document_title: America's Team

question_text: who gave the cowboys the nickname america's team

question_tokens: who gave the cowboys the nickname america 's team

text: America's Team

text: History[edit]

text: Bob Ryan, now Vice President and editor-in-chief of NFL Films, coined this for the Cowboys while preparing and editing the team’s 1978 season highlight film.[6] He was quoted as saying:

text: I wanted to come up with a different twist on their team highlight film. I noticed then, and had noticed earlier, that wherever the Cowboys played, you saw people in the stands with Cowboys jerseys and hats and pennants. Plus, they were always the national game on television.

text: Ryan told the NFL Network for their Top Ten Nicknames show:

text: I saw all these fans in away stadiums. Hey, they're the most popular team in the country. How can I use that? Why don't we call them "America's Team"? [1]

text: During the Cowboys' first game of the 1979 season, a nationally televised game against the St. Louis Cardinals (Dallas won 22-21), the television announcer for CBS introduced the Cowboys as America’s Team and the name just stuck.

text: Dallas' Hall of Fame coach Tom Landry originally did not approve of the appellation of America's Team. He felt that it would give opposing teams extra incentive to play harder. Eventually he gave in and actually came to like the name.[7] The nickname was coined at the height of Landry's then-NFL record 20 consecutive winning season streak, during which Dallas appeared in 12 conference championship games (counting the 1966-67 league championships) and five Super Bowls, and was exemplified on the field by the iconic Hall of Fame quarterback Roger Staubach, but the team's popularity has continued over the decades during periods of both mediocrity and dynastic success.[8]

text: Records and media[edit]

text:
NFL Films The Dallas Cowboys

The Dallas Cowboys: The Complete History of America's Team 1960-2003 DVD Cover

Directed by
NFL Films

Starring
The Dallas Cowboys

Distributed by
Warner Home Video

Release date

November 25, 2003

Running time

73:00

Language
English

text: In 2003, NFL Films released a DVD collection chronicling the Dallas Cowboys franchise entitled The Dallas Cowboys: The Complete History of America's Team 1960-2003. In 2008, NFL Films would release an updated DVD of The History of the Dallas Cowboys.

text: The popularity of the Cowboys as America's Team has been supported by such NFL records as "Team with Most Consecutive Sold Out Games", a streak of 160 home and away games (including playoffs) that began on December 23, 1990, at Philadelphia's Veterans Stadium and came to an end on December 24, 1999, in a Christmas Eve game against the New Orleans Saints in the Louisiana Superdome.[9] Other examples are the NFL games featuring the Cowboys that result in record-breaking ratings at the time of broadcast, such as 7 of the 8 Super Bowl games featuring the Cowboys and the NFC Championship Game between the Cowboys and 49ers, the only non-Super Bowl NFL game to be ranked in the Top 45 Primetime Telecasts of All Time. Dallas is the only NFL team that distributes its own merchandise, which remains among the league's top selling even during losing seasons. As of 2012 the Cowboys were the most valuable American sports franchise at $2.1 billion.[10] Among the many Cowboys innovations that have contributed to their distinct reputation are their professional, overtly beautiful, all female cheerleader squad, nicknamed "America's Sweethearts", that has since been copied around the NFL but still stands out as singularly iconic, and has been the subject of multiple movies, has made numerous national television appearances, routinely tours with the USO, makes other appearances around the world, and has been featured in its own long running reality show on CMT.

text: In 2012 an ESPN poll found that the Cowboys are the most popular NFL team, a result consistently echoed in annual Harris polling.[11]

text: Other uses[edit]

text: Franchises with long successful histories and large nationwide fan bases are occasionally referred to as America's Team.

text: The Atlanta Braves laid claim to the name due to their games being broadcast on cable television systems nationwide on WTBS, building a fan base in areas of the United States far removed from a Major League Baseball team. A 1982 issue of Sports Illustrated had referred to the Braves as "America's Team II".[12]

text: As a jab against the Cowboys before Super Bowl XXVII, Buffalo Bills coach Marv Levy proclaimed his team to be America's Team because they would be "wearing red, white, and blue".[13] The Cowboys, which wear white, silver, and blue, went on to defeat the Bills 52-17.

text: Pittsburgh Steelers owner Art Rooney dismissed the suggestion that the Steelers were "America's Team." "'We didn't want that,' Rooney said. 'We're Pittsburgh's team. We feel strongly about that.'"[14]

text: In an ESPN.com article titled, "The Great Debate: 'America's Team'," four sports writers stated their case as to why three other teams besides the Cowboys could lay claim to the nickname of America's Team.[15]

text:
James Walker said the name should be given to the Pittsburgh Steelers since they have the most Super Bowl wins at six.
Kevin Seifert said that the Green Bay Packers could be considered America's Team due to their unique ownership situation. They "are now owned by 112,120 shareholders who possess about 4.75 million shares of stock. A seven-member executive committee, elected by the board of directors and comprised mostly of local residents, operates the team."
Tim Graham said the New England Patriots have a right at the name since they dominated the NFL for the entire first decade of the new millennium, by virtue of their team name and colors (red, white and blue) and having been formed in Boston, the "Cradle of Liberty".

text: Following their win in Super Bowl XLIV, a few media writers referred to the New Orleans Saints as "America's Team", as their successful bid to win the Super Bowl was seen by many to represent the city's resurgence after the devastation of Hurricane Katrina ("for one game, the Saints are America's Team").[16]

text: After several "Cinderella" runs in the NCAA tournament, the Gonzaga Bulldogs men's basketball team has been called "America's Team" as well.[17][18][19]

text: During their ArenaBowl XXII championship run in 2008, Philadelphia Soul owner Ron Jaworski referred to the Soul as "America's Team" of the Arena Football League.[20]


document_title: Feels Like Home (song)

question_text: what movie is the song feels like home in

root

text: Feels Like Home (song)

text: This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text:
"Feels Like Home"Single by Chantal Kreviazukfrom the album Songs from Dawson's Creek and How to Lose a Guy in 10 Days (soundtrack)Released
1999Format
CD singleLength
4:42Label
ColumbiaSongwriter(s)
Randy NewmanChantal Kreviazuk singles chronology

"Leaving on a Jet Plane" (1998)

"Feels Like Home" (1999)

"Before You" (1999)

"Leaving on a Jet Plane"(1998)

"Feels Like Home"(1999)

"Before You" (1999)

text: "Feels Like Home" is a song written by Randy Newman for the musical Randy Newman's Faust, in which Bonnie Raitt sung it.  Linda Ronstadt, also involved in the musical, recorded it for Trio II in 1994, but released it for solo album Feels Like Home in March 1995.  Raitt's version was released on the musical's album soundtrack in September 1995.  Raitt's version was also used the following year in the soundtrack to the film Michael.  Linda Ronstadt's original version, with Emmylou Harris and Dolly Parton, the latter of whom was mixed out of Ronstadt's original release due to label disputes, was released in 1999.

tag: p

text: The most successful version of the song was a version sung by Chantal Kreviazuk and released as a single from the 1999 soundtrack Songs from Dawson's Creek. The Kreviazuk version reached the top 40 in Ireland and the top 20 in the Canadian adult contemporary chart, and was later included on some editions of her 2002 album What If It All Means Something.

text: Other versions[edit]

text: Various other artists have recorded the song, including:

text:
Randy Newman for his 2008 album Harps and Angels, as well as live versions in the 1998 box set Guilty: 30 Years of Randy Newman and the 2011 album Live in London
Mario Frangoulis for his 2008 album Mario & Friends: What a Wonderful World
Edwina Hayes for her 2008 album Pour Me A Drink and the soundtrack to the film My Sister's Keeper
Josh Groban for some editions of his 2010 album Illuminations
Neil Diamond for his 2010 album Dreams
Jai McDowall for his 2011 album Believe
Aled Jones for his 2011 album Forever
Katie Melua for her 2012 album Secret Symphony Bonus Edition.
Charlotte Jaconelli for her 2014 album Solitaire
Diana Krall and Bryan Adams for Krall's 2015 album Wallflower
Judy Collins and Jackson Browne for Collins' 2015 album Strangers Again
Inger Marie Gundersen for her 2018 album Feels Like Home

tag: ul

text: Charts (Chantal Kreviazuk version)[edit]

text:
Chart (1999)

Peakposition

Irish Singles Chart[1]

40

Canadian Adult Contemporary[2]

12


document_title: Tyne Cot

question_text: how did tyne cot cemetery get its name

question_tokens: how did tyne cot cemetery get its name

text: Tyne Cot

text: Name[edit]

text: The name "Tyne Cot" is said to come from the Northumberland Fusiliers, seeing a resemblance between the many German concrete pill boxes on this site and typical Tyneside workers' cottages (Tyne cots).[2] Tyne Cot CWGC Cemetery lies on a broad rise in the landscape which overlooks the surrounding countryside. As such, the location was strategically important to both sides fighting in the area. The concrete shelters which still stand in various parts of the cemetery were part of a fortified position of the German Flandern I Stellung,[3] which played an important role in the area during the Battle of Passchendaele in 1917.

text: Tyne Cot Commonwealth War Graves Cemetery[edit]

text: On 4 October 1917, the area where Tyne Cot CWGC Cemetery is now located was captured by the 3rd Australian Division and the New Zealand Division and two days later a cemetery for British and Canadian war dead was begun. The cemetery was recaptured by German forces on 13 April 1918 and was finally liberated by Belgian forces on 28 September.[4]

text: After the Armistice in November 1918, the cemetery was greatly enlarged from its original 343 graves[4] by concentrating graves from the battlefields, smaller cemeteries nearby and from Langemark.[1]

text: The cemetery grounds were assigned to the United Kingdom in perpetuity by King Albert I of Belgium in recognition of the sacrifices made by the British Empire in the defence and liberation of Belgium during the war.

text: The Cross of Sacrifice that marks many CWGC cemeteries was built on top of a German pill box in the centre of the cemetery, purportedly at the suggestion of King George V, who visited the cemetery in 1922 as it neared completion.[1] The King's visit, described in the poem The King's Pilgrimage, included a speech in which he said:

text: We can truly say that the whole circuit of the Earth is girdled with the graves of our dead. In the course of my pilgrimage, I have many times asked myself whether there can be more potent advocates of peace upon Earth through the years to come, than this massed multitude of silent witnesses to the desolation of war.

text: The cemetery was designed by Sir Herbert Baker. The land on which the cemetery stands is the free gift in perpetuity of the Belgian people to those who are honoured here.[6]

text: Notable graves[edit]

text: The cemetery has several notable graves and memorials, including the grave of Private James Peter Robertson (1883–1917), a Canadian awarded the Victoria Cross for bravery in rushing a machine gun emplacement and rescuing two men from under heavy fire. He was killed saving the second of these men on 6 November 1917.[1]

text: Two Australian recipients of the Victoria Cross buried in the cemetery are Captain Clarence Smith Jeffries (1894–1917), and Sergeant Lewis McGee (1888–1917). Jeffries led an assault party and rushed one of the strong points at the First Battle of Passchendaele on 12 October 1917, capturing four machine guns and thirty five prisoners, before running his company forward again. He was planning another attack when he was killed by an enemy gunner. On the same day, McGee, who had earned his decoration eight days earlier at Broodseinde, was killed charging an enemy pillbox in the same battle.

text: Also at Tyne Cot, behind the Cross of Sacrifice which was constructed on top of an old German pillbox in the middle of the cemetery, there are 4 German graves, buried alongside Commonwealth graves. These graves are of men that were treated here after the battle, when the pillbox underneath the main cross was used as a Dressing Station for wounded men.

text: Tyne Cot Memorial to the Missing[edit]

text: The stone wall surrounding the cemetery makes-up the Tyne Cot Memorial to the Missing, one of several Commonwealth War Graves Commission Memorials to the Missing along the Western Front. The UK missing lost in the Ypres Salient are commemorated at the Menin Gate memorial to the missing in Ypres and the Tyne Cot Memorial. Upon completion of the Menin Gate, builders discovered it was not large enough to contain all the names as originally planned.[7] They selected an arbitrary cut-off date of 15 August 1917 and the names of the UK missing after this date were inscribed on the Tyne Cot memorial instead.[8] Additionally, the New Zealand contingent of the Commonwealth War Graves Commission declined to have its missing soldiers names listed on the main memorials, choosing instead to have names listed near the appropriate battles. Tyne Cot was chosen as one of these locations.[9] Unlike the other New Zealand memorials to its missing, the Tyne Cot New Zealand memorial to the missing is integrated within the larger Tyne Cot memorial, forming a central apse in the main memorial wall. The inscription reads: "Here are recorded the names of officers and men of New Zealand who fell in the Battle of Broodseinde and the First Battle of Passchendaele October 1917 and whose graves are known only unto God".[10]

text: The memorial contains the names of 33,783 soldiers of the UK forces, plus a further 1,176 New Zealanders.[11] Three British Army Victoria Cross recipients are commemorated here:[12]

text:
Lieutenant Colonel Philip Bent (1891–1917)
Corporal William Clamp (1891–1917)
Lance Corporal Ernest Seaman (1893–1918)

text: Other notable persons commemorated include:

text:
Lieutenant Allan Ivo Steel, English first-class cricketer.
Lieutenant David (Dai) Westacott, Welsh rugby international.[13]

text: It was designed by Sir Herbert Baker, with sculptures by Joseph Armitage and Ferdinand Victor Blundstone, who also sculpted part of the Newfoundland National War Memorial.[14]

text: The memorial was unveiled on 20 June 1927 by Sir Gilbert Dyett.[14]

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
Graves at Tyne Cot Cemetery

View towards entrance of cemetery

Tyne Cot Cemetery with "Cross of Sacrifice" on the far right

Tyne Cot "Cross of Sacrifice"

A single marker for two of the four German graves at Tyne Cot. Both are unknown.

A single marker for two of the four German graves at Tyne Cot. One soldier is named, the other is unknown.

Play media

A two-minute video recording of the location


document_title: Alligator

question_text: where can alligators be found in the world

text: Alligator

text: Description

text: An average adult American alligator's weight and length is 360 kg (790 lb) and 4.0 m (13.1 ft), but they sometimes grow to 4.4 m (14 ft) long and weigh over 450 kg (990 lb).[3] The largest ever recorded, found in Louisiana, measured 5.84 m (19.2 ft).[4] The Chinese alligator is smaller, rarely exceeding 2.1 m (6.9 ft) in length. In addition, it weighs considerably less, with males rarely over 45 kg (99 lb).

text: Adult alligators are black or dark olive-brown with white undersides, while juveniles have strongly contrasting white or yellow marks which fade with age.[5]

text: No average lifespan for an alligator has been measured.[6] In 1937, an adult specimen was brought to the Belgrade Zoo in Serbia from Germany. It is now at least 80 years old.[7] Although no valid records exist about its date of birth, this alligator, officially named Muja, is considered the oldest alligator living in captivity.[8]

text: Extant Species

text:
Image
Scientific name
Common Name
Distribution

Alligator mississippiensis
American alligator
Texas to North Carolina, United States

Alligator sinensis
Chinese alligator
eastern China.

text: Fossils

text:
†Alligator mcgrewi
†Alligator mefferdi
†Alligator olseni
†Alligator prenasalis

text: Habitat

text: Alligators are native to only the United States and China.[9][10]

text: American alligators are found in the southeast United States: all of Florida and Louisiana; the southern parts of Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi; coastal South and North Carolina; East Texas, the southeast corner of Oklahoma, and the southern tip of Arkansas. According to the 2005 Scholastic Book of World Records, Louisiana has the largest alligator population.[11] The majority of American alligators inhabit Florida and Louisiana, with over a million alligators in each state. Southern Florida is the only place where both alligators and crocodiles live side by side.[12][13]

text: American alligators live in freshwater environments, such as ponds, marshes, wetlands, rivers, lakes, and swamps, as well as in brackish environments.[14] When they construct alligator holes in the wetlands, they increase plant diversity and provide habitat for other animals during droughts.[15] They are, therefore, considered an important species for maintaining ecological diversity in wetlands.[16] Farther west, in Louisiana, heavy grazing by coypu and muskrat are causing severe damage to coastal wetlands. Large alligators feed extensively on coypu, and provide a vital ecological service by reducing coypu numbers.[17]

text: The Chinese alligator currently is found in only the Yangtze River valley and parts of adjacent provinces[10] and is extremely endangered, with only a few dozen believed to be left in the wild. Indeed, far more Chinese alligators live in zoos around the world than can be found in the wild. Rockefeller Wildlife Refuge in southern Louisiana has several in captivity in an attempt to preserve the species. Miami MetroZoo in Florida also has a breeding pair of Chinese alligators.

text: Behavior

text:
Alligator vocalisations

Alligator bellow

Alligator bellow, ogg/Vorbis format.

Another alligator bellow

Alligator bellow, ogg/Vorbis format.

Alligator hiss

Alligator hiss ogg/Vorbis format.

Problems playing these files? See media help.

text: Large male alligators are solitary territorial animals. Smaller alligators can often be found in large numbers close to each other. The largest of the species (both males and females) defend prime territory; smaller alligators have a higher tolerance for other alligators within a similar size class.

text: Alligators move on land by two forms of locomotion referred to as "sprawl" and "high walk". The sprawl is a forward movement with the belly making contact with the ground and is used to transition to "high walk" or to slither over wet substrate into water. The high walk is an up on four limbs forward motion used for overland travel with the belly well up from the ground.[18] Alligators have also been observed to rise up and balance on their hind legs and semi-step forward as part of a forward or upward lunge. However they can not walk on their hind legs for long distances.[19][20][21]

text: Although the alligator has a heavy body and a slow metabolism, it is capable of short bursts of speed, especially in very short lunges. Alligators' main prey are smaller animals they can kill and eat with a single bite. They may kill larger prey by grabbing it and dragging it into the water to drown. Alligators consume food that cannot be eaten in one bite by allowing it to rot, or by biting and then spinning or convulsing wildly until bite-sized chunks are torn off. This is referred to as a "death roll". Critical to the alligator's ability to initiate a death roll, the tail must flex to a significant angle relative to its body. An alligator with an immobilized tail cannot perform a death roll.[22]

text: Most of the muscle in an alligator's jaw evolved to bite and grip prey. The muscles that close the jaws are exceptionally powerful, but the muscles for opening their jaws are comparatively weak. As a result, an adult human can hold an alligator's jaws shut bare-handed. It is common today to use several wraps of duct tape to prevent an adult alligator from opening its jaws when being handled or transported.[23]

text: Alligators are generally timid towards humans and tend to walk or swim away if one approaches. This has led some people to the practice of approaching alligators and their nests in a manner that may provoke the animals into attacking. In Florida, feeding wild alligators at any time is illegal. If fed, the alligators will eventually lose their fear of humans and will learn to associate humans with food, thereby becoming both a greater danger to people, and at greater risk from them.[24]

text: Diet

text: The type of food eaten by alligators depends upon their age and size. When young, alligators eat fish, insects, snails, crustaceans, and worms. As they mature, progressively larger prey is taken, including larger fish such as gar, turtles, and various mammals, particularly coypu and muskrat,[14] as well as birds, deer, and other reptiles.[25][26] Their stomachs also often contain gizzard stones. They will even consume carrion if they are sufficiently hungry. In some cases, larger alligators are known to ambush dogs, Florida panthers and black bears, making them the apex predator throughout their distribution. In this role as a top predator, it may determine the abundance of prey species, including turtles and coypu.[27][28] As humans encroach into their habitat, attacks are few but not unknown. Alligators, unlike the large crocodiles, do not immediately regard a human upon encounter as prey, but may still attack in self-defense if provoked.

text: Reproduction

text: Alligators generally mature at a length of 6 ft (1.8 m). The mating season is in late spring. In April and May, alligators form so-called "bellowing choruses". Large groups of animals bellow together for a few minutes a few times a day, usually one to three hours after sunrise. The bellows of male American alligators are accompanied by powerful blasts of infrasound.[29] Another form of male display is a loud head-slap.[30] In 2010, on spring nights alligators were found to gather in large numbers for group courtship, the so-called "alligator dances".[31]

text: In summer, the female builds a nest of vegetation where the decomposition of the vegetation provides the heat needed to incubate the eggs. The sex of the offspring is determined by the temperature in the nest and is fixed within seven to 21 days of the start of incubation. Incubation temperatures of 86 °F (30 °C) or lower produce a clutch of females; those of 93 °F (34 °C) or higher produce entirely males. Nests constructed on leaves are hotter than those constructed on wet marsh, so the former tend to produce males and the latter, females. The baby alligator's egg tooth helps it get out of its egg during hatching time. The natural sex ratio at hatching is five females to one male. Females hatched from eggs incubated at 86 °F (30 °C) weigh significantly more than males hatched from eggs incubated at 93 °F (34 °C).[32] The mother defends the nest from predators and assists the hatchlings to water. She will provide protection to the young for about a year if they remain in the area. Adult alligators regularly cannibalize younger individuals, though estimates of the rate of cannibalism vary widely.[33][34] In the past, immediately following the outlawing of alligator hunting, populations rebounded quickly due to the suppressed number of adults preying upon juveniles, increasing survival among the young alligators.[citation needed]

text: Anatomy

text: Alligators, much like birds, have been shown to exhibit unidirectional movement of air through their lungs.[35] Most other amniotes are believed to exhibit bidirectional, or tidal breathing. For a tidal breathing animal, such as a mammal, air flows into and out of the lungs through branching bronchi which terminate in small dead-end chambers called alveoli. As the alveoli represent dead-ends to flow, the inspired air must move back out the same way it came in. In contrast, air in alligator lungs makes a circuit, moving in only one direction through the parabronchi. The air first enters the outer branch, moves through the parabronchi, and exits the lung through the inner branch. Oxygen exchange takes place in extensive vasculature around the parabronchi.[36]

text: Alligators have muscular, flat tails that propel them while swimming.

text: The two kinds of white alligators are albino and leucistic. These alligators are practically impossible to find in the wild. They could survive only in captivity and are few in number.[37][38] The Aquarium of the Americas in New Orleans has leucistic alligators found in a Louisiana swamp in 1987.[38]

text: Human uses

text: Alligators are raised commercially for their meat and their skin, which is used for bags and shoes. They also provide economic benefits through the ecotourism industry. Visitors may take swamp tours, in which alligators are a feature. Their most important economic benefit to humans may be the control of coypu and muskrats.[39]

text: Alligator meat is also consumed by humans.[40][41] In 2010, the Archbishop of New Orleans ruled that for purposes of Catholic church discipline in relation to abstention from meat, the flesh of the alligator is characterised as fish.[42]

text: Image gallery of extant species

text: Alligator in the Everglades National Park


question_text: who won the nickelodeon kids' choice award for favorite band in 2001

question_tokens: who won the nickelodeon kids ' choice award for favorite band in 2001

text: This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: This is a list of winners and nominees for the Kids' Choice Award for Favorite Music Group, given at the Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards.

text: Winners and nominations[edit]

text:
Year
Recipient
Nominees

1997
 Fugees

N/A

1998
 Hanson

Backstreet Boys
No Doubt
Spice Girls

1999
 *NSYNC

Backstreet Boys
Spice Girls
TLC

2000
 Backstreet Boys

*NSYNC
98 Degrees
TLC

2001
 Destiny's Child

Backstreet Boys
Baha Men
*NSYNC

2002
 Destiny's Child

Backstreet Boys
Dream
*NSYNC

2003
 B2K

Baha Men
Destiny's Child
*NSYNC

2004
 OutKast

B2K
Good Charlotte
No Doubt

2005
 Green Day

The Black Eyed Peas
Destiny's Child
OutKast

2006
 Green Day

Backstreet Boys
The Black Eyed Peas
Destiny's Child

2007
 The Black Eyed Peas

Fall Out Boy
Nickelback
Red Hot Chili Peppers

2008
 Jonas Brothers

Boys Like Girls
Fall Out Boy
Linkin Park

2009
 Jonas Brothers

Daughtry
Linkin Park
Pussycat Dolls

2010
 The Black Eyed Peas

Coldplay
Jonas Brothers
Linkin Park

2011
 The Black Eyed Peas

Big Time Rush
Jonas Brothers
Lady Antebellum

2012
 Big Time Rush

The Black Eyed Peas
Lady Antebellum
LMFAO

2013
 One Direction

Big Time Rush
Bon Jovi
Maroon 5

2014
 One Direction

Maroon 5
Macklemore & Ryan Lewis
OneRepublic

2015
 One Direction

Coldplay
Fall Out Boy
Imagine Dragons
Maroon 5
OneRepublic

2016
 Fifth Harmony

Fall Out Boy
Imagine Dragons
Maroon 5
One Direction
Pentatonix

2017
 Fifth Harmony

The Chainsmokers
Maroon 5
OneRepublic
Pentatonix
Twenty One Pilots

2018
 Fifth Harmony

The Chainsmokers
Imagine Dragons
Coldplay
Maroon 5
Twenty One Pilots

text: Groups with Most Wins[edit]

text:
The Black Eyed Peas
One Direction
Fifth Harmony

text:
Destiny’s Child
Green Day
Jonas Brothers

text: Groups with Most Nominations[edit]

text:
6 nominations

Backstreet Boys
The Black Eyed Peas
Maroon 5

5 nominations

Destiny’s Child

4 nominations

Fall Out Boy
Jonas Brothers
One Direction

3 nominations

Big Time Rush
Coldplay
Fifth Harmony
Imagine Dragons
Linkin Park
OneRepublic

2 nominations

Baha Men
B2K
The Chainsmokers
Green Day
Lady Antebellum
No Doubt
Pentatonix
Spice Girls
Twenty One Pilots
TLC

text: Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards

text: Articles lacking sources from March 2016All articles lacking sources


document_title: Second Lady

question_text: who was the second lady prime minister of india

text: Second Lady

text: Second Lady (for females) or Second Gentleman (for males) is a title sometimes used in reference to the spouse of a vice president[1][2][3] or a lieutenant governor,[4][5][6][7] and if no office of vice president or lieutenant governor exists, of a prime minister or premier/chief minister of a republic, and to the deputy prime minister or deputy premier/deputy chief minister of a monarchy, styled relative to the title of First Lady, the wife of a president or governor of a republic or of a prime minister or premier/chief minister of a monarchy. Although no country grants any legal power to second ladies, their duties often include the following:

text:
hosting during receptions at the vice presidential/prime ministerial/deputy prime ministerial residence
presiding over selected welfare institutions
accompanying the spouse in official travels
various ceremonial duties.

text: List[edit]

text:
Azerbaijan: Ilham Aliyev (Relative to First Lady and Vice President Mehriban Aliyeva)
 Estonia: Karin Ratas
 Guatemala: Elizabeth Cortés
 Ghana: Samira Bawumia
 India: M. Usha
 Israel: Sara Netanyahu (Relative to First Lady Nechama Rivlin and to Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu)
 Italy: Emanuela Mauro
 Japan: Chikako Asō (jp)
 Philippines: Aika Robredo
 Russia: Svetlana Medvedeva
 South Africa: Tshepo Motsepe
 Taiwan: Luo Feng-ping
 United States: Karen Pence


document_title: Property tax in the United States

question_text: when did property taxes start in the united states

question_tokens: when did property taxes start in the united states

text: Property tax in the United States

text: Basics[edit]

text:
Average Effective Property Tax of the 50 States (2007)

  Income
Percentile
       Effective Property Tax (%)

Top 1%

0.70

95-99

2.10

80-95

2.70

60-80

2.80

40-60

2.70

20-40

2.70

0-20

3.60

The average effective property tax of the 50 states on a household (2007). The effective tax shown is calculated using a microsimulation model based on the 1990 Public Use Microdata Sample of census records and statistical data from the Internal Revenue Service for undisclosed years.[2]

text: Most jurisdictions below the state level in the United States impose a tax on interests in real property (land, buildings, and permanent improvements) that are considered under state law to be ownership interests.[3] Rules vary widely by jurisdiction.[4] However, certain features are nearly universal. Some jurisdictions also tax some types of business personal property, particularly inventory and equipment.[5] States generally do not impose property taxes.[6]

text: Many overlapping jurisdictions may have authority to tax the same property.[7] These include counties or parishes, cities and/or towns, school districts, utility districts, and special taxing authorities which vary by state. Few states impose a tax on the value of property. The tax is based on fair market value of the subject property, and generally attaches to the property on a specific date. The owner of the property on that date is liable for the tax.[8]

text: The amount of tax is determined annually based on market value of each property on a particular date,[9] and most jurisdictions require redeterminations of value periodically. The tax is computed as the determined market value times an assessment ratio times the tax rate.[10] Assessment ratios and tax rates vary among jurisdictions, and may vary by type of property within a jurisdiction.[11] Most jurisdictions' legislative bodies determine their assessment ratios and tax rates, though some states impose constraints on such determinations.

text: Tax assessors for taxing jurisdictions determine property values in a variety of ways, but are generally required to base such determinations on fair market value.[12] Fair market value is that price for a willing and informed seller would sell the property to a willing and informed buyer, neither being under any compulsion to act. Where a property has recently been sold between unrelated sellers, such sale establishes fair market value. In other (i.e., most) cases, the value must be estimated. Common estimation techniques include the comparable sales method, the depreciated cost method, and an income method approach. Property owners may also declare a value, which is subject to change by the tax assessor.

text: Once value is determined, the assessor typically notifies the last known property owner of the value determination. Such notices may include the calculated amount of tax. The property owner may then contest the value.[13] Property values are generally subject to review by a board of review or similar body, before which a property owner may contest determinations.[14]

text: After values are settled, property tax bills or notices are sent to property owners.[15] Payment times and terms vary widely. If a property owner fails to pay the tax, the taxing jurisdiction has various remedies for collection, in many cases including seizure and sale of the property. Property taxes constitute a lien on the property to which transferees are also subject.

text: Property subject to tax[edit]

text: Nearly all property tax imposing jurisdictions tax real property.[16] This includes land, buildings, and all improvements (often called fixtures) that cannot be removed without damage to the property.[17] Taxed property includes homes, farms, business premises, and most other real property. Many jurisdictions also tax certain types of other property used in a business. Property existing and located in the jurisdiction on a particular date is subject to this tax. This date is often January 1 of each year, but varies among jurisdictions. Property owned by educational, charitable, and religious organizations is usually exempt.[18]

text: Tax rates[edit]

text: Tax rates vary widely among jurisdictions.[19] They are generally set by the taxing jurisdiction's governing body.[20] The method of determining the rate varies widely, but may be constrained under laws of particular states. In some jurisdictions, property is taxed based on its classification. Classification is the grouping of properties based on similar use. Examples of classification are residential, commercial, industrial, vacant, and blighted real property. Property classification are used to tax properties at different rates and for different public policy purposes. In Washington D.C. for instance property occupancy is incentivized by taxing residential property at 0.85 percent of assessed value but vacant residential property at 5 percent of assessed value.[21]

text: Rate or millage[edit]

text: The rate of tax is a percentage of the assessed value of the property subject to tax. This in some cases is expressed as a “millage” or dollars of tax per thousand dollars of assessed value.[22]

text: Assessment ratio[edit]

text: Most jurisdictions impose the tax on some stated portion of fair market value, referred to as an assessment ratio.[23] This ratio may vary depending on the type or use of the property. The assessment ratio can, in many jurisdictions, be changed from year to year by the taxing jurisdiction's governing body. Changes in tax rate or assessment ratio may have the same practical effect of changing net tax due on a particular property.

text: Valuation[edit]

text: Determining the value of property is a critical aspect of property taxation, as such value determines the amount of tax due. Various techniques may be used to determine value. Except in the case of property recently sold, valuation has some inherently subjective aspects. Values may change over time, and many states require taxing jurisdictions to redetermine values every three or four years. The value of property is often determined based on current use of the property, rather than potential uses.[24] Property values are determined at a particular valuation date for each jurisdiction, which varies widely.

text: Who determines value[edit]

text: Property owners may make a declaration of the value of property they own to a taxing authority. This is often referred to as rendition.[25] The taxing authority may accept this value or make its own determination of value. The value determinations are generally made by a tax assessor for the taxing authority. Some states require uniform values to be determined for each particular property.

text: Market value[edit]

text: Property values are generally based on fair market value of the property on the valuation date. Fair market value has been defined as that price a willing and informed purchaser would pay to an unrelated willing and informed seller where neither party is under compulsion to act. Sale of the particular property between unrelated persons generally conclusively establishes fair market value on the date of sale. Thus, a recent sale of the same property provides good evidence of market value. Where there has been no recent sale, other techniques must be used to determine market value.

text: Assessed value[edit]

text: Many jurisdictions impose tax on a value that is only a portion of market value. This assessed value is the market value times an assessment ratio.[26] Assessment ratios are often set by local taxing jurisdictions. However, some states impose constraints on the assessment ratios used by taxing jurisdictions within the state.[26] Some such restrictions vary by type or use of property, and may vary by jurisdiction within the state. Some states impose restrictions on the rate at which assessed value may increase.[27]

text: Equalization among jurisdictions[edit]

text: Many states require that multiple jurisdictions taxing the same property must use the same market value.[28] Generally, such state provides a board of equalization or similar body to determine values in cases of disputes between jurisdictions.[29]

text: Valuation techniques[edit]

text: Tax assessors may use a variety of techniques for determining the value of property that was not recently sold.[24] Determining which technique to use and how to apply it inherently involves judgment.

text: Comparable sales[edit]

text: Values may be determined based on recent sales of comparable property.[30] The value of most homes is usually determined based on sales of comparable homes in the immediate area. Valuation adjustments may be necessary to achieve comparability. Among the factors considered in determining if a property is comparable are:

text:
Nature of the property (house, office building, bare land, etc.)
Location
Size
Use of the property (residential, commercial, farm, etc.)
Nature of improvements

Types and uses of buildings
Features of the buildings (number of bedrooms, level of amenities, etc.)
Age of improvements

Desirability of the property (view, proximity to schools, type of access, nearby detracting features, etc.)
Restrictions on the property (easements, building code restrictions, physical restrictions, etc.)
Utility of the property (fertility of land, drainage or lack thereof, environmental issues, etc.)
General economic conditions

text: Cost[edit]

text: Where recent comparable property sales are not available, a cost based approach may be used. In this approach, the original or replacement cost of a property is reduced by an allowance for decline in value (depreciation) of improvements.[26] In some jurisdictions, the amount of depreciation may be limited by statute. Where original cost is used, it may be adjusted for inflation or increases or decreases in cost of constructing improvements. Replacement cost may be determined by estimates of construction costs.

text: Income[edit]

text: An alternative valuation may be used for income producing property based on economic concepts. Using the income approach, value is determined based on present values expected income streams from the property.[26] Selection of an appropriate discount rate in determining present values is a key judgmental factor influencing valuation under this approach.

text: Special use values[edit]

text: Most taxing jurisdictions provide that property used in any of several manners is subject to special valuation procedures.[31] This is commonly applied to property used for farming, forestry, or other uses common in the jurisdiction. Some jurisdictions value property at its "highest and best use", with some of these providing exceptions for homes or agricultural land.[32] Special valuation issues vary widely among jurisdictions.

text: Revaluation[edit]

text: All taxing jurisdictions recognize that values of property may change over time. Thus, values must be redetermined periodically. Many states and localities require that the value of property be redetermined at three or four year intervals.[33] Such revaluation may follow valuation principles above, or may use mass valuation techniques.

text: Limits on increases[edit]

text: Some jurisdictions have set limits on how much property values may be increased from year to year for property tax purposes.[34] These limits may be applied yearly or cumulatively, depending on the jurisdiction's rules.

text: Assessment process[edit]

text: The assessment process varies widely by jurisdiction as to procedure and timing. In many states, the process of assessment and collection may be viewed as a two-year process, where values are determined in the first year and tax assessed and paid in the second.[35] Most jurisdictions encourage property owners to declare the value of their property at the start of the assessment process. Property owners in all jurisdictions are given rights to appeal taxing authority determinations, but such rights vary widely.

text: Valuation by assessor[edit]

text: Jurisdictions imposing property tax uniformly charge some official with determining value of property subject to tax by the jurisdiction.[36] This official may be an employee or contractor to the taxing government, and is generally referred to as the tax assessor in most jurisdictions. Some taxing jurisdictions may share a common tax assessor for some or all property within the jurisdictions, especially when the jurisdictions overlap.

text: Tax assessors must first determine what property is subject to tax, compiling lists or rolls of such property. In many jurisdictions, the tax assessor notifies the last known owner of each property that the property is subject to tax. The tax assessor must determine the value of each property subject to tax. Often, the value used is the value from the previous assessment, possibly increased or decreased by a factor determined by the tax assessor.

text: Notification to owner[edit]

text: Following determination of value, tax assessors are generally required to notify the property owner(s) of the value so determined.[37] Procedures vary by jurisdiction. In Louisiana, no formal notice is required; instead, the assessor “opens” the books to allow property owners to view the valuations.[38] Texas and some other jurisdictions also require that the notice include very specific items, and such notice may cover multiple taxing jurisdictions. Some jurisdictions provide that notification is made by publishing a list of properties and values in a local newspaper.[39]

text: In some jurisdictions, such notification is required only if the value increases by more than a certain percentage. In some jurisdictions, the notification of value may also constitute a tax bill or assessment. Generally, notification of the owner starts the limited period during which the owner may contest the value.

text: Review[edit]

text: Owners of property are nearly always entitled to discuss valuations with the tax assessor, and such discussions may result in changes in the assessor's valuation.[40] Many jurisdictions provide for a review of value determinations. Such review is often done by a board of review, often composed of residents of the jurisdiction who are not otherwise associated with the jurisdiction's government.[41] In addition, some jurisdictions and some states provide for additional review bodies.[42]

text: Protest[edit]

text: Nearly all jurisdiction provide for a mechanism for contesting the assessor's determination of value. Such mechanisms vary widely.[43]

text: Judicial appeal[edit]

text: All jurisdictions levying property tax must allow property owners to go to court to contest valuation and taxes.[44] Procedures for such judicial appeal vary widely. Some jurisdictions prohibit judicial appeal until administrative appeals are exhausted. Some permit binding arbitration.[45]

text: Levy of tax[edit]

text: Tax is levied at the tax rate and assessment ratio applicable for the year.[46] Taxing jurisdictions levy tax on property following a preliminary or final determination of value. Property taxes in the United States generally are due only if the taxing jurisdiction has levied or billed the tax. The form of levy or billing varies, but is often accomplished by mailing a tax bill to the property owner or mortgage company.[47]

text: Exemptions and incentives[edit]

text: Taxing jurisdictions provide a wide variety of methods a property owner may use to reduce tax. Nearly all jurisdictions provide a homestead exemption reducing the taxable value, and thus tax, of an individual's home.[48] Many provide additional exemptions for veterans.[49] Taxing jurisdictions may also offer temporary or permanent full or partial exemptions from property taxes, often as an incentive for a particular business to locate its premises within the jurisdiction.[50] Some jurisdictions provide broad exemptions from property taxes for businesses located within certain areas, such as enterprise zones.[51]

text: The largest property tax exemption is the exemption for registered non-profit organizations; all 50 states fully exempt these organizations from state and local property taxes with a 2009 study estimating the exemption's forgone tax revenues range from $17-$32 billion per year.[52]

text: Exemptions can be quite substantial. In New York City alone, an Independent Budget Office study found that religious institutions would have been taxed $627M yearly without such exemptions; all exempt groups avoided paying a combined $13 billion in the fiscal year of 2012 (1 July 2011 to 30 June 2012).[53]

text: Payment[edit]

text: Time and manner of payment of property taxes varies widely.[54] Property taxes in many jurisdictions are due in a single payment by January 1. Many jurisdictions provide for payment in multiple installments.[55] In some jurisdictions, the first installment payment is based on prior year tax. Payment is generally required by cash or check delivered or mailed to the taxing jurisdiction.

text: Liens and seizures[edit]

text: Property taxes generally attach to the property; that is, they become an encumbrance on the property which the current and future owners must satisfy.[56] This attachment, or lien, generally happens automatically without further action of the taxing authority.[56] The lien generally is removed automatically upon payment of the tax.

text: If the tax is not paid within a specified period of time (including additional interest, penalties, and costs), a tax sale is held, which may result in either 1) the actual sale of a property, or 2) a lien sold to a third party, who (after another specified period of time) may take action to claim the property, or force a later sale to redeem the lien.

text: Attachment date[edit]

text: The tax lien attaches to the property[57] at a specific date, generally the date the tax liability becomes enforceable.[58] This date varies by state, and in some states by local jurisdiction.

text: Delinquency[edit]

text: Where the property owner does not pay tax by the due date, the taxing authority may assess penalties and interest.[59] The amount, timing, and procedures vary widely. Generally, the penalty and interest are enforceable in the same manner as the tax, and attach to the property.

text: Seizure and sale[edit]

text: Where the property owner fails to pay tax, the taxing authority may act to enforce its lien. Enforcement procedures vary by state. In some states, the lien may be sold by the taxing authority to a third party, who can then attempt collection.[60] In most states, the taxing authority can seize the property and offer it for sale, generally at a public auction.[57] In some states, rights acquired in such sale may be limited.

text: Tax administrations[edit]

text: Property taxes are generally administered separately by each jurisdiction imposing property tax,[12] though some jurisdictions may share a common property tax administration. Often the administration of the taxes is conducted from the taxing jurisdiction's administrative offices (e.g., town hall). The form and organization varies widely.

text: Assessors[edit]

text: Most taxing jurisdictions refer to the official charged with determining property values, assessing, and collecting property taxes as assessors. Assessors may be elected, appointed, hired, or contracted, depending on rules within the jurisdiction, which may vary within a state. Assessors may or not be involved in collection of tax.[61] The tax assessors in some states are required to pass certain certification examinations and/or have a certain minimum level of property valuation experience.[12] Larger jurisdictions employ full-time personnel in the tax assessors office, while small jurisdictions may engage only one part-time person for the entire tax assessor function.

text: Constitutional limitations[edit]

text: Property taxes, like all taxes in the United States, are subject to constraints under the United States and applicable state constitutions. The United States Constitution contains three relevant provisions: limits on federal direct taxation, an equal protection rule, and the privileges and immunities provisions.[62] Nearly all state constitutions impose uniformity and equality rules. Most state constitutions also impose other restrictions, which vary widely.

text: The federal government is generally prohibited from imposing direct taxes unless such taxes are then given to the states in proportion to population. Thus, ad valorem property taxes have not been imposed at the federal level.

text: The states must grant residents of other states equal protections as taxpayers.

text: Uniformity and equality[edit]

text: State constitutions constrain taxing authorities within the state, including local governments. Typically, these constitutions require that property taxes be uniformly or equally assessed. While many states allow differing rates of taxation among tax jurisdictions, most prohibit the same jurisdiction from applying different rates to different taxpayers. These provisions have generally been interpreted to mean the method of valuation and assessment must be consistent from one local government to another. Some state courts have held that this uniformity and equality requirement does not prevent granting individualized tax credits (such as exemptions and incentives). Some states permit different classes of property (as opposed to different classes of taxpayer) to be valued using different assessment ratios. In many states the uniformity and equality provisions apply only to property taxes, leading to significant classification problems.[62]

text: History[edit]

text: Property taxes in the United States originated during colonial times.[63] By 1796, state and local governments in fourteen of the fifteen states taxed land, but only four taxed inventory (stock in trade). Delaware did not tax property, but rather the income from it. In some states, "all property, with a few exceptions, was taxed; in others, specific objects were named. Land was taxed in one state according to quantity, in another according to quality, and in a third not at all. Responsibility for the assessment and collection of taxes in some cases attached to the state itself; in others, to the counties or townships." Vermont and North Carolina taxed land based on quantity, while New York and Rhode Island taxed land based on value. Connecticut taxed land based on type of use. Procedures varied widely.[64]

text: During the period from 1796 until the Civil War, a unifying principle developed: "the taxation of all property, movable and immovable, visible and invisible, or real and personal, as we say in America, at one uniform rate."[65] During this period, property taxes came to be assessed based on value. This was introduced as a requirement in many state constitutions.

text: After the Civil War, intangible property, including corporate stock, took on far greater importance. Taxing jurisdictions found it difficult to find and tax this sort of property. This trend led to the introduction of alternatives to the property tax (such as income and sales taxes) at the state level.[16] Property taxes remained a major source of government revenue below the state level. Connecticut taxed land based on type of use. Procedures varied widely.[66]

text: Hard times during the Great Depression led to high delinquency rates and reduced property tax revenues.[67] Also during the 1900s, many jurisdictions began exempting certain property from taxes. Many jurisdictions exempted homes of war veterans. After World War II, some states replaced exemptions with "circuit breaker" provisions limiting increases in value for residences.

text: Various economic factors have led to taxpayer initiatives in various states to limit property tax. California Proposition 13 (1978) amended the California Constitution to limit aggregate property taxes to 1% of the "full cash value of such property." It also limited the increase in assessed value of real property to an inflation factor that was limited to 2% per year.

text: Policy issues[edit]

text: There are numerous policy issues regarding property tax, including:[citation needed]

text:
Fairness
Progressivity
Administrability
Allodial title

text: In spite of these issues, many aspects of the property tax, and the reliance of local governments on it as a principal source of revenue, have remained much the same since colonial times.

text: Serfdom

text: Opinions on property tax[edit]

text: Sprawl[edit]

text: In the absence of urban planning policies, property tax on real estate changes the incentives for developing land, which in turn affects land use patterns. One of the main concerns is whether or not it encourages urban sprawl.

text: The market value of undeveloped real estate reflects a property's current use as well as its development potential. As a city expands, relatively cheap and undeveloped lands (such as farms, ranches, private conservation parks, etc.) increase in value as neighboring areas are developed into retail, industrial, or residential units. This raises the land value, which increases the property tax that must be paid on agricultural land, but does not increase the amount of revenue per land area available to the owner. This, along with a higher sale price, increases the incentive to rent or sell agricultural land to developers. On the other hand, a property owner who develops a parcel must thereafter pay a higher tax, based on the value of the improvements. This makes the development less attractive than it would otherwise be. Overall, these effects result in lower density development, which tends to increase sprawl.

text: Attempts to reduce the impact of property taxes on sprawl include:

text:
Land value taxation - This method separates the value of a given property into its actual components — land value and improvement value. A gradually lower and lower tax is levied on the improvement value and a higher tax is levied on the land value to insure revenue-neutrality. A similar method is known as split-rate taxation.
Current-use valuation - This method assesses the value of a given property based only upon its current use. Much like land value taxation, this reduces the effect of city encroachment.
Conservation easements - The property owner adds a restriction to the property prohibiting future development. This effectively removes the development potential as a factor in the property taxes.
Exemptions - Exempting favored classes of real estate (such as farms, ranches, cemeteries or private conservation parks) from the property tax altogether or assessing their value at a minimal amount (for example, $1 per acre).
Forcing higher density housing - In the Portland, Oregon area, for example, local municipalities are often forced to accept higher density housing with small lot sizes. This is governed by a multi-county development control board, in Portland's case Metro.
Urban growth boundary or Green belt - Government declares some land undevelopable until a date in the future. This forces regional development back into the urban core, increasing density but also land and housing prices. It may also cause development to skip over the restricted-use zone, to occur in more distant areas, or to move to other cities.

text: Distributional[edit]

text: Property tax has been shown to be regressive [2] (that is, to fall disproportionately on those of lower income) when not correctly implemented because of its impact on particular low-income/high-asset groups such as pensioners and farmers. Because these persons have high-assets accumulated over time, they have a high property tax liability, although their realized income is low. Therefore, a larger proportion of their income goes to paying the tax. In areas with speculative land appreciation (such as California in the 1970s and 2000s), there may be little or no relationship between property taxes and a homeowner's ability to pay them short of selling the property.[68]

text: This issue was a common argument used by supporters of such measures as California Proposition 13 or Oregon Ballot Measure 5; some economists have even called for the abolition of property taxes altogether, to be replaced by income taxes, consumption taxes such as Europe's VAT, or a combination of both. Others, however, have argued that property taxes are broadly progressive, since people of higher incomes are disproportionately likely to own more valuable property. In addition, while nearly all households have some income, nearly a third of households own no real estate. Moreover, the most valuable properties are owned by corporations not individuals. Hence, property is more unevenly distributed than income.

text: It has been suggested that these two beliefs are not incompatible — it is possible for a tax to be progressive in general but to be regressive in relation to minority groups. However, although not direct, and not likely one-to-one, property renters can be subject to property taxes as well. If the tax reduces the supply of housing units, then it will increase the rental price. In this way, the owner's cost of taxation is passed on to the renter (occupant).

text: Progressive policies[edit]

text: As property increases in value the possibility exists that new buyers might pay taxes on outdated values thus placing an unfair burden on the rest of the property owners. To correct this imbalance municipalities periodically revalue property. Revaluation produces an up-to-date value to be used in determination of the tax rate necessary to produce the required tax levy.

text: A consequence of this is that existing owners are reassessed as well as new owners and thus are required to pay taxes on property the value of which is determined by market forces, such as gentrification in low income areas of a city. In an effort to relieve the frequently large tax burdens on existing owners, particularly those with fixed incomes such as the elderly and those who have lost their jobs, communities have introduced exemptions.

text: In some states, laws provide for exemptions (typically called homestead exemptions) and/or limits on the percentage increase in tax, which limit the yearly increase in property tax so that owner-occupants are not "taxed out of their homes". Generally, these exemptions and ceilings are available only to property owners who use their property as their principal residence. Homestead exemptions generally cannot be claimed on investment properties and second homes. When a homesteaded property changes ownership, the property tax often rises sharply and the property's sale price may become the basis for new exemptions and limits available to the new owner-occupant.

text: Homestead exemptions increase the complexity of property tax collection and sometimes provide an easy opportunity for people who own several properties to benefit from tax credits to which they are not entitled. Since there is no national database that links home ownership with Social Security numbers, landlords sometimes gain homestead tax credits by claiming multiple properties in different states, and even their own state, as their "principal residence", while only one property is truly their residence.[69] In 2005, several US Senators and Congressmen were found to have erroneously claimed "second homes" in the greater Washington, D.C. area as their "principal residences", giving them property tax credits to which they were not entitled.[70]

text: Undeserved homestead exemption credits became so ubiquitous in the state of Maryland that a law was passed in the 2007 legislative session to require validation of principal residence status through the use of a social security number matching system.[71] The bill passed unanimously in the Maryland House of Delegates and Senate and was signed into law by the Governor.[72] The fairness of property tax collection and distribution is a hotly debated topic. Some people feel school systems would be more uniform if the taxes were collected and distributed at a state level, thereby equalizing the funding of school districts. Others are reluctant to have a higher level of government determine the rates and allocations, preferring to leave the decisions to government levels closer to the people.

text: In Rhode Island efforts are being made to modify revaluation practices to preserve the major benefit of property taxation, the reliability of tax revenue, while providing for what some view as a correction of the unfair distribution of tax burdens on existing owners of property.[73]

text: The Supreme Court has held[citation needed] that Congress can directly tax land ownership so long as the tax is apportioned among the states based upon representation/population. In an apportioned land tax, each state would have its own rate of taxation sufficient to raise its pro-rata share of the total revenue to be financed by a land tax. So, for example, if State A has 5% of the population, the State A would collect and remit to the federal government such tax revenue that equals 5% of the revenue sought. Such an apportioned tax on land had been used on many occasions up through the Civil War.

text: Indirect taxes on the transfer of land are permitted without apportionment: in the past, this has taken the form of requiring revenue stamps to be affixed to deeds and mortgages, but these are no longer required by federal law. Under the Internal Revenue Code, the government realizes a substantial amount of revenue from income taxes on capital gains from the sale of land and in estate taxes from the passage of property (including land) upon the death of its owner.

text: Milton Friedman noted that "[T]he property tax is one of the least bad taxes, because it’s levied on something that cannot be produced — that part that is levied on the land".[74] A 2008 analysis from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development was consistent with Friedman's opinion; examining the effect of various types of taxes on economic growth, it found that property taxes "seem[ed] to be the most growth-friendly, followed by consumption taxes and then by personal income taxes."[75][76]


document_title: Vein

question_text: which large vein carries blood from the head

text: Vein

text: Structure[edit]

text: Veins are present throughout the body as tubes that carry blood back to the heart. Veins are classified in a number of ways, including superficial vs. deep, pulmonary vs. systemic, and large vs. small.

text:
Superficial veins are those closer to the surface of the body, and have no corresponding arteries.
Deep veins are deeper in the body and have corresponding arteries.
Perforator veins drain from the superficial to the deep veins.[1] These are usually referred to in the lower limbs and feet.
Communicating veins are veins that directly connect superficial veins to deep veins.
Pulmonary veins are a set of veins that deliver oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart.
Systemic veins drain the tissues of the body and deliver deoxygenated blood to the heart.

text: Most veins are equipped with valves to prevent blood flowing in the reverse direction.

text: Veins are translucent, so the color a vein appears from an organism's exterior is determined in large part by the color of venous blood, which is usually dark red as a result of its low oxygen content. Veins appear blue because the subcutaneous fat absorbs low-frequency light, permitting only the highly energetic blue wavelengths to penetrate through to the dark vein and reflect back to the viewer. The colour of a vein can be affected by the characteristics of a person's skin, how much oxygen is being carried in the blood, and how big and deep the vessels are.[2] When a vein is drained of blood and removed from an organism, it appears grey-white.[citation needed]

text: Venous system[edit]

text: The largest veins in the human body are the venae cavae. These are two large veins which enter the right atrium of the heart from above and below. The superior vena cava carries blood from the arms and head to the right atrium of the heart, while the inferior vena cava carries blood from the legs and abdomen to the heart. The inferior vena cava is retroperitoneal and runs to the right and roughly parallel to the abdominal aorta along the spine. Large veins feed into these two veins, and smaller veins into these. Together this forms the venous system.

text: Whilst the main veins hold a relatively constant position, the position of veins person to person can display quite a lot of variation.[citation needed]

text: The pulmonary veins carry relatively oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart. The superior and inferior venae cavae carry relatively deoxygenated blood from the upper and lower systemic circulations, respectively.

text: The portal venous system is a series of veins or venules that directly connect two capillary beds. Examples of such systems include the hepatic portal vein and hypophyseal portal system.

text: The peripheral veins carry blood from the limbs and hands and feet.

text: Microanatomy[edit]

text: Microscopically, veins have a thick outer layer made of connective tissue, called the tunica externa or tunica adventitia. There is a middle layer of bands of smooth muscle called tunica media, which are, in general, much thinner than those of arteries, as veins do not function primarily in a contractile manner and are not subject to the high pressures of systole, as arteries are. The interior is lined with endothelial cells called tunica intima. The precise location of veins varies much more from person to person than that of arteries.[3]

text: Function[edit]

text: Veins serve to return blood from organs to the heart. Veins are also called "capacitance vessels" because most of the blood volume (60%) is contained within veins. In systemic circulation oxygenated blood is pumped by the left ventricle through the arteries to the muscles and organs of the body, where its nutrients and gases are exchanged at capillaries. After taking up cellular waste and carbon dioxide in capillaries, blood is channeled through vessels that converge with one another to form venules, which continue to converge and form the larger veins. The de-oxygenated blood is taken by veins to the right atrium of the heart, which transfers the blood to the right ventricle, where it is then pumped through the pulmonary arteries to the lungs. In pulmonary circulation the pulmonary veins return oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium, which empties into the left ventricle, completing the cycle of blood circulation.

text: The return of blood to the heart is assisted by the action of the muscle pump, and by the thoracic pump action of breathing during respiration. Standing or sitting for a prolonged period of time can cause low venous return from venous pooling (vascular) shock. Fainting can occur but usually baroreceptors within the aortic sinuses initiate a baroreflex such that angiotensin II and norepinephrine stimulate vasoconstriction and heart rate increases to return blood flow. Neurogenic and hypovolaemic shock can also cause fainting. In these cases, the smooth muscles surrounding the veins become slack and the veins fill with the majority of the blood in the body, keeping blood away from the brain and causing unconsciousness. Jet pilots wear pressurized suits to help maintain their venous return and blood pressure.

text: The arteries are perceived as carrying oxygenated blood to the tissues, while veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart. This is true of the systemic circulation, by far the larger of the two circuits of blood in the body, which transports oxygen from the heart to the tissues of the body. However, in pulmonary circulation, the arteries carry deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs, and veins return blood from the lungs to the heart. The difference between veins and arteries is their direction of flow (out of the heart by arteries, returning to the heart for veins), not their oxygen content. In addition, deoxygenated blood that is carried from the tissues back to the heart for reoxygenation in the systemic circulation still carries some oxygen, though it is considerably less than that carried by the systemic arteries or pulmonary veins.

text: Although most veins take blood back to the heart, there is an exception. Portal veins carry blood between capillary beds. For example, the hepatic portal vein takes blood from the capillary beds in the digestive tract and transports it to the capillary beds in the liver. The blood is then drained in the gastrointestinal tract and spleen, where it is taken up by the hepatic veins, and blood is taken back into the heart. Since this is an important function in mammals, damage to the hepatic portal vein can be dangerous. Blood clotting in the hepatic portal vein can cause portal hypertension, which results in a decrease of blood fluid to the liver.

text: Cardiac veins[edit]

text: The vessels that remove the deoxygenated blood from the heart muscle are known as cardiac veins. These include the great cardiac vein, the middle cardiac vein, the small cardiac vein, the smallest cardiac veins, and the anterior cardiac veins. Coronary veins carry blood with a poor level of oxygen, from the myocardium to the right atrium. Most of the blood of the coronary veins returns through the coronary sinus. The anatomy of the veins of the heart is very variable, but generally it is formed by the following veins: heart veins that go into the coronary sinus: the great cardiac vein, the middle cardiac vein, the small cardiac vein, the posterior vein of the left ventricle, and the vein of Marshall. Heart veins that go directly to the right atrium: the anterior cardiac veins, the smallest cardiac veins (Thebesian veins).[4]

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: Diseases[edit]

text: Venous insufficiency[edit]

text: Venous insufficiency is the most common disorder of the venous system, and is usually manifested as spider veins or varicose veins. Several varieties of treatments are used, depending on the patient's particular type and pattern of veins and on the physician's preferences. Treatment can include Endovenous Thermal Ablation using radiofrequency or laser energy, vein stripping, ambulatory phlebectomy, foam sclerotherapy, lasers, or compression.

text: Postphlebitic syndrome is venous insufficiency that develops following deep vein thrombosis.[5]

text: Deep vein thrombosis[edit]

text: Deep vein thrombosis is a condition in which a blood clot forms in a deep vein. This is usually the veins of the legs, although it can also occur in the veins of the arms. Immobility, active cancer, obesity, traumatic damage and congenital disorders that make clots more likely are all risk factors for deep vein thrombosis. It can cause the affected limb to swell, and cause pain and an overlying skin rash. In the worst case, a deep vein thrombosis can extend, or a part of a clot can break off and land in the lungs, called pulmonary embolism.

text: The decision to treat deep vein thrombosis depends on its size, a person's symptoms, and their risk factors. It generally involves anticoagulation to prevents clots or to reduce the size of the clot.

text: Portal hypertension[edit]

text: The portal veins are found within the abdomen and carry blood through to the liver. Portal hypertension is associated with cirrhosis or disease of the liver, or other conditions such as an obstructing clot (Budd Chiari syndrome) or compression from tumours or tuberculosis lesions. When the pressure increases in the portal veins, a collateral circulation develops, causing visible veins such as oesophageal varices.

text: Other[edit]

text: Thrombophlebitis is an inflammatory condition of the veins related to blood clots.

text: Imaging[edit]

text: Ultrasound, particularly duplex ultrasound, is a common way that veins can be seen.

text: Veins of clinical significance[edit]

text: The Batson Venous plexus, or simply Batson's Plexus, runs through the inner vertebral column connecting the thoracic and pelvic veins. These veins get their notoriety from the fact that they are valveless, which is believed to be the reason for metastasis of certain cancers.

text: The great saphenous vein is the most important superficial vein of the lower limb. First described by the Persian physician Avicenna, this vein derives its name from the word safina, meaning "hidden". This vein is "hidden" in its own fascial compartment in the thigh and exits the fascia only near the knee. Incompetence of this vein is an important cause of varicose veins of lower limbs.

text: The Thebesian veins within the myocardium of the heart are valveless veins that drain directly into the chambers of the heart. The coronary veins all empty into the coronary sinus which empties into the right atrium.

text: The dural venous sinuses within the dura mater surrounding the brain receive blood from the brain and also are a point of entry of cerebrospinal fluid from arachnoid villi absorption. Blood eventually enters the internal jugular vein.

text: Phlebology[edit]

text: Look up phlebology in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Phlebology is the medical specialty devoted to the diagnosis and treatment of venous disorders. A medical specialist in phlebology is termed a phlebologist. A related image is called a phlebograph.

text: The American Medical Association added phlebology to their list of self-designated practice specialties in 2005. In 2007 the American Board of Phlebology (ABPh), subsequently known as the American Board of Venous & Lymphatic Medicine (ABVLM), was established to improve the standards of phlebologists and the quality of their patient care by establishing a certification examination, as well as requiring maintenance of certification. Although As of 2017[update] not a Member Board of the American Board of Medical Specialties (ABMS), the American Board of Venous & Lymphatic Medicine uses a certification exam based on ABMS standards.

text: The American College of Phlebology (ACP), one of the largest medical societies in the world for physicians and allied health professionals working in the field of phlebology, has 2000 members. The ACP encourages education and training to improve the standards of medical practitioners and the quality of patient care.

text: The American Venous Forum (AVF) is a medical society for physicians and allied health professionals dedicated to improving the care of patients with venous and lymphatic disease. The majority of its members manage the entire spectrum of venous and lymphatic diseases – from varicose veins to congenital abnormalities to deep vein thrombosis to chronic venous diseases. Founded in 1987, the AVF encourages research, clinical innovation, hands-on education, data collection and patient outreach.

text: History[edit]

text: The earliest known writings on the circulatory system are found in the Ebers Papyrus (16th century BCE), an ancient Egyptian medical papyrus containing over 700 prescriptions and remedies, both physical and spiritual. In the papyrus, it acknowledges the connection of the heart to the arteries. The Egyptians thought air came in through the mouth and into the lungs and heart. From the heart, the air travelled to every member through the arteries. Although this concept of the circulatory system is only partially correct, it represents one of the earliest accounts of scientific thought.

text: In the 6th century BCE, the knowledge of circulation of vital fluids through the body was known to the Ayurvedic physician Sushruta in ancient India.[6] He also seems to have possessed knowledge of the arteries, described as 'channels' by Dwivedi & Dwivedi (2007).[6] The valves of the heart were discovered by a physician of the Hippocratean school around the 4th century BCE. However their function was not properly understood then. Because blood pools in the veins after death, arteries look empty. Ancient anatomists assumed they were filled with air and that they were for transport of air.

text: The Greek physician, Herophilus, distinguished veins from arteries but thought that the pulse was a property of arteries themselves. Greek anatomist Erasistratus observed that arteries that were cut during life bleed. He ascribed the fact to the phenomenon that air escaping from an artery is replaced with blood that entered by very small vessels between veins and arteries. Thus he apparently postulated capillaries but with reversed flow of blood.[7]

text: In 2nd century AD Rome, the Greek physician Galen knew that blood vessels carried blood and identified venous (dark red) and arterial (brighter and thinner) blood, each with distinct and separate functions. Growth and energy were derived from venous blood created in the liver from chyle, while arterial blood gave vitality by containing pneuma (air) and originated in the heart. Blood flowed from both creating organs to all parts of the body where it was consumed and there was no return of blood to the heart or liver. The heart did not pump blood around, the heart's motion sucked blood in during diastole and the blood moved by the pulsation of the arteries themselves.

text: Galen believed that the arterial blood was created by venous blood passing from the left ventricle to the right by passing through 'pores' in the interventricular septum, air passed from the lungs via the pulmonary artery to the left side of the heart. As the arterial blood was created 'sooty' vapors were created and passed to the lungs also via the pulmonary artery to be exhaled.

text: In 1025, The Canon of Medicine by the Persian physician, Avicenna, "erroneously accepted the Greek notion regarding the existence of a hole in the ventricular septum by which the blood traveled between the ventricles." While also refining Galen's erroneous theory of the pulse, Avicenna provided the first correct explanation of pulsation: "Every beat of the pulse comprises two movements and two pauses. Thus, expansion : pause : contraction : pause. [...] The pulse is a movement in the heart and arteries ... which takes the form of alternate expansion and contraction."[8]

text: In 1242, the Arabian physician, Ibn al-Nafis, became the first person to accurately describe the process of pulmonary circulation,[9] for which he has been described as the Arab Father of Circulation.[10] Ibn al-Nafis stated in his Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon:

text: "...the blood from the right chamber of the heart must arrive at the left chamber but there is no direct pathway between them. The thick septum of the heart is not perforated and does not have visible pores as some people thought or invisible pores as Galen thought. The blood from the right chamber must flow through the vena arteriosa (pulmonary artery) to the lungs, spread through its substances, be mingled there with air, pass through the arteria venosa (pulmonary vein) to reach the left chamber of the heart and there form the vital spirit..."

text: In addition, Ibn al-Nafis had an insight into what would become a larger theory of the capillary circulation. He stated that "there must be small communications or pores (manafidh in Arabic) between the pulmonary artery and vein," a prediction that preceded the discovery of the capillary system by more than 400 years.[11] Ibn al-Nafis' theory, however, was confined to blood transit in the lungs and did not extend to the entire body.

text: Michael Servetus was the first European to describe the function of pulmonary circulation, although his achievement was not widely recognized at the time, for a few reasons. He firstly described it in the "Manuscript of Paris"[12][13] (near 1546), but this work was never published. And later he published this description, but in a theological treatise, Christianismi Restitutio, not in a book on medicine. Only three copies of the book survived but these remained hidden for decades, the rest were burned shortly after its publication in 1553 because of persecution of Servetus by religious authorities.

text: Better known discovery of pulmonary circulation was by Vesalius's successor at Padua, Realdo Colombo, in 1559.

text: Finally, William Harvey, a pupil of Hieronymus Fabricius (who had earlier described the valves of the veins without recognizing their function), performed a sequence of experiments, and published Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus in 1628, which "demonstrated that there had to be a direct connection between the venous and arterial systems throughout the body, and not just the lungs. Most importantly, he argued that the beat of the heart produced a continuous circulation of blood through minute connections at the extremities of the body. This is a conceptual leap that was quite different from Ibn al-Nafis' refinement of the anatomy and bloodflow in the heart and lungs."[14] This work, with its essentially correct exposition, slowly convinced the medical world. However, Harvey was not able to identify the capillary system connecting arteries and veins; these were later discovered by Marcello Malpighi in 1661.

text: In 1956, André Frédéric Cournand, Werner Forssmann and Dickinson W. Richards were awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine "for their discoveries concerning heart catheterization and pathological changes in the circulatory system."[15] In his Nobel lecture, Forssmann credits Harvey as birthing cardiology with the publication of his book in 1628.[16]

text: In the 1970s, Diana McSherry developed computer-based systems to create images of the circulatory system and heart without the need for surgery.[17]