document_title: Commander (United States)

question_text: what does cdr stand for in the navy

question_tokens: what does cdr stand for in the navy

text: Commander (United States)

text: Rank[edit]

text: History[edit]

text: The commander rank started out as "Master and Commander" in 1674 within the British Navy for the officer responsible for sailing a ship under the Captain and some times second-in-command. Sub-captain, under-captain, rector and master-commanding was also used for the same position. With the Master and Commander also serving as captain of smaller ships, the British Navy subsumed as the third and lowest of three grades of captain given the various sizes of ships. The American Continental Navy adopted the tri-graded captain ranks. Captain 2nd Grade, or Master Commandant, became Commander in 1838.[1]

text: Naval[edit]

text: In the United States Navy, the United States Coast Guard, the United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Commissioned Officer Corps, commander (abbreviated "CDR") is a mid-grade officer rank, with the pay grade of O-5. Commander ranks above lieutenant commander (O-4) and below captain (O-6). Commander is equivalent to the rank of lieutenant colonel in the other uniformed services.[2] Notably, it is the first rank at which the holder wears an embellished cap, whereas officers of the other services are entitled to embellishment at O-4 rank. Promotion to commander in the US Navy is governed by Department of Defense policies derived from the Defense Officer Personnel Management Act (DOPMA) of 1980 or its companion Reserve Officer Personnel Management Act (ROPMA). DOPMA/ROPMA guidelines suggest that 70% of lieutenant commanders should be promoted to commander after serving a minimum of three years at their present rank and after attaining 15-17 years of cumulative commissioned service, although this percentage may vary and be appreciably less for certain officer designators (i.e., primary "specialties") dependent on defense budgets, force structure and needs of the service.

text: A commander in the U.S. Navy may command a frigate, destroyer, submarine, aviation squadron or small shore activity,[3] or may serve on a staff afloat or ashore (typically as an action officer or as an executive officer to a flag officer or general officer), or a larger vessel afloat (as either a department head or executive officer). An officer in the rank of commander who commands a vessel may also be referred to as "captain" as a courtesy title, or informally referred to as "skipper". Commanding officers of aviation squadrons and shore activities may also be informally referred to as "skipper" but never as "captain."[4]

text: Although it exists largely as a maritime training organization, the U.S. Maritime Service also has the grade of commander. The commission is appointed by the President via the Secretary of Transportation, making it a federally recognized rank with a corresponding paygrade.

text: In addition to its use as a rank title, the U.S. Navy also uses commander as a "position title" for senior captains or flag officers in command of multiple independent units, each with their own "commanding officer". For example, the senior officer in a U.S. Navy aviation squadron is the "commanding officer" (CO) because he or she is in command of that singular unit. That officer's immediate superior in command (ISIC) will likely be an air group or air wing "commander", with the latter being responsible for multiple squadrons. This is in keeping with the naval tradition of "commanding officers" commanding single units, but "commanders" commanding multiple units.

text: U.S. police ranks[edit]

text: The Los Angeles Police Department was one of the first American police departments to use this rank. A commander in the LAPD is equivalent to an inspector in other U.S. police departments (such as the New York City Police Department); the LAPD rank was originally called inspector as well, but was changed in 1974 to commander after senior officers voiced a preference for the more military-sounding rank. A commander is the third-highest rank in the force, above the rank of captain and below deputy chief. Duties are as commanding officer of Community Affairs, Internal Affairs, Governmental Liaison, Narcotics, Organized Crime and Vice, Criminal Intelligence, Detective Services, and other departments.[5]

text: The San Francisco Police Department also has a Commander rank. Like the LAPD, it is above Captain and below Deputy Chief.

text: The Metropolitan Police Department of the District of Columbia uses the rank of commander. The rank falls between those of inspector and assistant chief.

text: The Rochester Police Department uses the rank of commander. Higher than captain and below deputy chief, the rank is achieved by appointment. Commander is the rank held by the two patrol division heads and other commanders fill various administrative roles. The Saint Paul Police Department is another police force that uses the rank of commander. In the Saint Paul Police Department, commanders serve as the chief of the district/unit that they oversee.

text: Many police departments in the Midwest use the rank of commander. It is equivalent to a lieutenant in most other departments, being above a sergeant and below a deputy chief or captain. Commander is also used as a title in certain circumstances, such as the commander of a squad of detectives, who would usually be of the rank of lieutenant.

text: Commander is also utilized by larger sheriff's departments in the United States, with the rank usually falling between chief deputy and captain, three positions removed from the sheriff.

text: Commander as an appointment[edit]

text: U.S. Army and Marine Corps[edit]

text: In the United States Army and United States Marine Corps, the term "commander" is officially applied to the commanding officer of a unit; hence, there are company commanders, battalion commanders, brigade commanders, and so forth. At the highest levels of U.S. military command structure, "commander" also refers to what used to be called commander-in-chief, or CINC, until October 24, 2002, although the term CINC is still used in casual speech. The soldier in charge of a tank, for example the M1 Abrams, is also called its "commander".

text: U.S. Air Force[edit]

text: In the Air Force, the term "commander" (abbreviated "CC") is officially applied to the commanding officer of an Air Force unit; hence, there are squadron commanders, group commanders, wing commanders, numbered air force (NAF) commanders, major command commanders and so forth. In rank, a squadron commander is typically a lieutenant colonel, although some smaller squadrons may be commanded by a major.

text: A group commander is typically a mid-grade colonel, while a wing commander is typically a senior colonel or a brigadier general.

text: A numbered air force commander is normally a lieutenant general, although some may be in the rank of major general, especially in the Air Force Reserve or Air National Guard. The Major command commanders are normally in the rank of general or lieutenant general.


document_title: Airline

question_text: when did the first commercial flight take place

question_tokens: when did the first commercial flight take place

root

text: Airline

text: History[edit]

text: The first airlines[edit]

text: DELAG, Deutsche Luftschiffahrts-Aktiengesellschaft was the world's first airline.[1] It was founded on November 16, 1909, with government assistance, and operated airships manufactured by The Zeppelin Corporation. Its headquarters were in Frankfurt. The first fixed wing scheduled air service was started on January 1, 1914, from St. Petersburg, Florida, to Tampa, Florida.[2] The four oldest non-dirigible airlines that still exist are Netherlands' KLM (1919),[3] Colombia's Avianca (1919),[4] Australia's Qantas (1921),[5] and the Czech Republic's Czech Airlines (1923).[6]

tag: p

text: European airline industry[edit]

text: Beginnings[edit]

text: The earliest fixed wing airline in Europe was the Aircraft Transport and Travel, formed by George Holt Thomas in 1916. Using a fleet of former military Airco DH.4A biplanes that had been modified to carry two passengers in the fuselage, it operated relief flights between Folkestone and Ghent. On 15 July 1919, the company flew a proving flight across the English Channel, despite a lack of support from the British government. Flown by Lt. H Shaw in an Airco DH.9 between RAF Hendon and Paris – Le Bourget Airport, the flight took 2 hours and 30 minutes at £21 per passenger.

text: On 25 August 1919, the company used DH.16s to pioneer a regular service from Hounslow Heath Aerodrome to Le Bourget, the first regular international service in the world. The airline soon gained a reputation for reliability, despite problems with bad weather and began to attract European competition. In November 1919, it won the first British civil airmail contract. Six Royal Air Force Airco DH.9A aircraft were lent to the company, to operate the airmail service between Hawkinge and Cologne. In 1920, they were returned to the Royal Air Force.[7]

text: Other British competitors were quick to follow – Handley Page Transport was established in 1919 and used the company's converted wartime Type O/400 bombers with a capacity for 12 passengers,[8] to run a London-Paris passenger service.[9]

text: The first French airline was Société des lignes Latécoère, later known as Aéropostale, which started its first service in late 1918 to Spain. The Société Générale des Transports Aériens was created in late 1919, by the Farman brothers and the Farman F.60 Goliath plane flew scheduled services from Toussus-le-Noble to Kenley, near Croydon, England. Another early French airline was the Compagnie des Messageries Aériennes, established in 1919 by Louis-Charles Breguet, offering a mail and freight service between Le Bourget Airport, Paris and Lesquin Airport, Lille.[10]

text: The first German airline to use heavier than air aircraft was Deutsche Luft-Reederei established in 1917 which started operating in February 1919. In its first year, the D.L.R. operated regularly scheduled flights on routes with a combined length of nearly 1000 miles. By 1921 the D.L.R. network was more than 3000 km (1865 miles) long, and included destinations in the Netherlands, Scandinavia and the Baltic Republics. Another important German airline was Junkers Luftverkehr, which began operations in 1921. It was a division of the aircraft manufacturer Junkers, which became a separate company in 1924. It operated joint-venture airlines in Austria, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Latvia, Norway, Poland, Sweden and Switzerland.

text: The Dutch airline KLM made its first flight in 1920, and is the oldest continuously operating airline in the world. Established by aviator Albert Plesman,[11] it was immediately awarded a "Royal" predicate from Queen Wilhelmina.[12] Its first flight was from Croydon Airport, London to Amsterdam, using a leased Aircraft Transport and Travel DH-16, and carrying two British journalists and a number of newspapers. In 1921, KLM started scheduled services.

text: In Finland, the charter establishing Aero O/Y (now Finnair) was signed in the city of Helsinki on September 12, 1923. Junkers F.13 D-335 became the first aircraft of the company, when Aero took delivery of it on March 14, 1924. The first flight was between Helsinki and Tallinn, capital of Estonia, and it took place on March 20, 1924, one week later.

text: In the Soviet Union, the Chief Administration of the Civil Air Fleet was established in 1921. One of its first acts was to help found Deutsch-Russische Luftverkehrs A.G. (Deruluft), a German-Russian joint venture to provide air transport from Russia to the West. Domestic air service began around the same time, when Dobrolyot started operations on 15 July 1923 between Moscow and Nizhni Novgorod. Since 1932 all operations had been carried under the name Aeroflot.[13]

text: Early European airlines tended to favor comfort – the passenger cabins were often spacious with luxurious interiors – over speed and efficiency. The relatively basic navigational capabilities of pilots at the time also meant that delays due to the weather were commonplace.

text: Rationalization[edit]

text: By the early 1920s, small airlines were struggling to compete, and there was a movement towards increased rationalization and consolidation. In 1924, Imperial Airways was formed from the merger of Instone Air Line Company, British Marine Air Navigation, Daimler Airway and Handley Page Transport Co Ltd., to allow British airlines to compete with stiff competition from French and German airlines that were enjoying heavy government subsidies. The airline was a pioneer in surveying and opening up air routes across the world to serve far-flung parts of the British Empire and to enhance trade and integration.[14]

text: The first new airliner ordered by Imperial Airways, was the Handley Page W8f City of Washington, delivered on 3 November 1924.[15] In the first year of operation the company carried 11,395 passengers and 212,380 letters. In April 1925, the film The Lost World became the first film to be screened for passengers on a scheduled airliner flight when it was shown on the London-Paris route.

text: Two French airlines also merged to form Air Union on 1 January 1923. This later merged with four other French airlines to become Air France, the country's flagship carrier to this day, on 7 October 1933.

text: Germany's Deutsche Luft Hansa was created in 1926 by merger of two airlines, one of them Junkers Luftverkehr. Luft Hansa, due to the Junkers heritage and unlike most other airlines at the time, became a major investor in airlines outside of Europe, providing capital to Varig and Avianca. German airliners built by Junkers, Dornier, and Fokker were among the most advanced in the world at the time.

text: Global expansion[edit]

text: In 1926, Alan Cobham surveyed a flight route from the UK to Cape Town, South Africa, following this up with another proving flight to Melbourne, Australia. Other routes to British India and the Far East were also charted and demonstrated at this time. Regular services to Cairo and Basra began in 1927 and were extended to Karachi in 1929. The London-Australia service was inaugurated in 1932 with the Handley Page HP 42 airliners. Further services were opened up to Calcutta, Rangoon, Singapore, Brisbane and Hong Kong passengers departed London on 14 March 1936 following the establishment of a branch from Penang to Hong Kong.

text: Imperial's aircraft were small, most seating fewer than twenty passengers, and catered for the rich. Only about 50,000 passengers used Imperial Airways in the 1930s. Most passengers on intercontinental routes or on services within and between British colonies were men doing colonial administration, business or research.[16]

text: Like Imperial Airways, Air France and KLM's early growth depended heavily on the needs to service links with far-flung colonial possessions (North Africa and Indochina for the French and the East Indies for the Dutch). France began an air mail service to Morocco in 1919 that was bought out in 1927, renamed Aéropostale, and injected with capital to become a major international carrier. In 1933, Aéropostale went bankrupt, was nationalized and merged into Air France.

text: Although Germany lacked colonies, it also began expanding its services globally. In 1931, the airship Graf Zeppelin began offering regular scheduled passenger service between Germany and South America, usually every two weeks, which continued until 1937.[17] In 1936, the airship Hindenburg entered passenger service and successfully crossed the Atlantic 36 times before crashing at Lakehurst, New Jersey, on May 6, 1937.[18]

text: From February 1934 until World War II began in 1939 Deutsche Lufthansa operated an airmail service from Stuttgart, Germany via Spain, the Canary Islands and West Africa to Natal in Brazil. This was the first time an airline flew across an ocean.[19][20]

text: By the end of the 1930s Aeroflot had become the world's largest airline, employing more than 4,000 pilots and 60,000 other service personnel and operating around 3,000 aircraft (of which 75% were considered obsolete by its own standards). During the Soviet era Aeroflot was synonymous with Russian civil aviation, as it was the only air carrier. It became the first airline in the world to operate sustained regular jet services on 15 September 1956 with the Tupolev Tu-104.

text: EU airline deregulation[edit]

text: Deregulation of the European Union airspace in the early 1990s has had substantial effect on the structure of the industry there. The shift towards 'budget' airlines on shorter routes has been significant. Airlines such as EasyJet and Ryanair have often grown at the expense of the traditional national airlines.

text: There has also been a trend for these national airlines themselves to be privatized such as has occurred for Aer Lingus and British Airways. Other national airlines, including Italy's Alitalia, have suffered – particularly with the rapid increase of oil prices in early 2008.[21]

text: U.S. airline industry[edit]

text: Early development[edit]

text: Tony Jannus conducted the United States' first scheduled commercial airline flight on 1 January 1914 for the St. Petersburg-Tampa Airboat Line.[22] The 23-minute flight traveled between St. Petersburg, Florida and Tampa, Florida, passing some 50 feet (15 m) above Tampa Bay in Jannus' Benoist XIV wood and muslin biplane flying boat. His passenger was a former mayor of St. Petersburg, who paid $400 for the privilege of sitting on a wooden bench in the open cockpit. The Airboat line operated for about four months, carrying more than 1,200 passengers who paid $5 each.[23] Chalk's International Airlines began service between Miami and Bimini in the Bahamas in February 1919. Based in Ft. Lauderdale, Chalk's claimed to be the oldest continuously operating airline in the United States until its closure in 2008.[24]

text: Following World War I, the United States found itself swamped with aviators. Many decided to take their war-surplus aircraft on barnstorming campaigns, performing aerobatic maneuvers to woo crowds. In 1918, the United States Postal Service won the financial backing of Congress to begin experimenting with air mail service, initially using Curtiss Jenny[25] aircraft that had been procured by the United States Army Air Service. Private operators were the first to fly the mail but due to numerous accidents the US Army was tasked with mail delivery. During the Army's involvement they proved to be too unreliable and lost their air mail duties.[26] By the mid-1920s, the Postal Service had developed its own air mail network, based on a transcontinental backbone between New York City and San Francisco.[27] To supplement this service, they offered twelve contracts for spur routes to independent bidders. Some of the carriers that won these routes would, through time and mergers, evolve into Pan Am, Delta Air Lines, Braniff Airways, American Airlines, United Airlines (originally a division of Boeing), Trans World Airlines, Northwest Airlines, and Eastern Air Lines.

text: Service during the early 1920s was sporadic: most airlines at the time were focused on carrying bags of mail. In 1925, however, the Ford Motor Company bought out the Stout Aircraft Company and began construction of the all-metal Ford Trimotor, which became the first successful American airliner. With a 12-passenger capacity, the Trimotor made passenger service potentially profitable.[28] Air service was seen as a supplement to rail service in the American transportation network.

text: At the same time, Juan Trippe began a crusade to create an air network that would link America to the world, and he achieved this goal through his airline, Pan American World Airways, with a fleet of flying boats that linked Los Angeles to Shanghai and Boston to London. Pan Am and Northwest Airways (which began flights to Canada in the 1920s) were the only U.S. airlines to go international before the 1940s.

text: With the introduction of the Boeing 247 and Douglas DC-3 in the 1930s, the U.S. airline industry was generally profitable, even during the Great Depression. This trend continued until the beginning of World War II.[29]

text: Development since 1945[edit]

text: World War II, like World War I, brought new life to the airline industry. Many airlines in the Allied countries were flush from lease contracts to the military, and foresaw a future explosive demand for civil air transport, for both passengers and cargo. They were eager to invest in the newly emerging flagships of air travel such as the Boeing Stratocruiser, Lockheed Constellation, and Douglas DC-6. Most of these new aircraft were based on American bombers such as the B-29, which had spearheaded research into new technologies such as pressurization. Most offered increased efficiency from both added speed and greater payload.[31][32]

text: In the 1950s, the De Havilland Comet, Boeing 707, Douglas DC-8, and Sud Aviation Caravelle became the first flagships of the Jet Age in the West, while the Eastern bloc had Tupolev Tu-104 and Tupolev Tu-124 in the fleets of state-owned carriers such as Czechoslovak ČSA, Soviet Aeroflot and East-German Interflug. The Vickers Viscount and Lockheed L-188 Electra inaugurated turboprop transport.

text: The next big boost for the airlines would come in the 1970s, when the Boeing 747, McDonnell Douglas DC-10, and Lockheed L-1011 inaugurated widebody ("jumbo jet") service, which is still the standard in international travel.[33] The Tupolev Tu-144 and its Western counterpart, Concorde, made supersonic travel a reality.[34] Concorde first flew in 1969 and operated through 2003. In 1972, Airbus began producing Europe's most commercially successful line of airliners to date. The added efficiencies for these aircraft were often not in speed, but in passenger capacity, payload, and range. Airbus also features modern electronic cockpits that were common across their aircraft to enable pilots to fly multiple models with minimal cross-training.

text: US airline deregulation[edit]

text: The 1978 U.S. airline industry deregulation lowered federally controlled barriers for new airlines just as a downturn in the nation's economy occurred. New start-ups entered during the downturn, during which time they found aircraft and funding, contracted hangar and maintenance services, trained new employees, and recruited laid off staff from other airlines.

text: Major airlines dominated their routes through aggressive pricing and additional capacity offerings, often swamping new start-ups. In the place of high barriers to entry imposed by regulation, the major airlines implemented an equally high barrier called loss leader pricing.[36] In this strategy an already established and dominant airline stomps out its competition by lowering airfares on specific routes, below the cost of operating on it, choking out any chance a start-up airline may have. The industry side effect is an overall drop in revenue and service quality.[37] Since deregulation in 1978 the average domestic ticket price has dropped by 40%.[38] So has airline employee pay. By incurring massive losses, the airlines of the USA now rely upon a scourge of cyclical Chapter 11 bankruptcy proceedings to continue doing business.[39] America West Airlines (which has since merged with US Airways) remained a significant survivor from this new entrant era, as dozens, even hundreds, have gone under.

text: In many ways, the biggest winner in the deregulated environment was the air passenger. Although not exclusively attributable to deregulation, indeed the U.S. witnessed an explosive growth in demand for air travel. Many millions who had never or rarely flown before became regular fliers, even joining frequent flyer loyalty programs and receiving free flights and other benefits from their flying. New services and higher frequencies meant that business fliers could fly to another city, do business, and return the same day, from almost any point in the country. Air travel's advantages put long distance intercity railroad travel and bus lines under pressure, with most of the latter having withered away, whilst the former is still protected under nationalization through the continuing existence of Amtrak.

text: By the 1980s, almost half of the total flying in the world took place in the U.S., and today the domestic industry operates over 10,000 daily departures nationwide.

text: Toward the end of the century, a new style of low cost airline emerged, offering a no-frills product at a lower price. Southwest Airlines, JetBlue, AirTran Airways, Skybus Airlines and other low-cost carriers began to represent a serious challenge to the so-called "legacy airlines", as did their low-cost counterparts in many other countries.[40] Their commercial viability represented a serious competitive threat to the legacy carriers. However, of these, ATA and Skybus have since ceased operations.

text: Increasingly since 1978, US airlines have been reincorporated and spun off by newly created and internally led management companies, and thus becoming nothing more than operating units and subsidiaries with limited financially decisive control. Among some of these holding companies and parent companies which are relatively well known, are the UAL Corporation, along with the AMR Corporation, among a long list of airline holding companies sometime recognized worldwide. Less recognized are the private equity firms which often seize managerial, financial, and board of directors control of distressed airline companies by temporarily investing large sums of capital in air carriers, to rescheme an airlines assets into a profitable organization or liquidating an air carrier of their profitable and worthwhile routes and business operations.

text: Thus the last 50 years of the airline industry have varied from reasonably profitable, to devastatingly depressed. As the first major market to deregulate the industry in 1978, U.S. airlines have experienced more turbulence than almost any other country or region. In fact, no U.S. legacy carrier survived bankruptcy-free. Among the outspoken critics of deregulation, former CEO of American Airlines, Robert Crandall has publicly stated:

text: "Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection filing shows airline industry deregulation was a mistake.[41]"

text: The airline industry bailout[edit]

text: Congress passed the Air Transportation Safety and System Stabilization Act (P.L. 107-42) in response to a severe liquidity crisis facing the already-troubled airline industry in the aftermath of the September 11th terrorist attacks. Through the ATSB Congress sought to provide cash infusions to carriers for both the cost of the four-day federal shutdown of the airlines and the incremental losses incurred through December 31, 2001, as a result of the terrorist attacks. This resulted in the first government bailout of the 21st century.[42] Between 2000 and 2005 US airlines lost $30 billion with wage cuts of over $15 billion and 100,000 employees laid off.[43]

text: In recognition of the essential national economic role of a healthy aviation system, Congress authorized partial compensation of up to $5 billion in cash subject to review by the U.S. Department of Transportation and up to $10 billion in loan guarantees subject to review by a newly created Air Transportation Stabilization Board (ATSB). The applications to DOT for reimbursements were subjected to rigorous multi-year reviews not only by DOT program personnel but also by the Government Accountability Office[44] and the DOT Inspector General.[45][46]

text: Ultimately, the federal government provided $4.6 billion in one-time, subject-to-income-tax cash payments to 427 U.S. air carriers, with no provision for repayment, essentially a gift from the taxpayers. (Passenger carriers operating scheduled service received approximately $4 billion, subject to tax.)[47] In addition, the ATSB approved loan guarantees to six airlines totaling approximately $1.6 billion. Data from the U.S. Treasury Department show that the government recouped the $1.6 billion and a profit of $339 million from the fees, interest and purchase of discounted airline stock associated with loan guarantees.[48]

text: Asian airline industry[edit]

text: Although Philippine Airlines (PAL) was officially founded on February 26, 1941, its license to operate as an airliner was derived from merged Philippine Aerial Taxi Company (PATCO) established by mining magnate Emmanuel N. Bachrach on December 3, 1930, making it Asia's oldest scheduled carrier still in operation.[49] Commercial air service commenced three weeks later from Manila to Baguio, making it Asia's first airline route. Bachrach's death in 1937 paved the way for its eventual merger with Philippine Airlines in March 1941 and made it Asia's oldest airline. It is also the oldest airline in Asia still operating under its current name.[50] Bachrach's majority share in PATCO was bought by beer magnate Andres R. Soriano in 1939 upon the advice of General Douglas MacArthur and later merged with newly formed Philippine Airlines with PAL as the surviving entity. Soriano has controlling interest in both airlines before the merger. PAL restarted service on March 15, 1941, with a single Beech Model 18 NPC-54 aircraft, which started its daily services between Manila (from Nielson Field) and Baguio, later to expand with larger aircraft such as the DC-3 and Vickers Viscount.

text: Korean Air was one of the first airlines to be launched among the other Asian countries in 1946 along with Asiana Airline, which later joined in 1988. The license to operate as an airliner was granted by the federal government body after reviewing the necessity at the national assembly. The Hanjin occupies the largest ownership of Korean Air as well as few low-budget airlines as of now. The Korean Air is among the founders of Sky Team, which was established in 2000. Asiana Airline joined Star Alliance in 2003. Korean Air and Asiana Airline comprise one of the largest combined airline miles and number of passenger served at the regional market of Asian airline industry

text: India was also one of the first countries to embrace civil aviation.[51] One of the first Asian airline companies was Air India, which was founded as Tata Airlines in 1932, a division of Tata Sons Ltd. (now Tata Group). The airline was founded by India's leading industrialist, JRD Tata. On October 15, 1932, J. R. D. Tata himself flew a single engined De Havilland Puss Moth carrying air mail (postal mail of Imperial Airways) from Karachi to Bombay via Ahmedabad. The aircraft continued to Madras via Bellary piloted by Royal Air Force pilot Nevill Vintcent. Tata Airlines was also one of the world's first major airlines which began its operations without any support from the Government.[52]

text: With the outbreak of World War II, the airline presence in Asia came to a relative halt, with many new flag carriers donating their aircraft for military aid and other uses. Following the end of the war in 1945, regular commercial service was restored in India and Tata Airlines became a public limited company on July 29, 1946, under the name Air India. After the independence of India, 49% of the airline was acquired by the Government of India. In return, the airline was granted status to operate international services from India as the designated flag carrier under the name Air India International.

text: On July 31, 1946, a chartered Philippine Airlines (PAL) DC-4 ferried 40 American servicemen to Oakland, California, from Nielson Airport in Makati City with stops in Guam, Wake Island, Johnston Atoll and Honolulu, Hawaii, making PAL the first Asian airline to cross the Pacific Ocean. A regular service between Manila and San Francisco was started in December. It was during this year that the airline was designated as the flag carrier of Philippines.

text: During the era of decolonization, newly born Asian countries started to embrace air transport. Among the first Asian carriers during the era were Cathay Pacific of Hong Kong (founded in September 1946), Orient Airways (later Pakistan International Airlines; founded in October 1946), Air Ceylon (later SriLankan Airlines; founded in 1947), Malayan Airways Limited in 1947 (later Singapore and Malaysia Airlines), El Al in Israel in 1948, Garuda Indonesia in 1949, Japan Airlines in 1951, Thai Airways International in 1960, and Korean National Airlines in 1947.

text: Latin American and Caribbean airline industry[edit]

text: Among the first countries to have regular airlines in Latin America and the Caribbean were Bolivia with Lloyd Aéreo Boliviano,[54] Cuba with Cubana de Aviación, Colombia with Avianca (the first airline established in the Americas), Argentina with Aerolineas Argentinas, Chile with LAN Chile (today LATAM Airlines), Brazil with Varig, Dominican Republic with Dominicana de Aviación, Mexico with Mexicana de Aviación, Trinidad and Tobago with BWIA West Indies Airways (today Caribbean Airlines), Venezuela with Aeropostal, Puerto Rico with Puertorriquena; and TACA based in El Salvador and representing several airlines of Central America (Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua). All the previous airlines started regular operations well before World War II. Puerto Rican commercial airlines such as Prinair, Oceanair, Fina Air and Vieques Air Link came much after the second world war, as did several others from other countries like Mexico's Interjet and Volaris, Venezuela's Aserca Airlines and others.

text: The air travel market has evolved rapidly over recent years in Latin America. Some industry estimates indicate that over 2,000 new aircraft will begin service over the next five years in this region.[55]

text: These airlines serve domestic flights within their countries, as well as connections within Latin America and also overseas flights to North America, Europe, Australia, and Asia.

text: Only two airlines - Avianca and LATAM Airlines - have international subsidiaries and cover many destinations within the Americas as well as major hubs in other continents. LATAM with Chile as the central operation along with Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil and Argentina and formerly with some operations in the Dominican Republic. The AviancaTACA group has control of Avianca Brazil, VIP Ecuador and a strategic alliance with AeroGal.

text: Regulatory considerations[edit]

text: National[edit]

text: Many countries have national airlines that the government owns and operates. Fully private airlines are subject to a great deal of government regulation for economic, political, and safety concerns. For instance, governments often intervene to halt airline labor actions to protect the free flow of people, communications, and goods between different regions without compromising safety.

text: The United States, Australia, and to a lesser extent Brazil, Mexico, India, the United Kingdom, and Japan have "deregulated" their airlines. In the past, these governments dictated airfares, route networks, and other operational requirements for each airline. Since deregulation, airlines have been largely free to negotiate their own operating arrangements with different airports, enter and exit routes easily, and to levy airfares and supply flights according to market demand.

text: The entry barriers for new airlines are lower in a deregulated market, and so the U.S. has seen hundreds of airlines start up (sometimes for only a brief operating period). This has produced far greater competition than before deregulation in most markets. The added competition, together with pricing freedom, means that new entrants often take market share with highly reduced rates that, to a limited degree, full service airlines must match. This is a major constraint on profitability for established carriers, which tend to have a higher cost base.

text: As a result, profitability in a deregulated market is uneven for most airlines. These forces have caused some major airlines to go out of business, in addition to most of the poorly established new entrants.

text: In the United States, the airline industry is dominated by four large firms. Because of industry consolidation, after fuel prices dropped considerably in 2015, very little of the savings were passed on to consumers.[56]

text: International[edit]

text: Groups such as the International Civil Aviation Organization establish worldwide standards for safety and other vital concerns. Most international air traffic is regulated by bilateral agreements between countries, which designate specific carriers to operate on specific routes. The model of such an agreement was the Bermuda Agreement between the US and UK following World War II, which designated airports to be used for transatlantic flights and gave each government the authority to nominate carriers to operate routes.

text: Bilateral agreements are based on the "freedoms of the air", a group of generalized traffic rights ranging from the freedom to overfly a country to the freedom to provide domestic flights within a country (a very rarely granted right known as cabotage). Most agreements permit airlines to fly from their home country to designated airports in the other country: some also extend the freedom to provide continuing service to a third country, or to another destination in the other country while carrying passengers from overseas.

text: In the 1990s, "open skies" agreements became more common. These agreements take many of these regulatory powers from state governments and open up international routes to further competition. Open skies agreements have met some criticism, particularly within the European Union, whose airlines would be at a comparative disadvantage with the United States' because of cabotage restrictions.

text: Economic considerations[edit]

text: Historically, air travel has survived largely through state support, whether in the form of equity or subsidies. The airline industry as a whole has made a cumulative loss during its 100-year history, once the costs include subsidies for aircraft development and airport construction.[58][59]

text: One argument is that positive externalities, such as higher growth due to global mobility, outweigh the microeconomic losses and justify continuing government intervention. A historically high level of government intervention in the airline industry can be seen as part of a wider political consensus on strategic forms of transport, such as highways and railways, both of which receive public funding in most parts of the world. Although many countries continue to operate state-owned or parastatal airlines, many large airlines today are privately owned and are therefore governed by microeconomic principles to maximize shareholder profit.

text: In July 2016, the total airline capacity was 181.1 billion Available Seat Kilometers (+6.9% compared to July 2015): 57.6bn in Asia-Pacific, 47.7bn in Europe, 46.2bn in North America, 12.2bn in Middle East, 12.0bn in Latin America and 5.4bn in Africa.[60]

text:
Top 150 airline groups[61]

2016
2015
2014
2013
2012
2011
2010
2009
2008

Revenue ($bn)
694
698
704
684
663
634
560
481
540

Operating result ($bn)
58.9
65.0
30.4
27.5
20.7
21.3
32.4
1.7
−15.3

Operating margin (%)
8.5%
9.3%
4.3%
4.0%
3.1%
3.4%
5.8%
0.4%
−2.8%

Net result ($bn)
34.2
42.4
11.7
15.3
4.6
0.3
19.0
−5.7
−32.5

Net margin (%)
4.9%
6.1%
1.7%
2.2%
0.7%
0.0%
3.4%
−1.2%
−6.0%

tag: table

text: Largest airlines[edit]

text: The world's largest airlines can be defined in several ways. American Airlines Group is the largest by its fleet size, revenue, profit, passengers carried and revenue passenger mile. Delta Air Lines is the largest by assets value and market capitalization. Lufthansa Group is the largest by number of employees, FedEx Express by freight tonne-kilometers, Ryanair by number of international passengers carried and Turkish Airlines by number of countries served.

text: Ticket revenue[edit]

text: Airlines assign prices to their services in an attempt to maximize profitability. The pricing of airline tickets has become increasingly complicated over the years and is now largely determined by computerized yield management systems.

text: Because of the complications in scheduling flights and maintaining profitability, airlines have many loopholes that can be used by the knowledgeable traveler. Many of these airfare secrets are becoming more and more known to the general public, so airlines are forced to make constant adjustments.

text: Most airlines use differentiated pricing, a form of price discrimination, to sell air services at varying prices simultaneously to different segments. Factors influencing the price include the days remaining until departure, the booked load factor, the forecast of total demand by price point, competitive pricing in force, and variations by day of week of departure and by time of day. Carriers often accomplish this by dividing each cabin of the aircraft (first, business and economy) into a number of travel classes for pricing purposes.

text: A complicating factor is that of origin-destination control ("O&D control"). Someone purchasing a ticket from Melbourne to Sydney (as an example) for A$200 is competing with someone else who wants to fly Melbourne to Los Angeles through Sydney on the same flight, and who is willing to pay A$1400. Should the airline prefer the $1400 passenger, or the $200 passenger plus a possible Sydney-Los Angeles passenger willing to pay $1300? Airlines have to make hundreds of thousands of similar pricing decisions daily.

text: The advent of advanced computerized reservations systems in the late 1970s, most notably Sabre, allowed airlines to easily perform cost-benefit analyses on different pricing structures, leading to almost perfect price discrimination in some cases (that is, filling each seat on an aircraft at the highest price that can be charged without driving the consumer elsewhere).

text: The intense nature of airfare pricing has led to the term "fare war" to describe efforts by airlines to undercut other airlines on competitive routes. Through computers, new airfares can be published quickly and efficiently to the airlines' sales channels. For this purpose the airlines use the Airline Tariff Publishing Company (ATPCO), who distribute latest fares for more than 500 airlines to Computer Reservation Systems across the world.

text: The extent of these pricing phenomena is strongest in "legacy" carriers. In contrast, low fare carriers usually offer pre-announced and simplified price structure, and sometimes quote prices for each leg of a trip separately.

text: Computers also allow airlines to predict, with some accuracy, how many passengers will actually fly after making a reservation to fly. This allows airlines to overbook their flights enough to fill the aircraft while accounting for "no-shows", but not enough (in most cases) to force paying passengers off the aircraft for lack of seats, stimulative pricing for low demand flights coupled with overbooking on high demand flights can help reduce this figure. This is especially crucial during tough economic times as airlines undertake massive cuts to ticket prices to retain demand.[62]

text: Operating costs[edit]

text: Full-service airlines have a high level of fixed and operating costs to establish and maintain air services: labor, fuel, airplanes, engines, spares and parts, IT services and networks, airport equipment, airport handling services, sales distribution, catering, training, aviation insurance and other costs. Thus all but a small percentage of the income from ticket sales is paid out to a wide variety of external providers or internal cost centers.

text: Moreover, the industry is structured so that airlines often act as tax collectors. Airline fuel is untaxed because of a series of treaties existing between countries. Ticket prices include a number of fees, taxes and surcharges beyond the control of airlines. Airlines are also responsible for enforcing government regulations. If airlines carry passengers without proper documentation on an international flight, they are responsible for returning them back to the original country.

text: Analysis of the 1992–1996 period shows that every player in the air transport chain is far more profitable than the airlines, who collect and pass through fees and revenues to them from ticket sales. While airlines as a whole earned 6% return on capital employed (2–3.5% less than the cost of capital), airports earned 10%, catering companies 10–13%, handling companies 11–14%, aircraft lessors 15%, aircraft manufacturers 16%, and global distribution companies more than 30%. (Source: Spinetta, 2000, quoted in Doganis, 2002)

text: The widespread entrance of a new breed of low cost airlines beginning at the turn of the century has accelerated the demand that full service carriers control costs. Many of these low cost companies emulate Southwest Airlines in various respects, and like Southwest, they can eke out a consistent profit throughout all phases of the business cycle.[64]

text: As a result, a shakeout of airlines is occurring in the U.S. and elsewhere. American Airlines, United Airlines, Continental Airlines (twice), US Airways (twice), Delta Air Lines, and Northwest Airlines have all declared Chapter 11 bankruptcy.

text: Where an airline has established an engineering base at an airport, then there may be considerable economic advantages in using that same airport as a preferred focus (or "hub") for its scheduled flights.

text: Operating costs for US major airlines are primarily aircraft operating expense including jet fuel, aircraft maintenance, depreciation and aircrew for 44%, servicing expense for 29% (traffic 11%, passenger 11% and aircraft 7%), 14% for reservations and sales and 13% for overheads (administration 6% and advertising 2%). An average US major Boeing 757-200 flies 1,252 mi (2,015 km) stages 11.3 block hours per day and costs $2,550 per block hour : $923 of ownership, $590 of maintenance, $548 of fuel and $489 of crew; or $13.34 per 186 seats per block hour. For a Boeing 737-500, a low-cost carrier like Southwest have lower operating costs at $1,526 than a full service one like United at $2,974, and higher productivity with 399,746 ASM per day against 264,284, resulting in a unit cost of 0.38 $cts/ASM against 1.13 $cts/ASM.[65]

text: Assets and financing[edit]

text: Airline financing is quite complex, since airlines are highly leveraged operations. Not only must they purchase (or lease) new airliner bodies and engines regularly, they must make major long-term fleet decisions with the goal of meeting the demands of their markets while producing a fleet that is relatively economical to operate and maintain; comparably Southwest Airlines and their reliance on a single airplane type (the Boeing 737 and derivatives), with the now defunct Eastern Air Lines which operated 17 different aircraft types, each with varying pilot, engine, maintenance, and support needs.

text: A second financial issue is that of hedging oil and fuel purchases, which are usually second only to labor in its relative cost to the company. However, with the current high fuel prices it has become the largest cost to an airline. Legacy airlines, compared with new entrants, have been hit harder by rising fuel prices partly due to the running of older, less fuel efficient aircraft.[43] While hedging instruments can be expensive, they can easily pay for themselves many times over in periods of increasing fuel costs, such as in the 2000–2005 period.

text: In view of the congestion apparent at many international airports, the ownership of slots at certain airports (the right to take-off or land an aircraft at a particular time of day or night) has become a significant tradable asset for many airlines. Clearly take-off slots at popular times of the day can be critical in attracting the more profitable business traveler to a given airline's flight and in establishing a competitive advantage against a competing airline.

text: If a particular city has two or more airports, market forces will tend to attract the less profitable routes, or those on which competition is weakest, to the less congested airport, where slots are likely to be more available and therefore cheaper. For example, Reagan National Airport attracts profitable routes due partly to its congestion, leaving less-profitable routes to Baltimore-Washington International Airport and Dulles International Airport.

text: Other factors, such as surface transport facilities and onward connections, will also affect the relative appeal of different airports and some long distance flights may need to operate from the one with the longest runway. For example, LaGuardia Airport is the preferred airport for most of Manhattan due to its proximity, while long-distance routes must use John F. Kennedy International Airport's longer runways.

text: Airline partnerships[edit]

text: Codesharing is the most common type of airline partnership; it involves one airline selling tickets for another airline's flights under its own airline code. An early example of this was Japan Airlines' (JAL) codesharing partnership with Aeroflot in the 1960s on Tokyo–Moscow flights; Aeroflot operated the flights using Aeroflot aircraft, but JAL sold tickets for the flights as if they were JAL flights. This practice allows airlines to expand their operations, at least on paper, into parts of the world where they cannot afford to establish bases or purchase aircraft. Another example was the Austrian–Sabena partnership on the Vienna–Brussels–New York/JFK route during the late '60s, using a Sabena Boeing 707 with Austrian livery.

text: Since airline reservation requests are often made by city-pair (such as "show me flights from Chicago to Düsseldorf"), an airline that can codeshare with another airline for a variety of routes might be able to be listed as indeed offering a Chicago–Düsseldorf flight. The passenger is advised however, that airline no. 1 operates the flight from say Chicago to Amsterdam, and airline no. 2 operates the continuing flight (on a different airplane, sometimes from another terminal) to Düsseldorf. Thus the primary rationale for code sharing is to expand one's service offerings in city-pair terms to increase sales.

text: A more recent development is the airline alliance, which became prevalent in the late 1990s. These alliances can act as virtual mergers to get around government restrictions. Alliances of airlines such as Star Alliance, Oneworld, and SkyTeam coordinate their passenger service programs (such as lounges and frequent-flyer programs), offer special interline tickets, and often engage in extensive codesharing (sometimes systemwide). These are increasingly integrated business combinations—sometimes including cross-equity arrangements—in which products, service standards, schedules, and airport facilities are standardized and combined for higher efficiency. One of the first airlines to start an alliance with another airline was KLM, who partnered with Northwest Airlines. Both airlines later entered the SkyTeam alliance after the fusion of KLM and Air France in 2004.

text: Often the companies combine IT operations, or purchase fuel and aircraft as a bloc to achieve higher bargaining power. However, the alliances have been most successful at purchasing invisible supplies and services, such as fuel. Airlines usually prefer to purchase items visible to their passengers to differentiate themselves from local competitors. If an airline's main domestic competitor flies Boeing airliners, then the airline may prefer to use Airbus aircraft regardless of what the rest of the alliance chooses.

text: Fuel hedging[edit]

text: Fuel hedging is a contractual tool used by transportation companies like airlines to reduce their exposure to volatile and potentially rising fuel costs. Several low-cost carriers such as Southwest Airlines adopt this practice.[66]

text: Southwest is credited with maintaining strong business profits between 1999 and the early 2000s due to its fuel hedging policy. Many other airlines are replicating Southwest's hedging policy to control their fuel costs.[67]

text: Seasonality[edit]

text: Airlines often have a strong seasonality, with traffic low in Winter and peaking in Summer. In Europe the most extreme market are the Greek islands with July/August having more than ten times the winter traffic, as Jet2 is the most seasonal among low-cost carriers with July having seven times the January traffic, whereas legacy carriers are much less with only 85/115% variability.[68]

text: Environmental impacts[edit]

text: Aircraft engines emit noise pollution, gases and particulate emissions, and contribute to global dimming.[69]

text: Growth of the industry in recent years raised a number of ecological questions.

text: Domestic air transport grew in China at 15.5 percent annually from 2001 to 2006. The rate of air travel globally increased at 3.7 percent per year over the same time. In the EU greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87% between 1990 and 2006.[70] However it must be compared with the flights increase, only in UK, between 1990 and 2006 terminal passengers increased from 100 000 thousands to 250 000 thousands.,[71] according to AEA reports every year, 750 million passengers travel by European airlines, which also share 40% of merchandise value in and out of Europe.[72] Without even pressure from "green activists", targeting lower ticket prices, generally, airlines do what is possible to cut the fuel consumption (and gas emissions connected therewith). Further, according to some reports, it can be concluded that the last piston-powered aircraft were as fuel-efficient as the average jet in 2005.[73]

text: Despite continuing efficiency improvements from the major aircraft manufacturers, the expanding demand for global air travel has resulted in growing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Currently, the aviation sector, including US domestic and global international travel, make approximately 1.6 percent of global anthropogenic GHG emissions per annum. North America accounts for nearly 40 percent of the world's GHG emissions from aviation fuel use.[74]

text: CO2 emissions from the jet fuel burned per passenger on an average 3,200 kilometers (2,000 mi) airline flight is about 353 kilograms (776 pounds).[75] Loss of natural habitat potential associated with the jet fuel burned per passenger on a 3,200 kilometers (2,000 mi) airline flight is estimated to be 250 square meters (2700 square feet).[76]

text: In the context of climate change and peak oil, there is a debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme, with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account.[77]

text: The airline industry is responsible for about 11 percent of greenhouse gases emitted by the U.S. transportation sector. Boeing estimates that biofuels could reduce flight-related greenhouse-gas emissions by 60 to 80 percent. The solution would be blending algae fuels with existing jet fuel:[78]

text:
Boeing and Air New Zealand are collaborating with leading Brazilian biofuel maker Tecbio, New Zealand's Aquaflow Bionomic and other jet biofuel developers around the world.
Virgin Atlantic and Virgin Green Fund are looking into the technology as part of a biofuel initiative.[79]
KLM has made the first commercial flight with biofuel in 2009.

tag: ul

text: There are projects on electric aircraft, and some of them are fully operational as of 2013.

text: Call signs[edit]

text: Each operator of a scheduled or charter flight uses an airline call sign when communicating with airports or air traffic control centres. Most of these call-signs are derived from the airline's trade name, but for reasons of history, marketing, or the need to reduce ambiguity in spoken English (so that pilots do not mistakenly make navigational decisions based on instructions issued to a different aircraft), some airlines and air forces use call-signs less obviously connected with their trading name. For example, British Airways uses a Speedbird call-sign, named after the logo of its predecessor, BOAC, while SkyEurope used Relax.

text: Airline personnel[edit]

text: The various types of airline personnel include: Flight operations personnel including flight safety personnel.

text:
Flight crew, responsible for the operation of the aircraft. Flight crew members include:

Pilots (Captain and First Officer: some older aircraft also required a Flight Engineer and/or a Navigator)
Flight attendants (led by a purser on larger aircraft)
In-flight security personnel on some airlines (most notably El Al)

Groundcrew, responsible for operations at airports. Ground crew members include:

Aerospace and avionics engineers responsible for certifying the aircraft for flight and management of aircraft maintenance

Aerospace engineers, responsible for airframe, powerplant and electrical systems maintenance

Malaysia Airlines Airbus A380-800 departs London Heathrow Airport, England.

Avionics engineers responsible for avionics and instruments maintenance

Airframe and powerplant technicians
Electric System technicians, responsible for maintenance of electrical systems

A Philippine Airlines Airbus A340-300 taxiing to stand at T4.

Flight dispatchers
Baggage handlers
Ramp Agents
Remote centralised weight and balancing[80]
Gate agents
Ticket agents
Passenger service agents (such as airline lounge employees)
Reservation agents, usually (but not always) at facilities outside the airport.
Crew schedulers

text: Airlines follow a corporate structure where each broad area of operations (such as maintenance, flight operations (including flight safety), and passenger service) is supervised by a vice president. Larger airlines often appoint vice presidents to oversee each of the airline's hubs as well. Airlines employ lawyers to deal with regulatory procedures and other administrative tasks.[81]

text: Industry trends[edit]

text: The pattern of ownership has been privatized in the recent years, that is, the ownership has gradually changed from governments to private and individual sectors or organizations. This occurs as regulators permit greater freedom and non-government ownership, in steps that are usually decades apart. This pattern is not seen for all airlines in all regions.[82]

text: Growth rates are not consistent in all regions, but countries with a de-regulated airline industry have more competition and greater pricing freedom. This results in lower fares and sometimes dramatic spurts in traffic growth. The U.S., Australia, Canada, Japan, Brazil, India and other markets exhibit this trend. The industry has been observed to be cyclical in its financial performance. Four or five years of poor earnings precede five or six years of improvement. But profitability even in the good years is generally low, in the range of 2–3% net profit after interest and tax. In times of profit, airlines lease new generations of airplanes and upgrade services in response to higher demand. Since 1980, the industry has not earned back the cost of capital during the best of times. Conversely, in bad times losses can be dramatically worse. Warren Buffett in 1999 said "the money that had been made since the dawn of aviation by all of this country's airline companies was zero. Absolutely zero."[83]

text: As in many mature industries, consolidation is a trend. Airline groupings may consist of limited bilateral partnerships, long-term, multi-faceted alliances between carriers, equity arrangements, mergers, or takeovers. Since governments often restrict ownership and merger between companies in different countries, most consolidation takes place within a country. In the U.S., over 200 airlines have merged, been taken over, or gone out of business since deregulation in 1978. Many international airline managers are lobbying their governments to permit greater consolidation to achieve higher economy and efficiency.


document_title: Once Upon a Time (season 7)

question_text: character at the end of once upon a time season 7 episode 3

text: Once Upon a Time (season 7)

text: Premise[edit]

text: Years after the Final Battle, Henry leaves Storybrooke in search of his own story only to find himself in the New Realm,[10] where a conflict between Lady Tremaine and her stepdaughter Cinderella culminates the casting of yet another curse. As Henry's daughter tries to make him believe in the curse, the enchantress Gothel sets out to revive a cult with sinister intentions.

text: Cast and characters[edit]

text: Regular[edit]

text:
Lana Parrilla as Evil Queen / Regina Mills / Roni[3]
Colin O'Donoghue as Captain Hook / Killian Jones / Rogers[3]
Andrew J. West as Henry Mills[3]
Dania Ramirez as Cinderella / Jacinda[11][12]
Gabrielle Anwar as Rapunzel / Lady Tremaine / Victoria Belfrey[4][12][13]
Alison Fernandez as Lucy[3]
Robert Carlyle as Rumplestiltskin / Mr. Gold / Weaver[3]
Mekia Cox as Tiana / Sabine[4][5]

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
Adelaide Kane as Drizella / Ivy Belfrey[4][14]
Rose Reynolds as Alice / Tilly[4][15]
Emma Booth as Mother Gothel / Eloise Gardener[16][17]
Rebecca Mader as Wicked Witch of the West / Zelena / Kelly[18][19]
Meegan Warner as young Rapunzel[20]
Tiera Skovbye as Robin[21]
Nathan Parsons as Jack / Nick Branson[22][23]
Yael Yurman as Anastasia[24]

text: Guest[edit]

text:
Jared S. Gilmore as young Henry Mills[25]
Jillian Fargey as the Fairy Godmother[26]
Liam Hall as the Prince[26]
Jennifer Morrison as Emma Swan[27]
Emilie de Ravin as Belle[28]
Giles Matthey as Gideon[29]
Robin Givens as Eudora[30]
Kevin Ryan as Robert[31]
Daniel Francis as Dr. Facilier[31]
Chris Gauthier as William Smee[23]
Matty Finochio as Marcus Tremaine[24]
Cindy Luna as Cecilia[32]
Anna Cathcart as tween Drizella[24]
Alejandra Perez as young Ella[32]
Sophia Reid-Gantzert as young Anastasia[24]
Lula Mae Melench as young Drizella[24]
Sara Tomko as Tiger Lily[19]

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

134
1
"Hyperion Heights"
Ralph Hemecker
Edward Kitsis & Adam Horowitz
October 6, 2017 (2017-10-06)
3.26[33]

In a flashback, an 18-year-old Henry says goodbye to Regina as he departs Storybrooke on a trip to new realms, in hopes of finding his own story. Many years later, Henry runs into Cinderella's carriage in the New Enchanted Forest and after a string of events that almost get them captured at a ball, he offers her the chance at a new start back in Storybrooke, as he is due to return through a portal that evening. When Henry finds a glass slipper left for him at their meeting spot, he decides to stay behind. In present-day Seattle, an older Henry is reunited with his daughter Lucy, whom he does not remember because of a curse. In hopes of breaking it, Lucy leads him to her neighborhood of Hyperion Heights, home to many other cursed fairytale characters including Jacinda, Lucy's down-on-her-luck single mother who is in a contentious relationship with her powerful stepmother Victoria. Others include Roni, a bar owner who is struggling with having to sell her establishment to Victoria, and Rogers, a cop who gets promoted to a detective and is introduced to his new partner, Weaver.

135
2
"A Pirate's Life"
Tara Nicole Weyr
Jane Espenson & Jerome Schwartz
October 13, 2017 (2017-10-13)
2.74[34]

In flashback to Storybrooke, Hook is training an 18 year old Henry as Emma watches on. She confesses to Hook that she worries Henry is about to leave on his own. In order to comfort her, Hook shows her a bottle Henry can use to call on them if he gets into trouble. Many years later, as Henry is about to be captured by Lady Tremaine, he uses the bottle to call on Emma, Hook, and Regina for help. In the present, Victoria hires Rogers and Weaver to drive Henry out of the neighborhood. Rogers does not agree with Weaver's methods and helps Henry instead. Rogers, Henry, and Roni end up forming an alliance against Victoria. Meanwhile, Jacinda has to find another way to be at Lucy's ballet recital after Victoria makes things difficult for her.

136
3
"The Garden of Forking Paths"
Ron Underwood
David H. Goodman & Brigitte Hales
October 20, 2017 (2017-10-20)
2.49[35]

In a flashback, Cinderella arrives at the spot in the forest where she is supposed to meet Henry, but does not find him there. She then meets Princess Tiana, who recruits her to be part of the resistance against Lady Tremaine. She leaves one of her glass slippers behind for Henry to find. A short while later, Henry, Regina, and Hook arrive at their campsite and join the efforts. Later, Cinderella sneaks into Tremaine's castle alone, where Tremaine reveals that she has kept her almost-deceased daughter Anastasia preserved since her "death" at age 14 and needs a pure heart to revive her. She tasks Cinderella with stealing Henry's, since he has the heart of the truest believer. In the present day, Jacinda tries to save Lucy's beloved community garden from Victoria, while Lucy takes a skeptical Henry on a trip under the garden lot in hopes of finding proof of everyone's fairytale pasts. Meanwhile, Henry, Roni, and Rogers find their first lead against Victoria. Rogers captures the man working with her, but is irritated to find Weaver setting the man free to use him as a future connection. Also, it is revealed that Victoria is not cursed and has been keeping a witch as her prisoner at the top of Belfrey Towers.

137
4
"Beauty"
Mick Garris
Dana Horgan & Leah Fong
October 27, 2017 (2017-10-27)
2.44[36]

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In a flashback to Gideon's first birthday, Rumple and Belle decide to leave Storybrooke to travel the world. Years later, Rumple tells Belle that he wants to stop being the Dark One so he can be mortal again and live out one single life with her. Over the years, they search for ways to get rid of his darkness. When Gideon is 18, Belle comes across a prophecy that leads them to the Edge of Realms, where they must wait for the sun's brightest set before they can be guided to the path Rumple must take to get rid of the Darkness. They build a home there as they wait for the event to occur. However, an aging Belle eventually admits that the "sun" of which the prophecy spoke was actually herself and that her death will mark the start of his journey. When Belle dies, Rumple sets off to search for a Guardian who will be able to take the Darkness from him so that he can ultimately be reunited with Belle. In the present day, Tilly, who is actually Alice, begins to wake up from the curse after she stops taking pills given to her by Victoria. In her new state of clarity, she tries to get Weaver to remember his true identity. Meanwhile, Ivy is tasked with taking Lucy trick-or-treating and loses her in the streets. She ends up bonding with Henry and defies her mother to give Jacinda and Lucy time together.

138
5
"Greenbacks"
Geofrey Hildrew
Christopher Hollier & Adam Karp
November 3, 2017 (2017-11-03)
2.29[37]

In the flashbacks, Tiana seeks a prince to help save her kingdom and is guided by Dr. Facilier to a man named Robert. She soon realizes that Facilier had enlisted Robert to steal a magical ruby from her in exchange for reuniting him with his lover who had been turned into a frog. In the present day, Tiana decides to run a pop-up beignet shop out of Mr. Cluck's with Jacinda's help. Victoria sends someone to burn the place down, which then causes friction between the two roommates. Rogers comes across a detainee at the police station who he thinks is connected to Eloise Gardener, the missing girl he's trying to find. Meanwhile, Roni decides to investigate Ivy's interest in helping Henry. Ivy takes her to the top of the towers and Roni finds a photo of herself and a young Henry taken in Storybrooke. However, it is later revealed that Ivy hasn't been cursed either and has her own dealings with the witch of which her mother is unaware.

139
6
"Wake Up Call"
Sharat Raju
Jerome Schwartz & Jane Espenson
November 10, 2017 (2017-11-10)
2.37[38]

In a flashback, Regina comes across Drizella, who is looking for magic to escape from her mother. When she reveals that she was actually born with magic, Regina begins to train her. However after Regina runs into Rumple, who tells her that Lady Tremaine must have been aware of the magic lessons, the two women realize that Lady Tremaine was counting on using Drizella's heart to revive Anastasia. Drizella ends up blackening her own heart by killing the prince, making it unusable for revival, and vows to cast a Curse like Regina's to make her mother suffer. In the present day, Roni struggles with what to believe about the mysterious photo, which is complicated by newly discovered information about "Regina Mills" into which Lucy encouraged her to look. Drizella gathers the ingredients for a plant that the witch then cultivates and, when she serves its essence to Roni, she wakes up and remembers her life as Regina. Drizella then reveals that she cast the curse and blackmails Regina into keeping Henry and Jacinda apart, reminding her of a special contingency that was put into the Curse that would force her to comply.

140
7
"Eloise Gardener"
Alex Kalymnios
David H. Goodman & Brigitte Hales
November 17, 2017 (2017-11-17)
2.28[39]

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In a flashback to the Wish Realm shortly after the Charmings stopped Regina from casting her curse, Hook agrees to grant her passage on the Jolly Roger in exchange for leading him to powerful magic guarded by a witch. When he arrives at the witch's tower, he finds Rapunzel instead. She instructs him to retrieve a golden flower from the witch's garden. When he returns with it to help her, they spend the night together. The next morning, it is revealed that Rapunzel is actually Gothel and their night together produced a baby, whom Gothel leaves behind so she can escape the tower. Hook gives the Jolly Roger to Smee and decides to stay with his daughter, who is unable to leave due to the tower's spell. He names her Alice after his own mother. In the present day, Rogers is on a mad hunt for Eloise with help from Henry and Tilly. Tilly later informs him that Eloise has died, but it turns out that the news was planted by Weaver to throw him off the case. Weaver warns Rogers that Eloise is not the person he thinks she is. When Rogers finds Gothel, he believes that she is Eloise and frees her from Victoria, who gets locked up for kidnapping. Meanwhile, Tremaine has discovered that Drizella is awake and Regina tries to put some distance between Henry and Jacinda.

141
8
"Pretty in Blue"
Ralph Hemecker
Dana Horgan & Leah Fong
November 17, 2017 (2017-11-17)
2.28[39]

This episode's plot summary may be too long or excessively detailed. Please help improve it by removing unnecessary details and making it more concise. (December 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

In flashbacks, Hook is reunited with Alice, who claims that they have been cured of their curse. However, when they try to embrace, Hook gets hurt and Alice runs away in fear. Henry and Cinderella chase her back to New Wonderland, a place where Cinderella reveals her mother Cecilia ran to after abandoning her and her stepfather. She takes a shrinking potion and leaves Henry, heading into the Infinite Maze alone to find answers. She finds Alice, who tells her that she met Cecilia before and that she was also afflicted with the Curse of the Poisoned Heart. Drizella appears in New Wonderland with a plan to curse Henry, but Alice and Cinderella are able to save him. Henry and Cinderella then share their first kiss. In the present day, Jacinda contacts Nick (Jack in Fairy Tale Land), a lawyer whom she has been cursed to believe is Lucy's father. He agrees to help her regain custody of Lucy, to Henry's dismay, and Lucy encourages Henry to fight for Jacinda. Meanwhile, Drizella and Gothel plan to revive Anastasia but, when they open her coffin, her body is missing. After Regina confronts Rumple, who refuses to confirm that he has woken up from the curse, she announces to Henry that she's heading to San Francisco to meet with someone who was pushed out of town by Victoria. He agrees to join her on the trip.

142
9
"One Little Tear"
Steve Pearlman
Christopher Hollier & Adam Karp
December 8, 2017 (2017-12-08)
2.45[40]

Victoria strikes a deal with Weaver in an attempt to free herself from jail and wake Anastasia. In flashbacks, Rapunzel takes from Mother Gothel's garden to save her family and is trapped in a tower in exchange. After 6 years of captivity, Rapunzel escapes using her hair but finds her husband Marcus has remarried to Cecilia, gaining a stepdaughter, Ella. Gothel tempts Rapunzel with a New Wonderland mushroom, which she uses to poison Cecilia's heart. One day, Anastasia and Ella falls through thin ice, but to Rapunzel's disbelief, their father only manages to save Ella. Rapunzel seeks Gothel's help, who magically seals Anastasia's last breath with the price of keeping Anastasia in the tower. However, Rapunzel tricks Gothel who becomes trapped in her own tower until someone in her bloodline takes her place. In the present day, Victoria strangely gives full custody of Lucy to Jacinda, claiming to be a changed person. Victoria retrieves the Once Upon a Time book and shows Lucy her unfortunate life story as Rapunzel and convinces Lucy to give up her belief in happy endings. As Lucy sheds a tear, Victoria uses it to awaken Anastasia, while Lucy collapses into unconsciousness.

143
10
"The Eighth Witch"
Ralph Hemecker
Jane Espenson & Jerome Schwartz
December 15, 2017 (2017-12-15)
2.29[41]

In a flashback, baby Lucy is born, just as Drizella appears to deliver a prophecy about a curse. The heroes are able to turn Drizella to stone. Eight years later, everyone is celebrating Lucy's birthday when Gothel appears with her coven of witches, recruiting Drizella to join them as she is finally freed. With the curse looming, Regina heads off to get help from Zelena. Later, when the heroes confront the witches, Gothel reveals that they have poisoned Henry, and Regina is forced into casting Drizella's curse to save his life. In the present day, Regina has located a cursed Zelena in San Francisco, who is now known as Kelly. Regina is able to give Zelena her memories back and the two head back to Seattle, knowing that breaking the curse to help Lucy would only hurt Henry instead. Rumple tests Anastasia to see if she is the Guardian. However, Gothel also wants Anastasia and severs her alliance with Drizella after the girl is brought to her, deeming Anastasia to be more useful in her coven. Gothel tells her that they need to find their fellow witches.

144
11
"Secret Garden"[42]
TBA
Edward Kitsis & Adam Horowitz
March 2, 2018 (2018-03-02)[43]
TBD

145
12
"A Taste of the Heights"[44]
TBA
David H. Goodman & Brigitte Hales
TBA
TBD

146
13
"Knightfall"[45]
TBA
Jerome Schwartz & Miguel Ian Raya
TBA
TBD

147
14
"The Girl in the Tower"[46]
TBA
Dana Horgan & Leah Fong
TBA
TBD

148
15
"Sisterhood"[47]
TBA
Christopher Hollier & Adam Karp
TBA
TBD

149
16
"Breadcrumbs"[48]
TBA
Jane Espenson & Jerome Schwartz
TBA
TBD

150
17
"Chosen"[49]
Lana Parrilla
Paul Karp & Brian Ridings
TBA
TBD

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: In January 2017, while season 6 was still in production, ABC president Channing Dungey spoke of a possible "reset" of the show's narrative in the event that the show received a season 7 order.[9] After much speculation, executive producers Adam Horowitz and Edward Kitsis later confirmed that certain characters would have their storylines wrapped up and that the back-end of the sixth season had been written with the season 7 narrative change in mind.[50] Despite the major changes from seasons past, the showrunners have said that they do not view season 7 as a complete reboot of the show. Horowitz said: "I hesitate to use the word "reboot." We're more thinking about it as a hybrid of a lot of things. We're paying homage to the original premise, but there are certain characters who are returning and some who are not. It's a combination of a lot of things, but what we're trying to do is go in a new direction but stay true to the spirit of what the show has always been."[51]

text: In July 2017, the creators announced that the series now take place in the Seattle neighborhood of Hyperion Heights, which was created under a new and darker curse. Residents of this neighborhood include displaced characters from the original and new versions of the Enchanted Forest, as well as regular people from the Land Without Magic. This differs from Storybrooke in season 1, which was an isolated town that was blocked off from real-world Maine. The initial villain is Lady Tremaine, who assumes the role of an urban developer who seeks to "gentrify the neighborhood" and push out and separate fairy tale residents. Meanwhile, Storybrooke and various Fairy Tale Land locations still appear in the flashbacks of the season as the story bounces back and forth between the characters' lives before and during the latest curse.[52]

text: Casting[edit]

text: In May 2017, it was announced that Lana Parrilla, Colin O'Donoghue, and Robert Carlyle would be the only series regulars from season 6 to continue onto season 7.[3] It was teased that the three would be portraying their original characters but with cursed identities, similar to the circumstances in season 1. In July, the first promo of the season revealed that Killian is now a Seattle police officer with the last name Rogers, who is living with an unexplained sense of loss.[53] In August, it was revealed that Regina is now a bar owner named Roni, who is more dressed down and is "no longer in charge."[54]

text: Former main cast member Jennifer Morrison has confirmed that she has agreed to return for one episode, later revealed to be the second episode of the season.[55][56] Morrison announced her last filming day on July 19, 2017.[57] On July 22, it was confirmed that Emilie de Ravin would return for the fourth episode in the seventh season.[28]

text: In March 2017, Andrew J. West and Alison Fernandez were cast for unknown guest roles in the season six finale. During the episode, it was revealed that West was portraying an adult Henry Mills, while Fernandez portrayed his daughter, Lucy. After that episode's airing, they were confirmed as series regulars for season 7.[3] West will be taking over the role from Jared S. Gilmore, who has been confirmed to appear in at least the first two episodes of the season.[25][58]

text: On July 6, 2017, it was announced that Dania Ramirez and Gabrielle Anwar would be two additional series regulars for season 7.[3] Additionally, Adelaide Kane, Mekia Cox, and Rose Reynolds were cast in recurring roles for the upcoming season.[3] On July 15, it was announced that Ramirez would be portraying Cinderella, albeit a different version from the one previously played by Jessy Schram for the first six seasons.[11] On July 22 at San Diego Comic-Con, it was revealed that Anwar and Kane will be portraying Lady Tremaine and Drizella, respectively. Cox would be portraying Tiana from The Princess and the Frog, while Reynolds would be playing an alternate version of Alice, a character previously heavily featured in the spin-off Once Upon a Time in Wonderland.[53] In August 2017, Cox was promoted to series regular.[5]

text: On August 1, it was announced that Giles Matthey would return as an adult Gideon for the season's fourth episode. The episode, also featuring Emilie de Ravin, would be centered around Rumple.[29] On that same day, it was also announced that Emma Booth was cast in a major recurring role as the Witch,[16] whose more specific identity would be revealed later on during the season.[59] On August 25, Kevin Ryan announced that he would be making an appearance as a new prince in the upcoming season.[60] On August 30, it was announced that Robin Givens had been cast as Tiana's mother, Eudora.[30]

text: On September 8, it was announced that Meegan Warner would be guest starring as an alternate version of Rapunzel, a character previously featured in one episode of season 3.[20] It was later revealed that the character would appear in a multi-episode arc.[61] On September 20, it was announced that former main Rebecca Mader would return for multiple episodes in the seventh season as Zelena, who will also have a cursed identity.[18][62]

text: On October 2, it was announced that Dr. Facilier from The Princess and the Frog would make an appearance during the season,[63] later revealed to be portrayed by Daniel Francis in the season's fifth episode.[31] On October 3, it was announced that flashbacks of the ninth episode would feature a "tweenage" Anastasia, Lady Tremaine's other biological daughter.[64]

text: On November 1, it was announced that Tiera Skovbye would be recurring as an older version of Robin, the daughter of Zelena and Robin Hood.[21] On November 2, it was announced that Nathan Parsons had been cast in a recurring role as Nick, a lawyer and potential love interest for another character.[22] On November 3, it was announced that the show was casting for the role of Naveen from The Princess and the Frog, who will be appearing in the second half of the season.[65] On November 16, actor Chad Rook announced that he had been cast in an unknown role.[66]

text: Ratings[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Air date
Rating/share
(18–49)
Viewers
(millions)
DVR
(18–49)
DVR viewers
(millions)
Total
(18–49)
Total viewers
(millions)

1
"Hyperion Heights"
October 6, 2017
0.7/3
3.26[33]
0.7
1.72
1.4
4.98[67]

2
"A Pirate's Life"
October 13, 2017
0.7/3
2.74[34]
0.6
N/A
1.3[68]
N/A

3
"The Garden of Forking Paths"
October 20, 2017
0.5/3
2.49[35]
0.6
N/A
1.1[69]
N/A

4
"Beauty"
October 27, 2017
0.5/2
2.44[36]
0.5
N/A
1.0[70]
N/A

5
"Greenbacks"
November 3, 2017
0.5/2
2.29[37]
0.5
1.27
1.0
3.56[71]

6
"Wake Up Call"
November 10, 2017
0.5/2
2.37[38]
0.5
1.32
1.0
3.69[72]

7
"Eloise Gardener"
November 17, 2017
0.5/2
2.28[39]
0.5
1.30
1.0
3.58[73]

8
"Pretty in Blue"
November 17, 2017
0.5/2
2.28[39]
0.5
1.30
1.0
3.58[73]

9
"One Little Tear"
December 8, 2017
0.5/2
2.45[40]
0.5
N/A
0.9[74]
N/A

10
"The Eighth Witch"
December 15, 2017
0.5/2
2.29[41]
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD