this period, when Irish whiskey was at its zenith, it would have been difficult to imagine that Scotch, then produced by small-scale producers, and almost unheard of outside of Scotland,[4] would soon becomes the world's preeminent drink. Whereas, Irish whiskey, then the world's most popular whiskey, would enter a century of decline, with all of Dublin's great distilleries shutting their doors. So much so, that by the late 20th century, the once popular pure pot still whiskey had almost disappeared entirely, with only two specialist bottlings, Green Spot and Redbreast remaining in existence.[18] However, since 2010, several new single pot whiskeys have been launched.[18]

text: The Coffey still[edit]

text: There were a number of factors, both internal and external, which lead to this decline. However, one of the main turning points was the patenting in 1832 of the Coffey still by Aeneas Coffey. Ironically, Coffey was both the former Inspector General of Excise in Ireland, and subsequently, after leaving the excise service, an Irish distiller himself.[12] His patent, the Coffey still, was a continuous distillation apparatus which offered an improvement on the traditional pot still. Although similar continuous stills had been proposed in the past, including by other Irish distillers themselves, the Coffey still was the most effective, and soon entered widespread use.[12]

text: Unlike traditional pot stills, which were operated in a batch manner, Coffey stills could be operated continuously. This made them cheaper to operate, as they required less fuel, and more efficient to run, producing a continuous, rapid output of spirit. In addition, because technically, continuous distillation entails the conduct of a series of distillation runs in sequence internally within a self-contained unit rather than the conduct of a single distillation within a pot still, Coffey stills were capable of producing a far higher strength output than pot stills. However, this advantage also came with a downside. As a consequence of increasing the alcohol concentration in the product, Coffey stills removed some of the other volatile components responsible for flavour.[12] As a result, their use proved extremely controversial when first introduced.

text: Ireland was the initial testing ground for the Coffey still, with Coffey showcasing them in his own distillery and offering them to other Irish distillers. Although there were seven in operation in Ireland by 1833,[10] their use did not become widespread amongst the larger distilleries. In particular, the big four Dublin distillers, proud of their existing produce, scoffed at its use, questioning if its product, grain whiskey, which they termed neutral or silent (i.e. tasteless) spirit, could even be termed whiskey.[4] It wasn't that the distillers were Luddites, afraid of change, their distilleries being amongst the most advanced in the world.[13] The distillers were simply steadfast in the belief that their existing methods yielded a superior whiskey.[12] For instance, John Jameson trialled a Coffey still at his distillery, but chose not adopt the technology because he was not satisfied with the quality of product it produced.[12] Therefore, in the face of opposition in Ireland, Coffey offered his still to the English gin and Scottish whiskey distillers, who proved more receptive, and where the technology gained widespread use.

text: The adoption of the Coffey still in Scotland was indirectly assisted by Ireland's Great Famine of the 1840s, which lead to the repealing of the Corn Laws, which between 1815 and 1846 had restricted the import of cheaper foreign grain into Britain and Ireland. After the laws were repealed in 1846, cheap American corn could be imported and used to produce neutral spirit in Coffey stills. This spirit, though lacking in taste, could then be blended with traditional pot still derived spirit to produce, a cheaper, "blended whiskey". This blended whiskey, which was less intense in taste than pure pot still, was to prove popular in Britain, capturing much market share from Irish pure pot still whiskey.

text: Despite changing tastes and falling market share, the adoption of Coffey stills was stubbornly resisted by Irish distillers for many years, with some arguing for restrictions on their use. For instance, in 1878, the big Dublin distillers jointly published a pamphlet entitled "Truths about Whisky," in which they referred to the output of Coffey stills as "Good, bad or indifferent; but it cannot be whiskey, and it ought not to be sold under that name".[19] In 1904, almost seventy years after it had been patented, the Senior Manager of Ireland's largest rural distillery, Allman's of Bandon, placed an outright ban on the introduction of Coffey stills at his distillery in the face of opposition from a director.[4]

text: The issue came to a head in 1908, when a royal commission was appointed to investigate the issue. By this point 60% of all whiskey produced in Britain and Ireland was made in Coffey stills.[20] In 1909, a royal commission settled the argument once and for all, declaring that whiskey could refer to the output of by either Coffey or pot stills.[20] By comparison, it is interesting to note that a similar debate occurred in France; such that under French law, to be termed "Cognac", a spirit must be produced using a pot still. Whereas, Coffey stills are permissible in the production of Armagnac.

text: An industry in decline[edit]

text: In addition to the introduction of blended whiskey, and the Irish distillers' failure to account for its appeal to changing tastes, there were a number of additional issues which placed further pressure on the Irish distillers: the Irish War of Independence, the subsequent civil war, and trade war with Britain (which cut off whiskey exports to Britain and all Commonwealth countries, then Irish whiskey's biggest market); prohibition in the United States (1920-1933), which severely curtailed exports to Irish whiskey's second biggest market; widespread counterfeiting of Irish whiskeys in America and Britain; protectionist policies introduced by the Irish Free State Government, which significantly capped whiskey exports in the hope of taxing domestic consumption; and finally, over-expansion and mismanagement at several Irish distilleries. Together, these factors greatly hampered exports and forced many distilleries into economic difficulties and out of business, and by the early 20th century, Scotland had surpassed Ireland to become the World's largest whiskey producer.

text: When Alfred Barnard, a British historian, published his account of the distilleries of Britain and Ireland in 1887, there were 28 distilleries in operation in Ireland. By the 1960s, there was only a handful of these remaining in operation, and in 1966, three of these (John Jameson, Powers, and Cork Distilleries Company) chose to amalgamate their operations under the name of Irish Distillers and to close their existing facilities and concentrate their operations in a new purpose-built facility to be constructed beside the Old Midleton Distillery in Co. Cork. In 1972, these were joined by the only other remaining Irish operation, Bushmills, so that by the mid-1970s there were only two whiskey distilleries in operation in Ireland, the New Midleton Distillery and the Old Bushmills Distillery, both owned by Irish Distillers, and with only one of these having operated during Irish whiskey's golden years.

text: A resurgence[edit]

text: Production reached a nadir at about 400,000–500,000 cases per annum during this period, down from a height of 12 million cases around 1900.[1] However, the late 1980s saw the beginnings of a long and slow resurgence in the Irish whiskey industry, with the establishment of the Cooley Distillery in 1987, and Pernod Ricard's takeover of Irish Distillers in 1988, which led to increased marketing of Irish whiskeys, in particular Jameson, overseas. Since then Irish whiskey has undergone a major resurgence, and for the past twenty years, has been the fastest growing spirit in the world, with annual growth of approximately 15–20% per annum. In 2010, the Kilbeggan Distillery, which had closed in 1954, reopened, bringing the number of operating distilleries up to four. By August 2017, this figure had grown to eighteen, with at least sixteen more in the planning stages.[2][3] As of 2016, sales of Irish whiskey stood at 8.7 million 9-litres cases, up from 4.4 million cases in 2008, with sales projected to exceed 12 million cases (its historical peak) by 2020, and 24 million by 2030.[21][2] As of 2017, roughly 750 people are employed on a full-time basis in the whiskey industry in Ireland.[22] In addition, it is estimated that the industry provides support to a further 4,200 jobs across agriculture and other sectors of the economy.[22]

text: Regulations and labelling[edit]

text: Legal definition[edit]

text: Irish whiskey is a protected European Geographical Indication (GI) under Regulation (EC) No 110/2008.[23] As of 29 January 2016, production, labelling and marketing of Irish whiskey must be verified by the Irish revenue authorities as conforming with the Department of Agriculture's 2014 technical file for Irish whiskey.[24] Key requirements include specifications that:[25]

text:
Irish whiskey must be distilled on the island of Ireland (comprising the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland) from a mash of malted cereals with or without whole grains of other cereals and which has been:

saccharified by the diastase of malt contained therein, with or without other natural enzymes;
fermented by the action of yeast;
distilled at an alcoholic strength of less than 94.8% alcohol by volume in such a way that the distillate has an aroma and taste derived from the materials used;
subject to the maturation of the final distillate for at least three years in wooden casks, such as oak, not exceeding 700 litres (185 US gal; 154 imp gal) capacity

The distillate, to which only water and plain caramel colouring may be added (E150a), retains its colour, aroma and taste derived from the production process referred to above
Irish whiskey is to have a minimum alcoholic by volume content of 40%
Individual technical specifications for the three varieties of Irish whiskey, "single pot still", "single malt", "single grain", and "blended" whiskey (a mix of these two or more of these varieties) are also outlined in the technical file.[25] The use of the term "single" in the aforementioned varieties being permissible only if the whiskey is totally distilled on the site of a single distillery.[25]
Maturation only takes place on the island of Ireland

tag: ul

text: Labelling[edit]

text: There are several regulations governing the labelling of Irish whiskeys. In particular:[25]

text:
Spirit drinks must not be labelled, packaged, sold, advertised or promoted in such a way to suggest they are Irish whiskey or any of the sub -varieties unless they meet the relevant requirements
Any age statement must refer to the age of the youngest whiskey used
Although traditionally spelled with an 'e', Irish whiskey may be marketed as "Irish whisky"

text: Distilleries in Ireland[edit]

text: Current distilleries[edit]

text: According to the Alcoholic Beverage Federation of Ireland (ABFI), as of August 2017 there are 18 whiskey distilleries in operation in Ireland.[3][2] However, many of these are recently established and have not yet aged their own spirits for sale as whiskey:

text:
Blackwater Distillery (est. 2015) – Currently produces a range of gins, and markets a 17-year old single malt sourced from another distillery.[26][27] However, as of early 2018 the distillery does not have whiskey of its own ready for sale. Blackwater are in the process of building a new distillery which is set to open in summer 2018.[27]
The Connacht Whiskey Company (est. 2014) – plans to release a single pot still whiskey at the end of 2019. Currently produces gin, vodka and poitín. Also markets a single malt sourced from other distilleries.[28]
Cooley Distillery (est. 1987) – when opened it was the only independent distillery in Ireland.[29] Along with its sister distillery in Kilbeggan, it produces the Connemara, Tyrconnell, Kilbeggan and 2Gingers whiskeys. It has been owned by Beam Suntory since 2011.
Dingle Distillery (est. 2012) – distills gin, vodka and whiskey. The first batches of whiskey were released in late 2016.[30] A single pot still whiskey was released in 2017.[31]
Echlinville Distillery (est. 2013) – the first Northern Irish distillery to be granted a distilling licence in almost 125 years.[32] The distillery is relaunching the Dunville's brand, previously produced at the Royal Irish Distillery in Belfast. The distillery also produces gin and poitín.[33]
Glendalough Distillery (est. 2013) – the Glendalough distillery currently ages and finishes whiskeys from other distilleries, and also markets gin and poitin.[34] It is in the process of building a new distillery.[35]
The Great Northern Distillery (est. 2015) – John Teeling, founder of the Cooley distillery developed two distilleries on the site of the Great Northern Brewery in Dundalk. The distilleries began operations in 2015, have a capacity of 50 million bottles per annum.[36]
Kilbeggan Distillery (est. 1757, re-commissioned 2007) - the distillery re-opened in 2007, 54 years to the day after it closed, and 250 years after it was first established.[37] A sister distillery of the Cooley Distillery, both were bought by Beam Suntory in 2011.
New Midleton Distillery (est. 1975) – produces Jameson, Powers, Paddy, Midleton, Redbreast, and others, including the independently sold rarity Green Spot. Owned by Pernod Ricard since 1988
Old Bushmills Distillery (est. 1784) – through a 1608 licence to distil, lays claim to be the oldest licensed distillery in the world.[38] Produces a range of blends (Bushmills Original, Black Bush) and single malts (Bushmills 10, 16 and 21 year olds). Previously owned by Pernod Ricard, and Diageo, since 2014 it has been owned by Jose Cuervo.
Pearse Lyons Distillery (est. 2017) – opened in a converted church on Dublin's Thomas Street in September 2017.[39][40] Alltech previously operated Alltech Craft Distillery in Carlow from 2012–2016.
Rademon Estate Distillery (est. 2015) – the distillery plans to release malt whiskey, its first mature stocks will become available in August 2018. The distillery also produces gin.[41]
Renegade Waterford Distillery (est. 2016) – a craft distillery established in a converted Diageo facility. Production of spirit began in January 2016. The distillery will produce a single malt.[42]
Shed Distillery (est. 2014) – production began in December 2014, therefore, some spirit is now mature enough to be legally sold as whiskey. However, none is yet on sale as the distillery intends to let the whiskey mature for around five years before releasing it.[43] The distillery also produces a gin.[44][45]
Slane Distillery (est. 2018) – Developed and owned by Brown-Forman Corporation, in partnership with Henry and Alex Conyngham, the new distillery was built at the historic Slane Castle estate in the original stable buildings dating back to the early 1700's. Distilling will begin in early 2018. Slane Irish Whiskey is a blended whiskey aged in a unique triple cask maturation process.
Teeling Distillery (est. 2015) – the first new distillery built in Dublin city for over 125 years,[46] it was founded by the Teeling family, who previously established the Cooley Distillery. When the Cooley Distillery was sold in 2011, the Teelings negotiated the purchase of mature stock, which is being used in their whiskeys until mature stock from the new distillery becomes available.[47]
Tullamore Distillery (est. 2014) – opened in September 2014, returning production of Tullamore Dew to Tullamore after a break of sixty years. The distillery has a capacity of 1.5 million cases per year, and is owned by William Grant & Sons.[48][49]
Walsh Whiskey Distillery (est. 2016) – an Irish-Italian venture, 50% owned by Illva Saronno the makers of Tia Maria. The distillery is expected to have a capacity of 500,000 cases per year.[50]
West Cork Distillers (est. 2003) – the distillery produces whiskey, whiskey liqueur, vodka, gin and poitín.[51]

text: In addition, there are a number of independently owned brands, such as Clontarf 1014, that purchase and market whiskey sourced from operating distilleries.[52]

text: Planned or under construction[edit]

text: According the Alcoholic Beverage Federation of Ireland, as of November 2016, at least thirteen new distilleries have been granted planning permission in Ireland, with many other projects in various stages of planning. In addition, to the Alltech and Glendalough distilleries mentioned above, which had previously distilled spirit, planned distilleries include:[3][2]

text:
Ballykeefe Distillery, County Kilkenny
Boann Distillery, Drogheda – a combined distillery and brewery in Drogheda was announced in September 2015. The €20 million Boann Distillery and Boyne Brewhouse project is led by drinks industry businessman Pat Cooney.[53]
Cape Clear Distillery, County Cork
Dublin Whiskey Company, Dublin
Lough Gill Distillery, County Sligo
Nephin Whiskey Distillery, County Mayo – construction is underway after planning permission was granted in 2015.[54]
Powerscourt Distillery, County Wicklow
The Quiet Man Craft Distillery, Derry – to be built by Niche Drinks who are investing £15 million in the project.[55]
Sliabh Liag Distillery, County Donegal
St. James's Gate Distillery, Dublin – in January 2017, Diageo announced plans to invest €25 million in developing a distillery in an old building at the Guinness Brewery, St. James's Gate.[56]

text: Historical distilleries[edit]

text: Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, around 1,000 registered distilleries opened and closed across Ireland - with multiples of this number operating illegally.[13] Most of these have disappeared without a trace, only to be remembered by local street names e.g. Bond Street in Dublin. For instance, the excise return for 1800 lists 40 distilleries operating in Dublin city alone, while Drogheda is estimated to have had 15 distilleries in the 1780s, with as many as ten operating in Cork city in the 19th century.[13] Of these numerous ventures, only one, Bushmills, has remained in continuous operation until the present day. However, the Kilbeggan Distillery (est. 1757) which closed in 1954, reopened in recent years, while a new distillery was constructed in Tullamore to replace an existing distillery which also closed in 1954. Some of the notable distilleries previously in operation across Ireland are listed below.[13]

text:
Avoniel, Belfast, County Antrim (1882–1929)
Belfast Distillery, Belfast, County Antrim (1823–1868)
Cromac Distillery, Belfast, County Antrim (1776–1930)
The Irish Distillery, Connswater, Belfast, County Antrim (1886–1929)
The Royal Irish Distillery, Belfast, County Antrim (1868–1938 or later) – Among Ireland's largest distilleries in the 1890s, the Royal Irish was the home of Dunville's whisky. Although the distillery is now gone, Dunville's was resurrected as an Irish whiskey brand by the Echlinville Distillery in 2013.
Bandon Distillery, Bandon, County Cork (1826–1929) – At its peak, Allman's distillery in Bandon was the largest rural distillery in Ireland, with an output of over 500,000 gallons per annum.[13]
Glen Distillery, Kilnap, County Cork (1802–1925)
Hackett’s Distillery, Midleton, County Cork (1824–c.1845)
Old Midleton Distillery, Midleton. County Cork (1825–1975) – Home to the World's largest pot still, the Old Midleton Distillery closed in 1975 when Irish Distillers concentrated production in a new purpose-built facility constructed along the distillery. It now operates as a visitor centre.
North Mall, Cork, County Cork (1779–1920)
Watercourse, Cork, County Cork (1795–1975)
The Green, Blackpool, County Cork (1796–1870)
Daly's Distillery, County Cork (1807–1869)
Burt Distillery, County Donegal (1814–1841)
Comber Distilleries, County Down (1825–1953)
Bow Street Distillery, Dublin (1780–1971) – Run by John Jameson & Son, Bow Street was one of the "big four" Dublin distilleries and the original home of Jameson Irish Whiskey. At its peak Bow Street was the second largest distillery in Ireland and one of the largest in the World, with an output of one million gallons per annum. In the 1970s, production was moved to the New Midleton Distllery, County Cork and the Bow Street Distillery now operates as a visitors' centre.
Dodder Bank Distilleries, Dublin
John's Lane Distillery, Dublin (1796–1976) – Run by James Power & Son, John's Lane was one of the "big four" Dublin distilleries, and the original home of Power's Irish Whiskey. The distillery had an output of 900,000 gallons per annum in the 1880s.[19] Production was moved to Midleton in the 1970s.
Jones Road Distillery, Dublin (1873–c.1945)
Marrowbone Lane Distillery, Dublin (late 1700s–1920s) – One of the "big four" Dublin distilleries, Marrowbone Lane was run by William Jameson & Co. (not to be confused with John Jameson & Son above). At its peak Marrowbone Lane had some of the largest capital equipment of any whiskey distillery worldwide.[13]
Phoenix Park, Chapelizod, Dublin (1878–1921)
Thomas Street Distillery, Dublin (1757–1926) – Run by the Roe Family, one of the "big four" Dublin Distilling Dynasties, Thomas Street Distillery was once the largest in the British Isles, with an output of two million gallons per annum at its peak.[13] It was located opposite Guinness' St. James' Gate brewery, which itself was the largest brewery in the World at one point. After the distillery was closed, some of its buildings were purchased and incorporated into the Guinness Brewery. In particular, the landmark St. Patrick's Tower, which dates from 1757 and is one of the oldest smock windmills in Europe,[13] is still visible on the site of the Guinness brewery. In 2017, Diageo announced plans to relaunch the Roe & Co whiskey brand, and to establish a new distillery in an old power plant building at the Guinness Brewery, meters from the site of the original Thomas Street Distillery.[56]
Burke's Distillery, County Galway (mid 1820s–c.1850)
Nun's Island Distillery, County Galway (1846 or earlier–1915)
Monasterevan, County Kildare (1784–c.1921)
White Horse Distillery, Mountrath, County Laois – named after a local river, this distillery is notable as local folklore suggests that either the distillery or its name were purchased by a Scottish whisky firm in the 1800s.[13] If true, this would mark an interesting turning point in the rise and fall of the whiskey industries in the respective countries.
Walker's/Thomand Gate, County Limerick (c.1820–c.1905)
Abbey Street, County Londonderry (c.1790–1925)
Waterside, County Londonderry (1820–1925)
Coleraine, County Londonderry (1820–1978)
Limavady, County Londonderry (1805–1914)
Drogheda Distillery, County Louth (1782–1850 or later)
Dundalk Distillery, County Louth (1708–1926) – one of the oldest distilleries in Ireland, Dundalk Distillery had the distinction of having Ireland's largest chimney.[13]
Westport Distillery, County Mayo (1826–c.1860)
Birr Distillery, County Offaly (1805-1890)
Tullamore Distillery, County Offaly (1829–1954) – once one of Ireland's most successful distilleries, Tullamore Dew, one of Ireland's most well known whiskeys was originally produced here.
Marlfield Distillery, Clonmel, County Tipperary (1817–1856)
Bishop's Water Distillery, Wexford (1827–1915)

text: Types[edit]

text: Irish whiskey comes in several forms, with the name of the style depending on the type of grain used and the distillation process. Traditionally, Irish whiskey was produced in pot stills. Irish whiskeys made in a pot still fall into two categories.

text: Single malt Irish whiskey[edit]

text: Whiskeys made entirely from malted barley distilled in a pot still within a single distillery are referred to as single malt whiskeys, a style also very commonly associated with Scotch whisky. These may be double or triple distilled.[18]

text: Single pot still whiskey[edit]

text: Single pot still whiskey is made from a mixture of malted and unmalted barley completely distilled in a pot still within a single distillery. This differs from single malt whiskey through the inclusion of raw, unmalted grain in the mash. This style has also historically been referred to as "pure pot still" whiskey and "Irish pot still whiskey", with older bottlings and memorabilia often bearing these names. Single pot whiskeys were the most common style of Irish whiskey until the emergence of blends in the 20th century.[18]

text: Grain whiskey[edit]

text: Whiskey produced from continuous distillation in a column or Coffey still, rather than a pot still, is referred to as grain whiskey. This may be produced from a variety of grains. Lighter and more neutral in taste, this spirit is rarely found on its own, though some examples exist. The vast majority of grain whiskey is used to make blended whiskey, a product made by mixing column still product with richer and more intense pot still product.

text: Blended whiskey[edit]

text: A mixture of the above styles. Regardless of whether the blended whiskey is made from combining grain whiskey with either single malt whiskey or with single pot still whiskey or both, it is labelled with the same terminology. Blended whiskeys are now the most common style of both Irish and Scotch whiskeys.[18]

text: Examples[edit]

text:
Blends: Black Bush, Bushmills Original, Clontarf, Inishowen, Jameson, Kilbeggan, Locke's Blend, Midleton Very Rare, Millars, Paddy, Powers, Tullamore Dew
Single pot still: Green Spot, Redbreast (12, 15, 21 years), Yellow Spot
Single malt: Bushmills (10, 16, 21 years), Connemara Peated Malt (Regular, Cask Strength and 12 years), Locke's Single Malt (8 years), Tullamore Dew Single Malt (10-year), Tyrconnell
Single grain: Kilbeggan Single Grain (8, 10, 15, 18 years), Teeling's Single Grain


document_title: Preamble to the United States Constitution

question_text: who wrote the preamble to the constitution of the united states of america

text: Text

text: We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence,[note 1] promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.

text: Drafting

text: The Preamble was placed in the Constitution during the last days of the Constitutional Convention by the Committee on Style, which wrote its final draft, with Gouverneur Morris leading the effort. It was not proposed or discussed on the floor of the convention beforehand. The initial wording of the preamble did not refer to the people of the United States, rather, it referred to people of the various states, which was the norm. In earlier documents, including the 1778 Treaty of Alliance with France, the Articles of Confederation, and the 1783 Treaty of Paris recognizing American independence, the word "people" was not used, and the phrase the United States was followed immediately by a listing of the states, from north to south.[1]  The change was made out of necessity, as the Constitution provided that whenever the popularly elected ratifying conventions of nine states gave their approval, it would go into effect for those nine, irrespective of whether any of the remaining states ratified.[2]

text: Meaning and application

text: The Preamble serves solely as an introduction, and does not assign powers to the federal government,[3] nor does it provide specific limitations on government action. Due to the Preamble's limited nature, no court has ever used it as a decisive factor in case adjudication,[4] except as regards frivolous litigation.[5]

text: Judicial relevance

text: The courts have shown interest in any clues they can find in the Preamble regarding the Constitution's meaning.[6] Courts have developed several techniques for interpreting the meaning of statutes and these are also used to interpret the Constitution.[7] As a result, the courts have said that interpretive techniques that focus on the exact text of a document[8] should be used in interpreting the meaning of the Constitution. Balanced against these techniques are those that focus more attention on broader efforts to discern the meaning of the document from more than just the wording;[9] the Preamble is also useful for these efforts to identify the "spirit" of the Constitution.

text: Additionally, when interpreting a legal document, courts are usually interested in understanding the document as its authors did and their motivations for creating it;[10] as a result, the courts have cited the Preamble for evidence of the history, intent and meaning of the Constitution as it was understood by the Founders.[11] Although revolutionary in some ways, the Constitution maintained many common law concepts (such as habeas corpus, trial by jury, and sovereign immunity),[12] and courts deem that the Founders' perceptions of the legal system that the Constitution created (i.e., the interaction between what it changed and what it kept from the British legal system[13]) are uniquely important because of the authority "the People" invested them with to create it.[14] Along with evidence of the understandings of the men who debated and drafted the Constitution at the Constitutional Convention, the courts are also interested in the way that government officials have put into practice the Constitution's provisions, particularly early government officials,[15] although the courts reserve to themselves the final authority to determine the Constitution's meaning.[16] However, this focus on historical understandings of the Constitution is sometimes in tension with the changed circumstances of modern society from the late 18th century society that drafted the Constitution; courts have ruled that the Constitution must be interpreted in light of these changed circumstances.[17] All of these considerations of the political theory behind the Constitution have prompted the Supreme Court to articulate a variety of special rules of construction and principles for interpreting it.[18] For example, the Court's rendering of the purposes behind the Constitution have led it to express a preference for broad interpretations of individual freedoms.[19]

text: Examples

text: An example of the way courts utilize the Preamble is Ellis v. City of Grand Rapids.[20] Substantively, the case was about eminent domain. The City of Grand Rapids wanted to use eminent domain to force landowners to sell property in the city identified as "blighted", and convey the property to owners that would develop it in ostensibly beneficial ways: in this case, to St. Mary's Hospital, a Catholic organization. This area of substantive constitutional law is governed by the Fifth Amendment, which is understood to require that property acquired via eminent domain must be put to a "public use". In deciding whether the proposed project constituted a "public use", the court pointed to the Preamble's reference to "promot[ing] the general Welfare" as evidence that "[t]he health of the people was in the minds of our forefathers".[21] "[T]he concerted effort for renewal and expansion of hospital and medical care centers, as a part of our nation's system of hospitals, is as a public service and use within the highest meaning of such terms. Surely this is in accord with an objective of the United States Constitution: '* * * promote the general Welfare.'"[22]

text: On the other hand, courts will not interpret the Preamble to give the government powers that are not articulated elsewhere in the Constitution. United States v. Kinnebrew Motor Co.[23] is an example of this. In that case, the defendants were a car manufacturer and dealership indicted for a criminal violation of the National Industrial Recovery Act. The Congress passed the statute in order to cope with the Great Depression, and one of its provisions purported to give to the President authority to fix "the prices at which new cars may be sold".[24] The dealership, located in Oklahoma City, had sold an automobile to a customer (also from Oklahoma City) for less than the price for new cars fixed pursuant to the Act. Substantively, the case was about whether the transaction in question constituted "interstate commerce" that Congress could regulate pursuant to the Commerce Clause.[25] Although the government argued that the scope of the Commerce Clause included this transaction, it also argued that the Preamble's statement that the Constitution was created to "promote the general Welfare" should be understood to permit Congress to regulate transactions such as the one in this case, particularly in the face of an obvious national emergency like the Great Depression. The court, however, dismissed this argument as erroneous[26] and insisted that the only relevant issue was whether the transaction that prompted the indictment actually constituted "interstate commerce" under the Supreme Court's precedents that interpreted the scope of the Commerce Clause.[27]

text: Interpretation

text: Aspects of national sovereignty

text: The Preamble's reference to the "United States of America" has been interpreted over the years to explain the nature of the governmental entity that the Constitution created (i.e., the federal government). In contemporary international law, the world consists of sovereign states (or "sovereign nations" in modern equivalent). A state is said to be "sovereign," if any of its ruling inhabitants are the supreme authority over it; the concept is distinct from mere land-title or "ownership."[28] While each state was originally recognized as sovereign unto itself, the Supreme Court held that the "United States of America" consists of only one sovereign nation with respect to foreign affairs and international relations; the individual states may not conduct foreign relations.[29] Although the Constitution expressly delegates to the federal government only some of the usual powers of sovereign governments (such as the powers to declare war and make treaties), all such powers inherently belong to the federal government as the country's representative in the international community.[30]

text: Domestically, the federal government's sovereignty means that it may perform acts such as entering into contracts or accepting bonds, which are typical of governmental entities but not expressly provided for in the Constitution or laws.[31] Similarly, the federal government, as an attribute of sovereignty, has the power to enforce those powers that are granted to it (e.g., the power to "establish Post Offices and Post Roads"[32] includes the power to punish those who interfere with the postal system so established).[33] The Court has recognized the federal government's supreme power[34] over those limited matters[35] entrusted to it. Thus, no state may interfere with the federal government's operations as though its sovereignty is superior to the federal government's (discussed more below); for example, states may not interfere with the federal government's near absolute discretion to sell its own real property, even when that real property is located in one or another state.[36] The federal government exercises its supreme power not as a unitary entity, but instead via the three coordinate branches of the government (legislative, executive, and judicial),[37] each of which has its own prescribed powers and limitations under the Constitution.[38] In addition, the doctrine of separation of powers functions as a limitation on each branch of the federal government's exercise of sovereign power.[39]

text: One aspect of the American system of government is that, while the rest of the world now views the United States as one country, domestically American constitutional law recognizes a federation of state governments separate from (and not subdivisions of) the federal government, each of which is sovereign over its own affairs.[40] Sometimes, the Supreme Court has even analogized the States to being foreign countries to each other to explain the American system of State sovereignty.[41] However, each state's sovereignty is limited by the U.S. Constitution, which is the supreme law of both the United States as a nation and each state;[42] in the event of a conflict, a valid federal law controls.[43] As a result, although the federal government is (as discussed above) recognized as sovereign and has supreme power over those matters within its control, the American constitutional system also recognizes the concept of "State sovereignty," where certain matters are susceptible to government regulation, but only at the State and not the federal level.[44] For example, although the federal government prosecutes crimes against the United States (such as treason, or interference with the postal system), the general administration of criminal justice is reserved to the States.[45] Notwithstanding sometimes broad statements by the Supreme Court regarding the "supreme" and "exclusive" powers the State and Federal governments exercise,[46] the Supreme Court and State courts have also recognized that much of their power is held and exercised concurrently.[47]

text: People of the United States

text: The phrase "People of the United States" has sometimes been understood to mean "citizens." This approach reasons that, if the political community speaking for itself in the Preamble ("We the People") includes only citizens, by negative implication it specifically excludes non-citizens in some fashion.[48] It has also been construed to mean something like "all under the sovereign jurisdiction and authority of the United States."[49] The phrase has been construed as affirming that the national government created by the Constitution derives its sovereignty from the people,[50] (whereas "United Colonies" had identified external monarchical sovereignty) as well as confirming that the government under the Constitution was intended to govern and protect "the people" directly, as one society, instead of governing only the states as political units.[51] The Court has also understood this language to mean that the sovereignty of the government under the U.S. Constitution is superior to that of the States.[52] Stated in negative terms, the Preamble has been interpreted as meaning that the Constitution was not the act of sovereign and independent states.[53]

text: The popular nature of the Constitution

text: The Constitution claims to be an act of "We the People." However, because it represents a general social contract, there are limits on the ability of individual citizens to pursue legal claims allegedly arising out of the Constitution. For example, if a law was enacted which violated the Constitution, not just anybody could challenge the statute's constitutionality in court; instead, only an individual who was negatively affected by the unconstitutional statute could bring such a challenge.[54] For example, a person claiming certain benefits that are created by a statute cannot then challenge, on constitutional grounds, the administrative mechanism that awards them.[55] These same principles apply to corporate entities,[56] and can implicate the doctrine of exhaustion of remedies.[57]

text: In this same vein, courts will not answer hypothetical questions about the constitutionality of a statute.[58] The judiciary does not have the authority to invalidate unconstitutional laws solely because they are unconstitutional, but may declare a law unconstitutional if its operation would injure a person's interests.[59] For example, creditors who lose some measure of what they are owed when a bankrupt's debts are discharged cannot claim injury, because Congress' power to enact bankruptcy laws is also in the Constitution and inherent in it is the ability to declare certain debts valueless.[60] Similarly, while a person may not generally challenge as unconstitutional a law that they are not accused of violating,[61] once charged, a person may challenge the law's validity, even if the challenge is unrelated to the circumstances of the crime.[62]

text: Where the Constitution is legally effective

text: The Preamble has been used to confirm that the Constitution was made for, and is binding only in, the United States of America.[63] For example, in Casement v. Squier,[64] a serviceman in China during World War II was convicted of murder in the United States Court for China. After being sent to prison in the State of Washington, he filed a writ of habeas corpus with the local federal court, claiming he had been unconstitutionally put on trial without a jury.[65] The court held that, since his trial was conducted by an American court and was, by American standards, basically fair, he was not entitled to the specific constitutional right of trial by jury while overseas.[66]

text: Since the Preamble declares the Constitution to have been created by the "People of the United States", "there may be places within the jurisdiction of the United States that are no part of the Union."[67] The following examples help demonstrate the meaning of this distinction:[68]

text:
Geofroy v. Riggs, 133 U.S. 258 (1890): the Supreme Court held that a certain treaty between the United States and France which was applicable in "the States of the Union" was also applicable in Washington, D.C., even though it is not a state or a part of a state.
De Lima v. Bidwell, 182 U.S. 1 (1901): the Supreme Court ruled that a customs collector could not, under a statute providing for taxes on imported goods, collect taxes on goods coming from Puerto Rico after it had been ceded to the United States from Spain, reasoning that although it was not a State, it was under the jurisdiction of U.S. sovereignty, and thus the goods were not being imported from a foreign country. However, in Downes v. Bidwell, 182 U.S. 244 (1901), the Court held that the Congress could constitutionally enact a statute taxing goods sent from Puerto Rico to ports in the United States differently from other commerce, in spite of the constitutional requirement that "all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States,"[69] on the theory that although Puerto Rico could not be treated as a foreign country, it did not count as part of the "United States" and thus was not guaranteed "uniform" tax treatment by that clause of the Constitution. This was not the only constitutional clause held not to apply in Puerto Rico: later, a lower court went on to hold that goods brought from Puerto Rico into New York before the enactment of the tax statute held constitutional in Downes, could retroactively have the taxes applied to them notwithstanding the Constitution's ban on ex post facto laws, even if at the time they were brought into the United States no tax could be applied to the goods because Puerto Rico was not a foreign country.[70]
Ochoa v. Hernandez y Morales, 230 U.S. 139 (1913): the Fifth Amendment's requirement that "no person shall . . . be deprived of . . . property, without due process of law" was held, by the Supreme Court, to apply in Puerto Rico, even though it was not a State and thus not "part" of the United States.

text: To form a more perfect Union

text: The phrase "to form a more perfect Union" has been construed as referring to the shift to the Constitution from the Articles of Confederation.[71] The contemporary meaning of the word "perfect" was complete, finished, fully informed, confident, or certain.[72] The phrase has been interpreted in various ways throughout history based on the context of the times. For example, shortly after the Civil War and the ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment, the Supreme Court said that the "Union" was made "more perfect" by the creation of a federal government with enough power to act directly upon citizens, rather than a government with narrowly limited power that could act on citizens only indirectly through the states, e.g., by imposing taxes.[73] Also, the institution was created as a government over the States and people, not an agreement (union) between the States.[74]

text: Later, the phrase came to mean the continual process of improvement of the country.[75]

text: To know what has come before is to be armed against despair. If the men and women of the past, with all their flaws and limitations and ambitions and appetites, could press on through ignorance and superstition, racism and sexism, selfishness and greed, to create a freer, stronger nation, then perhaps we, too, can right wrongs and take another step toward that most enchanting and elusive destinations: a more perfect Union."

text: The phrase has also been interpreted to support the federal supremacy clause and that state nullification of any federal law,[76] dissolution of the Union,[77] or secession from it,[78] are not contemplated by the Constitution.


document_title: Walter Payton NFL Man of the Year Award

question_text: who votes for nfl man of the year

question_tokens: who votes for nfl man of the year

text: Walter Payton NFL Man of the Year Award

text:
Walter Payton Man of the Year

Given for
Excellence off the field regarding an NFL player's charity work.

Location
Varies

Presented by
National Football League

History

First award
1970 to Johnny Unitas

Most recent
J.J. Watt

Website
www.nfl.com/manoftheyear/

tag: table

text: The Walter Payton NFL Man of the Year award is presented annually by the National Football League (NFL) honoring a player's volunteer and charity work, as well as his excellence on the field. Prior to 1999, it was called simply the NFL Man of the Year Award. Shortly after Chicago Bears running back Walter Payton died (having been the 1977 recipient himself), the award was renamed to honor his legacy as a humanitarian. Each year, a winner is selected from 32 nominees from the 32 different teams. A panel of judges, which includes the Commissioner of the NFL, Connie Payton (widow of Walter Payton), the previous year's winner, and a number of former players select the winner of the award. The Man of the Year winner receives a $50,000 donation in his name to a charity of his choice. The other 31 finalists also receive donations in their name of $5,000 each to charities of their choice. The Chicago Bears and Kansas City Chiefs have had more winners of the award than any other team, with 5 winners each.

text: Each winner who is currently active in the league, beginning in Week 14 of the 2017 season, has a patch on their uniforms. The currently active winners are: Drew Brees, Thomas Davis, Larry Fitzgerald, Eli Manning, J.J. Watt, and Jason Witten. The nominees of each team are given a helmet decal to wear for the remainder of the season.[1]

text: Winners[edit]

text:
Year
Player
Position
Team
Ref

1970
Johnny Unitas
Quarterback
Baltimore Colts
[2]

1971
Hadl, JohnJohn Hadl
Quarterback
San Diego Chargers
[3]

1972
Lanier, WillieWillie Lanier
Linebacker
Kansas City Chiefs

1973
Dawson, LenLen Dawson
Quarterback
Kansas City Chiefs

1974
Blanda, GeorgeGeorge Blanda
Quarterback
Oakland Raiders

1975
Anderson, KenKen Anderson
Quarterback
Cincinnati Bengals

1976
Harris, FrancoFranco Harris
Running back
Pittsburgh Steelers

1977
Payton, WalterWalter Payton
Running back
Chicago Bears

1978
Staubach, RogerRoger Staubach
Quarterback
Dallas Cowboys

1979
Greene, JoeJoe Greene
Defensive Tackle
Pittsburgh Steelers

1980
Carmichael, HaroldHarold Carmichael
Wide receiver
Philadelphia Eagles

1981
Swann, LynnLynn Swann
Wide receiver
Pittsburgh Steelers

1982
Theismann, JoeJoe Theismann
Quarterback
Washington Redskins

1983
Benirschke, RolfRolf Benirschke
Placekicker
San Diego Chargers

1984
Lyons, MartyMarty Lyons
Defensive tackle
New York Jets

1985
Stephenson, DwightDwight Stephenson
Center
Miami Dolphins

1986
Williams, ReggieReggie Williams
Linebacker
Cincinnati Bengals

1987
Duerson, DaveDave Duerson
Safety
Chicago Bears

1988
Largent, SteveSteve Largent
Wide receiver
Seattle Seahawks

1989
Moon, WarrenWarren Moon
Quarterback
Houston Oilers

1990
Singletary, MikeMike Singletary
Linebacker
Chicago Bears

1991
Muñoz, AnthonyAnthony Muñoz
Offensive tackle
Cincinnati Bengals

1992
Elway, JohnJohn Elway
Quarterback
Denver Broncos

1993
Thomas, DerrickDerrick Thomas
Linebacker
Kansas City Chiefs

1994
Seau, JuniorJunior Seau
Linebacker
San Diego Chargers

1995
Esiason, BoomerBoomer Esiason
Quarterback
New York Jets

1996
Green, DarrellDarrell Green
Cornerback
Washington Redskins

1997
Aikman, TroyTroy Aikman
Quarterback
Dallas Cowboys

1998
Marino, DanDan Marino
Quarterback
Miami Dolphins

1999
Carter, CrisCris Carter
Wide receiver
Minnesota Vikings

2000
Brooks, DerrickDerrick Brooks
Linebacker
Tampa Bay Buccaneers

Flanigan, JimJim Flanigan
Defensive tackle
Chicago Bears

2001
Bettis, JeromeJerome Bettis
Running back
Pittsburgh Steelers

2002
Vincent, TroyTroy Vincent
Cornerback
Philadelphia Eagles

2003
Shields, WillWill Shields
Guard
Kansas City Chiefs

2004
Dunn, WarrickWarrick Dunn
Running back
Atlanta Falcons

2005
Manning, PeytonPeyton Manning
Quarterback
Indianapolis Colts

2006
Brees, DrewDrew Brees
Quarterback
New Orleans Saints

Tomlinson, LaDainianLaDainian Tomlinson
Running back
San Diego Chargers

2007
Taylor, JasonJason Taylor
Defensive end
Miami Dolphins

2008
Warner, KurtKurt Warner
Quarterback
Arizona Cardinals
[4]

2009
Waters, BrianBrian Waters
Guard
Kansas City Chiefs
[5]

2010
Williams, MadieuMadieu Williams
Safety
Minnesota Vikings
[6]

2011
Birk, MattMatt Birk
Center
Baltimore Ravens

2012
Witten, JasonJason Witten
Tight end
Dallas Cowboys

2013
Tillman, CharlesCharles Tillman
Cornerback
Chicago Bears

2014
Davis, ThomasThomas Davis
Linebacker
Carolina Panthers

2015
Boldin, AnquanAnquan Boldin
Wide receiver
San Francisco 49ers
[7]

2016
Fitzgerald, LarryLarry Fitzgerald
Wide receiver
Arizona Cardinals
[8]

Manning, EliEli Manning
Quarterback
New York Giants
[8]

2017
Watt, J. J.J. J. Watt
Defensive end
Houston Texans