document_title: Greenhouse gas

question_text: most greenhouse gas emissions (44 ) are coming from which type of fossil fuel

question_tokens: most greenhouse gas emissions ( 44 ) are coming from which type of fossil fuel

text: Greenhouse gas

text: Gases in Earth's atmosphere[edit]

text: Greenhouse gases[edit]

text: Greenhouse gases are those that absorb and emit infrared radiation in the wavelength range emitted by Earth.[1] In order, the most abundant greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere are:

text:
Water vapor (H
2O)
Carbon dioxide (CO
2)
Methane (CH
4)
Nitrous oxide (N
2O)
Ozone (O
3)
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Hydrofluorocarbons (incl. HCFCs and HFCs)

text: Atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases are determined by the balance between sources (emissions of the gas from human activities and natural systems) and sinks (the removal of the gas from the atmosphere by conversion to a different chemical compound).[13] The proportion of an emission remaining in the atmosphere after a specified time is the "airborne fraction" (AF). The annual airborne fraction is the ratio of the atmospheric increase in a given year to that year's total emissions. As of 2006 the annual airborne fraction for CO2 was about 0.45. The annual airborne fraction increased at a rate of 0.25 ± 0.21% per year over the period 1959–2006.[14]

text: Non-greenhouse gases[edit]

text:
The major atmospheric constituents, nitrogen (N
2), oxygen (O
2), and argon (Ar), are not greenhouse gases because molecules containing two atoms of the same element such as N
2 and O
2 and monatomic molecules such as argon (Ar) have no net change in the distribution of their electrical charges when they vibrate. Hence they are almost totally unaffected by infrared radiation. Although molecules containing two atoms of different elements such as carbon monoxide (CO) or hydrogen chloride (HCl) absorb infrared radiation, these molecules are short-lived in the atmosphere owing to their reactivity and solubility. Therefore, they do not contribute significantly to the greenhouse effect and often are omitted when discussing greenhouse gases.

text: Indirect radiative effects[edit]

text:
Some gases have indirect radiative effects (whether or not they are greenhouse gases themselves). This happens in two main ways. One way is that when they break down in the atmosphere they produce another greenhouse gas. For example, methane and carbon monoxide (CO) are oxidized to give carbon dioxide (and methane oxidation also produces water vapor, as discussed later). Oxidation of CO to CO2 directly produces an unambiguous increase in radiative forcing although the reason is subtle. The peak of the thermal IR emission from Earth's surface is very close to a strong vibrational absorption band of CO2 (15 microns, or 667 cm−1). On the other hand, the single CO vibrational band only absorbs IR at much shorter wavelengths (4.7 microns, or 2145 cm−1), where the emission of radiant energy from Earth's surface is at least a factor of ten lower. Oxidation of methane to CO2, which requires reactions with the OH radical, produces an instantaneous reduction in radiative absorption and emission since CO2 is a weaker greenhouse gas than methane, although CO2 has a longer lifetime. As described below this is not the whole story, since the oxidations of CO and CH
4 are intertwined by both consuming OH radicals. In any case, the calculation of the total radiative effect needs to include both the direct and indirect forcing.

text: A second type of indirect effect happens when chemical reactions in the atmosphere involving these gases change the concentrations of greenhouse gases. For example, the destruction of non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs) in the atmosphere can produce ozone. The size of the indirect effect can depend strongly on where and when the gas is emitted.[16]

text:
Methane has a number of indirect effects in addition to forming CO2. First, the main chemical that reacts with methane in the atmosphere is the hydroxyl radical (OH), thus more methane means that the concentration of OH goes down. Effectively, methane increases its own atmospheric lifetime and therefore its overall radiative effect. The second effect is that the oxidation of methane can produce ozone. Third, as well as making CO2, the oxidation of methane produces water; this is a major source of water vapor in the stratosphere, which is otherwise very dry. CO and NMVOCs also produce CO2 when they are oxidized. They remove OH from the atmosphere, and this leads to higher concentrations of methane. The surprising effect of this is that the global warming potential of CO is three times that of CO2.[17] The same process that converts NMVOCs to carbon dioxide can also lead to the formation of tropospheric ozone. Halocarbons have an indirect effect because they destroy stratospheric ozone. Finally, hydrogen can lead to ozone production and CH
4 increases as well as producing water vapor in the stratosphere.[16]

text: Contribution of clouds to Earth's greenhouse effect[edit]

text: The major non-gas contributor to Earth's greenhouse effect, clouds, also absorb and emit infrared radiation and thus have an effect on radiative properties of the greenhouse gases. Clouds are water droplets or ice crystals suspended in the atmosphere.[18][19]

text: Impacts on the overall greenhouse effect[edit]

text: The contribution of each gas to the greenhouse effect is determined by the characteristics of that gas, its abundance, and any indirect effects it may cause. For example, the direct radiative effect of a mass of methane is about 84 times stronger than the same mass of carbon dioxide over a 20-year time frame[22] but it is present in much smaller concentrations so that its total direct radiative effect is smaller, in part due to its shorter atmospheric lifetime. On the other hand, in addition to its direct radiative impact, methane has a large, indirect radiative effect because it contributes to ozone formation. Shindell et al. (2005)[23] argue that the contribution to climate change from methane is at least double previous estimates as a result of this effect.[24]

text: When ranked by their direct contribution to the greenhouse effect, the most important are:[18][not in citation given]

text:
Compound

Formula

Concentration in
atmosphere[25] (ppm)
Contribution
(%)

Water vapor and clouds
H
2O
10–50,000(A)
36–72%

Carbon dioxide
CO2
~400
9–26%

Methane
CH
4
~1.8
4–9%

Ozone
O
3
2–8(B)
3–7%

notes:
(A) Water vapor strongly varies locally[26]
(B) The concentration in stratosphere. About 90% of the ozone in Earth's atmosphere is contained in the stratosphere.

text: In addition to the main greenhouse gases listed above, other greenhouse gases include sulfur hexafluoride, hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons (see IPCC list of greenhouse gases). Some greenhouse gases are not often listed. For example, nitrogen trifluoride has a high global warming potential (GWP) but is only present in very small quantities.[27]

text: Proportion of direct effects at a given moment[edit]

text: It is not possible to state that a certain gas causes an exact percentage of the greenhouse effect. This is because some of the gases absorb and emit radiation at the same frequencies as others, so that the total greenhouse effect is not simply the sum of the influence of each gas. The higher ends of the ranges quoted are for each gas alone; the lower ends account for overlaps with the other gases.[18][19] In addition, some gases such as methane are known to have large indirect effects that are still being quantified.[28]

text: Atmospheric lifetime[edit]

text:
Aside from water vapor, which has a residence time of about nine days,[29] major greenhouse gases are well mixed and take many years to leave the atmosphere.[30] Although it is not easy to know with precision how long it takes greenhouse gases to leave the atmosphere, there are estimates for the principal greenhouse gases. Jacob (1999)[31] defines the lifetime

τ

{\displaystyle \tau }

 of an atmospheric species X in a one-box model as the average time that a molecule of X remains in the box. Mathematically

τ

{\displaystyle \tau }

 can be defined as the ratio of the mass

m

{\displaystyle m}

 (in kg) of X in the box to its removal rate, which is the sum of the flow of X out of the box (

F

o
u
t

{\displaystyle F_{out}}

), chemical loss of X (

L

{\displaystyle L}

), and deposition of X (

D

{\displaystyle D}

) (all in kg/s):

τ
=

m

F

o
u
t

+
L
+
D

{\displaystyle \tau ={\frac {m}{F_{out}+L+D}}}

.[31] If one stopped pouring any of this gas into the box, then after a time

τ

{\displaystyle \tau }

, its concentration would be about halved.

text: The atmospheric lifetime of a species therefore measures the time required to restore equilibrium following a sudden increase or decrease in its concentration in the atmosphere. Individual atoms or molecules may be lost or deposited to sinks such as the soil, the oceans and other waters, or vegetation and other biological systems, reducing the excess to background concentrations. The average time taken to achieve this is the mean lifetime.

text: Carbon dioxide has a variable atmospheric lifetime, and cannot be specified precisely.[32] The atmospheric lifetime of CO2 is estimated of the order of 30–95 years.[33] This figure accounts for CO2 molecules being removed from the atmosphere by mixing into the ocean, photosynthesis, and other processes. However, this excludes the balancing fluxes of CO2 into the atmosphere from the geological reservoirs, which have slower characteristic rates.[34] Although more than half of the CO2 emitted is removed from the atmosphere within a century, some fraction (about 20%) of emitted CO2 remains in the atmosphere for many thousands of years.[35] [36] [37] Similar issues apply to other greenhouse gases, many of which have longer mean lifetimes than CO2. E.g., N2O has a mean atmospheric lifetime of 121 years.[22]

text: Radiative forcing[edit]

text: Earth absorbs some of the radiant energy received from the sun, reflects some of it as light and reflects or radiates the rest back to space as heat.[38] Earth's surface temperature depends on this balance between incoming and outgoing energy.[38] If this energy balance is shifted, Earth's surface becomes warmer or cooler, leading to a variety of changes in global climate.[38]

text: A number of natural and man-made mechanisms can affect the global energy balance and force changes in Earth's climate.[38] Greenhouse gases are one such mechanism.[38] Greenhouse gases absorb and emit some of the outgoing energy radiated from Earth's surface, causing that heat to be retained in the lower atmosphere.[38] As explained above, some greenhouse gases remain in the atmosphere for decades or even centuries, and therefore can affect Earth's energy balance over a long period.[38] Radiative forcing quantifies the effect of factors that influence Earth's energy balance, including changes in the concentrations of greenhouse gases.[38] Positive radiative forcing leads to warming by increasing the net incoming energy, whereas negative radiative forcing leads to cooling.[38]

text: Global warming potential[edit]

text: The global warming potential (GWP) depends on both the efficiency of the molecule as a greenhouse gas and its atmospheric lifetime. GWP is measured relative to the same mass of CO2 and evaluated for a specific timescale. Thus, if a gas has a high (positive) radiative forcing but also a short lifetime, it will have a large GWP on a 20-year scale but a small one on a 100-year scale. Conversely, if a molecule has a longer atmospheric lifetime than CO2 its GWP will increase with the timescale considered. Carbon dioxide is defined to have a GWP of 1 over all time periods.

text: Methane has an atmospheric lifetime of 12 ± 3 years. The 2007 IPCC report lists the GWP as 72 over a time scale of 20 years, 25 over 100 years and 7.6 over 500 years.[39] A 2014 analysis, however, states that although methane's initial impact is about 100 times greater than that of CO2, because of the shorter atmospheric lifetime, after six or seven decades, the impact of the two gases is about equal, and from then on methane's relative role continues to decline.[40] The decrease in GWP at longer times is because methane is degraded to water and CO2 through chemical reactions in the atmosphere.

text: Examples of the atmospheric lifetime and GWP relative to CO2 for several greenhouse gases are given in the following table:

text:
Atmospheric lifetime and GWP relative to CO2 at different time horizon for various greenhouse gases

Gas name
Chemical
formula
Lifetime
(years)[22]
Global warming potential (GWP) for given time horizon

20-yr[22]
100-yr[22]
500-yr[39]

Carbon dioxide
CO2
30–95
1
1
1

Methane
CH
4
12
84
28
7.6

Nitrous oxide
N
2O
121
264
265
153

CFC-12
CCl
2F
2
100
10 800
10 200
5 200

HCFC-22
CHClF
2
12
5 280
1 760
549

Tetrafluoromethane
CF
4
50 000
4 880
6 630
11 200

Hexafluoroethane
C
2F
6
10 000
8 210
11 100
18 200

Sulfur hexafluoride
SF
6
3 200
17 500
23 500
32 600

Nitrogen trifluoride
NF
3
500
12 800
16 100
20 700

text: The use of CFC-12 (except some essential uses) has been phased out due to its ozone depleting properties.[41] The phasing-out of less active HCFC-compounds will be completed in 2030.[42]

text: Natural and anthropogenic sources[edit]

text: Aside from purely human-produced synthetic halocarbons, most greenhouse gases have both natural and human-caused sources. During the pre-industrial Holocene, concentrations of existing gases were roughly constant, because the large natural sources and sinks roughly balance. In the industrial era, human activities have added greenhouse gases to the atmosphere, mainly through the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests.[47][48]

text: The 2007 Fourth Assessment Report compiled by the IPCC (AR4) noted that "changes in atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases and aerosols, land cover and solar radiation alter the energy balance of the climate system", and concluded that "increases in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations is very likely to have caused most of the increases in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century".[49] In AR4, "most of" is defined as more than 50%.

text: Abbreviations used in the two tables below: ppm = parts-per-million; ppb = parts-per-billion; ppt = parts-per-trillion; W/m2 = watts per square metre

text:
Current greenhouse gas concentrations[50]

Gas
Pre-1750
tropospheric
concentration[51]
Recent
tropospheric
concentration[52]
Absolute increase
since 1750
Percentage
increase
since 1750
Increased
radiative forcing
(W/m2)[53]

Carbon dioxide (CO2)
280 ppm[54]
395.4 ppm[55]
115.4 ppm
41.2%
1.88

Methane (CH
4)
700 ppb[56]
1893 ppb /[57]
1762 ppb[57]
1193 ppb /
1062 ppb
170.4% /
151.7%
0.49

Nitrous oxide (N
2O)
270 ppb[53][58]
326 ppb /[57]
324 ppb[57]
56 ppb /
54 ppb
20.7% /
20.0%
0.17

Tropospheric
ozone (O
3)
237 ppb[51]
337 ppb[51]
100 ppb
42%
0.4[59]

text:
Relevant to radiative forcing and/or ozone depletion; all of the following have no natural sources and hence zero amounts pre-industrial[50]

Gas
Recent
tropospheric
concentration
Increased
radiative forcing
(W/m2)

CFC-11
(trichlorofluoromethane)
(CCl
3F)
236 ppt /
234 ppt
0.061

CFC-12 (CCl
2F
2)
527 ppt /
527 ppt
0.169

CFC-113 (Cl
2FC-CClF
2)
74 ppt /
74 ppt
0.022

HCFC-22 (CHClF
2)
231 ppt /
210 ppt
0.046

HCFC-141b (CH
3CCl
2F)
24 ppt /
21 ppt
0.0036

HCFC-142b (CH
3CClF
2)
23 ppt /
21 ppt
0.0042

Halon 1211 (CBrClF
2)
4.1 ppt /
4.0 ppt
0.0012

Halon 1301 (CBrClF
3)
3.3 ppt /
3.3 ppt
0.001

HFC-134a (CH
2FCF
3)
75 ppt /
64 ppt
0.0108

Carbon tetrachloride (CCl
4)
85 ppt /
83 ppt
0.0143

Sulfur hexafluoride (SF
6)
7.79 ppt /[60]
7.39 ppt[60]
0.0043

Other halocarbons
Varies by
substance
collectively
0.02

Halocarbons in total

0.3574

text:
Ice cores provide evidence for greenhouse gas concentration variations over the past 800,000 years (see the following section). Both CO2 and CH
4 vary between glacial and interglacial phases, and concentrations of these gases correlate strongly with temperature. Direct data does not exist for periods earlier than those represented in the ice core record, a record that indicates CO2 mole fractions stayed within a range of 180 ppm to 280 ppm throughout the last 800,000 years, until the increase of the last 250 years. However, various proxies and modeling suggests larger variations in past epochs; 500 million years ago CO2 levels were likely 10 times higher than now.[61] Indeed, higher CO2 concentrations are thought to have prevailed throughout most of the Phanerozoic eon, with concentrations four to six times current concentrations during the Mesozoic era, and ten to fifteen times current concentrations during the early Palaeozoic era until the middle of the Devonian period, about 400 Ma.[62][63][64] The spread of land plants is thought to have reduced CO2 concentrations during the late Devonian, and plant activities as both sources and sinks of CO2 have since been important in providing stabilising feedbacks.[65] Earlier still, a 200-million year period of intermittent, widespread glaciation extending close to the equator (Snowball Earth) appears to have been ended suddenly, about 550 Ma, by a colossal volcanic outgassing that raised the CO2 concentration of the atmosphere abruptly to 12%, about 350 times modern levels, causing extreme greenhouse conditions and carbonate deposition as limestone at the rate of about 1 mm per day.[66] This episode marked the close of the Precambrian eon, and was succeeded by the generally warmer conditions of the Phanerozoic, during which multicellular animal and plant life evolved. No volcanic carbon dioxide emission of comparable scale has occurred since. In the modern era, emissions to the atmosphere from volcanoes are only about 1% of emissions from human sources.[66][67][68]

text: Ice cores[edit]

text: Measurements from Antarctic ice cores show that before industrial emissions started atmospheric CO2 mole fractions were about 280 parts per million (ppm), and stayed between 260 and 280 during the preceding ten thousand years.[69] Carbon dioxide mole fractions in the atmosphere have gone up by approximately 35 percent since the 1900s, rising from 280 parts per million by volume to 387 parts per million in 2009. One study using evidence from stomata of fossilized leaves suggests greater variability, with carbon dioxide mole fractions above 300 ppm during the period seven to ten thousand years ago,[70] though others have argued that these findings more likely reflect calibration or contamination problems rather than actual CO2 variability.[71][72] Because of the way air is trapped in ice (pores in the ice close off slowly to form bubbles deep within the firn) and the time period represented in each ice sample analyzed, these figures represent averages of atmospheric concentrations of up to a few centuries rather than annual or decadal levels.

text: Changes since the Industrial Revolution[edit]

text: Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the concentrations of most of the greenhouse gases have increased. For example, the mole fraction of carbon dioxide has increased from 280 ppm to 400 ppm, or 120 ppm over modern pre-industrial levels. The first 30 ppm increase took place in about 200 years, from the start of the Industrial Revolution to 1958; however the next 90 ppm increase took place within 56 years, from 1958 to 2014.[73][74]

text: Recent data also shows that the concentration is increasing at a higher rate. In the 1960s, the average annual increase was only 37% of what it was in 2000 through 2007.[75]

text: Today, the stock of carbon in the atmosphere increases by more than 3 million tonnes per annum (0.04%) compared with the existing stock.[clarification needed] This increase is the result of human activities by burning fossil fuels, deforestation and forest degradation in tropical and boreal regions.[76]

text: The other greenhouse gases produced from human activity show similar increases in both amount and rate of increase. Many observations are available online in a variety of Atmospheric Chemistry Observational Databases.

text: Anthropogenic greenhouse gases[edit]

text: Since about 1750 human activity has increased the concentration of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. Measured atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide are currently 100 ppm higher than pre-industrial levels.[79] Natural sources of carbon dioxide are more than 20 times greater than sources due to human activity,[80] but over periods longer than a few years natural sources are closely balanced by natural sinks, mainly photosynthesis of carbon compounds by plants and marine plankton. As a result of this balance, the atmospheric mole fraction of carbon dioxide remained between 260 and 280 parts per million for the 10,000 years between the end of the last glacial maximum and the start of the industrial era.[81]

text: It is likely that anthropogenic (i.e., human-induced) warming, such as that due to elevated greenhouse gas levels, has had a discernible influence on many physical and biological systems.[82] Future warming is projected to have a range of impacts, including sea level rise,[83] increased frequencies and severities of some extreme weather events,[83] loss of biodiversity,[84] and regional changes in agricultural productivity.[84]

text: The main sources of greenhouse gases due to human activity are:

text:
burning of fossil fuels and deforestation leading to higher carbon dioxide concentrations in the air. Land use change (mainly deforestation in the tropics) account for up to one third of total anthropogenic CO2 emissions.[81]
livestock enteric fermentation and manure management,[85] paddy rice farming, land use and wetland changes, man-made lakes,[86] pipeline losses, and covered vented landfill emissions leading to higher methane atmospheric concentrations. Many of the newer style fully vented septic systems that enhance and target the fermentation process also are sources of atmospheric methane.
use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in refrigeration systems, and use of CFCs and halons in fire suppression systems and manufacturing processes.
agricultural activities, including the use of fertilizers, that lead to higher nitrous oxide (N
2O) concentrations.

text: The seven sources of CO2 from fossil fuel combustion are (with percentage contributions for 2000–2004):[87]

text:
Seven main fossil fuel
combustion sources
Contribution
(%)

Liquid fuels (e.g., gasoline, fuel oil)
36%

Solid fuels (e.g., coal)
35%

Gaseous fuels (e.g., natural gas)
20%

Cement production
 3 %

Flaring gas industrially and at wells
< 1%

Non-fuel hydrocarbons
< 1%

"International bunker fuels" of transport
not included in national inventories[88]
 4 %

text:
Carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide (N
2O) and three groups of fluorinated gases (sulfur hexafluoride (SF
6), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and perfluorocarbons (PFCs)) are the major anthropogenic greenhouse gases,[89]:147[90] and are regulated under the Kyoto Protocol international treaty, which came into force in 2005.[91] Emissions limitations specified in the Kyoto Protocol expired in 2012.[91] The Cancún agreement, agreed in 2010, includes voluntary pledges made by 76 countries to control emissions.[92] At the time of the agreement, these 76 countries were collectively responsible for 85% of annual global emissions.[92]

text: Although CFCs are greenhouse gases, they are regulated by the Montreal Protocol, which was motivated by CFCs' contribution to ozone depletion rather than by their contribution to global warming. Note that ozone depletion has only a minor role in greenhouse warming though the two processes often are confused in the media. On 15 October 2016, negotiators from over 170 nations meeting at the summit of the United Nations Environment Programme reached a legally binding accord to phase out hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) in an amendment to the Montreal Protocol.[93][94][95]

text: Sectors[edit]

text: This section needs expansion with: Information on emissions from other sectors. You can help by adding to it. (July 2013)

text: Tourism[edit]

text: According to UNEP global tourism is closely linked to climate change. Tourism is a significant contributor to the increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Tourism accounts for about 50% of traffic movements. Rapidly expanding air traffic contributes about 2.5% of the production of CO2. The number of international travelers is expected to increase from 594 million in 1996 to 1.6 billion by 2020, adding greatly to the problem unless steps are taken to reduce emissions.[96]

text: Road Haulage[edit]

text: The road haulage industry plays a part in production of CO2, contributing around 20% of the UK's total carbon emissions a year, with only the energy industry having a larger impact at around 39%.[97] Average carbon emissions within the haulage industry are falling—in the thirty-year period from 1977 to 2007, the carbon emissions associated with a 200-mile journey fell by 21 percent; NOx emissions are also down 87 percent, whereas journey times have fallen by around a third.[98] Due to their size, HGVs often receive criticism regarding their CO2 emissions; however, rapid development in engine technology and fuel management is having a largely positive effect.

text: Role of water vapor[edit]

text: Water vapor accounts for the largest percentage of the greenhouse effect, between 36% and 66% for clear sky conditions and between 66% and 85% when including clouds.[19] Water vapor concentrations fluctuate regionally, but human activity does not directly affect water vapor concentrations except at local scales, such as near irrigated fields. Indirectly, human activity that increases global temperatures will increase water vapor concentrations, a process known as water vapor feedback.[99] The atmospheric concentration of vapor is highly variable and depends largely on temperature, from less than 0.01% in extremely cold regions up to 3% by mass in saturated air at about 32 °C.[100] (See Relative humidity#other important facts.)

text:
The average residence time of a water molecule in the atmosphere is only about nine days, compared to years or centuries for other greenhouse gases such as CH
4 and CO2.[101] Thus, water vapor responds to and amplifies effects of the other greenhouse gases. The Clausius–Clapeyron relation establishes that more water vapor will be present per unit volume at elevated temperatures. This and other basic principles indicate that warming associated with increased concentrations of the other greenhouse gases also will increase the concentration of water vapor (assuming that the relative humidity remains approximately constant; modeling and observational studies find that this is indeed so). Because water vapor is a greenhouse gas, this results in further warming and so is a "positive feedback" that amplifies the original warming. Eventually other earth processes offset these positive feedbacks, stabilizing the global temperature at a new equilibrium and preventing the loss of Earth's water through a Venus-like runaway greenhouse effect.[102]

text: Direct greenhouse gas emissions[edit]

text: Between the period 1970 to 2004, greenhouse gas emissions (measured in CO2-equivalent)[103] increased at an average rate of 1.6% per year, with CO2 emissions from the use of fossil fuels growing at a rate of 1.9% per year.[104][105] Total anthropogenic emissions at the end of 2009 were estimated at 49.5 gigatonnes CO2-equivalent.[106]:15 These emissions include CO2 from fossil fuel use and from land use, as well as emissions of methane, nitrous oxide and other greenhouse gases covered by the Kyoto Protocol.

text: At present, the primary source of CO2 emissions is the burning of coal, natural gas, and petroleum for electricity and heat.[107]

text: Regional and national attribution of emissions[edit]

text: According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), GHG emissions in the United States can be traced from different sectors.[108]

text: There are several different ways of measuring greenhouse gas emissions, for example, see World Bank (2010)[109]:362 for tables of national emissions data. Some variables that have been reported[110] include:

text:
Definition of measurement boundaries: Emissions can be attributed geographically, to the area where they were emitted (the territory principle) or by the activity principle to the territory produced the emissions. These two principles result in different totals when measuring, for example, electricity importation from one country to another, or emissions at an international airport.
Time horizon of different gases: Contribution of a given greenhouse gas is reported as a CO2 equivalent. The calculation to determine this takes into account how long that gas remains in the atmosphere. This is not always known accurately and calculations must be regularly updated to reflect new information.
What sectors are included in the calculation (e.g., energy industries, industrial processes, agriculture etc.): There is often a conflict between transparency and availability of data.
The measurement protocol itself: This may be via direct measurement or estimation. The four main methods are the emission factor-based method, mass balance method, predictive emissions monitoring systems, and continuous emissions monitoring systems. These methods differ in accuracy, cost, and usability.

text: These different measures are sometimes used by different countries to assert various policy/ethical positions on climate change (Banuri et al., 1996, p. 94).[111] This use of different measures leads to a lack of comparability, which is problematic when monitoring progress towards targets. There are arguments for the adoption of a common measurement tool, or at least the development of communication between different tools.[110]

text: Emissions may be measured over long time periods. This measurement type is called historical or cumulative emissions. Cumulative emissions give some indication of who is responsible for the build-up in the atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases (IEA, 2007, p. 199).[112]

text: The national accounts balance would be positively related to carbon emissions. The national accounts balance shows the difference between exports and imports. For many richer nations, such as the United States, the accounts balance is negative because more goods are imported than they are exported. This is mostly due to the fact that it is cheaper to produce goods outside of developed countries, leading the economies of developed countries to become increasingly dependent on services and not goods. We believed that a positive accounts balance would means that more production was occurring in a country, so more factories working would increase carbon emission levels.[113]

text: Emissions may also be measured across shorter time periods. Emissions changes may, for example, be measured against a base year of 1990. 1990 was used in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) as the base year for emissions, and is also used in the Kyoto Protocol (some gases are also measured from the year 1995).[89]:146,149 A country's emissions may also be reported as a proportion of global emissions for a particular year.

text: Another measurement is of per capita emissions. This divides a country's total annual emissions by its mid-year population.[109]:370 Per capita emissions may be based on historical or annual emissions (Banuri et al., 1996, pp. 106–107).[111]

text: From land-use change[edit]

text: Land-use change, e.g., the clearing of forests for agricultural use, can affect the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere by altering how much carbon flows out of the atmosphere into carbon sinks.[114] Accounting for land-use change can be understood as an attempt to measure "net" emissions, i.e., gross emissions from all sources minus the removal of emissions from the atmosphere by carbon sinks (Banuri et al., 1996, pp. 92–93).[111]

text: There are substantial uncertainties in the measurement of net carbon emissions.[115] Additionally, there is controversy over how carbon sinks should be allocated between different regions and over time (Banuri et al., 1996, p. 93).[111] For instance, concentrating on more recent changes in carbon sinks is likely to favour those regions that have deforested earlier, e.g., Europe.

text: Greenhouse gas intensity[edit]

text:
Greenhouse gas intensity in the year 2000, including land-use change.

Carbon intensity of GDP (using PPP) for different regions, 1982–2011.

Carbon intensity of GDP (using MER) for different regions, 1982–2011.

text: Greenhouse gas intensity is a ratio between greenhouse gas emissions and another metric, e.g., gross domestic product (GDP) or energy use. The terms "carbon intensity" and "emissions intensity" are also sometimes used.[116] Emission intensities may be calculated using market exchange rates (MER) or purchasing power parity (PPP) (Banuri et al., 1996, p. 96).[111] Calculations based on MER show large differences in intensities between developed and developing countries, whereas calculations based on PPP show smaller differences.

text: Cumulative and historical emissions[edit]

text: Cumulative anthropogenic (i.e., human-emitted) emissions of CO2 from fossil fuel use are a major cause of global warming,[117] and give some indication of which countries have contributed most to human-induced climate change.[118]:15

text:
Top-5 historic CO2 contributors by region over the years 1800 to 1988 (in %)

Region
Industrial
CO2
Total
CO2

OECD North America
33.2
29.7

OECD Europe
26.1
16.6

Former USSR
14.1
12.5

China
  5.5
  6.0

Eastern Europe
  5.5
  4.8

text: The table above to the left is based on Banuri et al. (1996, p. 94).[111] Overall, developed countries accounted for 83.8% of industrial CO2 emissions over this time period, and 67.8% of total CO2 emissions. Developing countries accounted for industrial CO2 emissions of 16.2% over this time period, and 32.2% of total CO2 emissions. The estimate of total CO2 emissions includes biotic carbon emissions, mainly from deforestation. Banuri et al. (1996, p. 94)[111] calculated per capita cumulative emissions based on then-current population. The ratio in per capita emissions between industrialized countries and developing countries was estimated at more than 10 to 1.

text: Including biotic emissions brings about the same controversy mentioned earlier regarding carbon sinks and land-use change (Banuri et al., 1996, pp. 93–94).[111] The actual calculation of net emissions is very complex, and is affected by how carbon sinks are allocated between regions and the dynamics of the climate system.

text: Non-OECD countries accounted for 42% of cumulative energy-related CO2 emissions between 1890 and 2007.[119]:179–180 Over this time period, the US accounted for 28% of emissions; the EU, 23%; Russia, 11%; China, 9%; other OECD countries, 5%; Japan, 4%; India, 3%; and the rest of the world, 18%.[119]:179–180

text: Changes since a particular base year[edit]

text:
Between 1970 and 2004, global growth in annual CO2 emissions was driven by North America, Asia, and the Middle East.[120] The sharp acceleration in CO2 emissions since 2000 to more than a 3% increase per year (more than 2 ppm per year) from 1.1% per year during the 1990s is attributable to the lapse of formerly declining trends in carbon intensity of both developing and developed nations. China was responsible for most of global growth in emissions during this period. Localised plummeting emissions associated with the collapse of the Soviet Union have been followed by slow emissions growth in this region due to more efficient energy use, made necessary by the increasing proportion of it that is exported.[87] In comparison, methane has not increased appreciably, and N
2O by 0.25% y−1.

text: Using different base years for measuring emissions has an effect on estimates of national contributions to global warming.[118]:17–18[121] This can be calculated by dividing a country's highest contribution to global warming starting from a particular base year, by that country's minimum contribution to global warming starting from a particular base year. Choosing between different base years of 1750, 1900, 1950, and 1990 has a significant effect for most countries.[118]:17–18 Within the G8 group of countries, it is most significant for the UK, France and Germany. These countries have a long history of CO2 emissions (see the section on Cumulative and historical emissions).

text: Annual emissions[edit]

text: Annual per capita emissions in the industrialized countries are typically as much as ten times the average in developing countries.[89]:144 Due to China's fast economic development, its annual per capita emissions are quickly approaching the levels of those in the Annex I group of the Kyoto Protocol (i.e., the developed countries excluding the USA).[122] Other countries with fast growing emissions are South Korea, Iran, and Australia (which apart from the oil rich Persian Gulf states, now has the highest percapita emission rate in the world). On the other hand, annual per capita emissions of the EU-15 and the USA are gradually decreasing over time.[122] Emissions in Russia and Ukraine have decreased fastest since 1990 due to economic restructuring in these countries.[123]

text: Energy statistics for fast growing economies are less accurate than those for the industrialized countries. For China's annual emissions in 2008, the Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency estimated an uncertainty range of about 10%.[122]

text: The greenhouse gas footprint refers to the emissions resulting from the creation of products or services. It is more comprehensive than the commonly used carbon footprint, which measures only carbon dioxide, one of many greenhouse gases.

text: 2015 was the first year to see both total global economic growth and a reduction of carbon emissions.[124]

text: Top emitter countries[edit]

text: Annual[edit]

text: In 2009, the annual top ten emitting countries accounted for about two-thirds of the world's annual energy-related CO2 emissions.[125]

text:
Top-10 annual energy-related CO2 emitters for the year 2009[citation needed]

Country
% of global total
annual emissions
Tonnes of GHG
per capita

People's Rep. of China
23.6
5.1

United States
17.9
16.9

India
5.5
1.4

Russian Federation
5.3
10.8

Japan
3.8
8.6

Germany
2.6
9.2

Islamic Rep. of Iran
1.8
7.3

Canada
1.8
15.4

South Korea
1.8
10.6

United Kingdom
1.6
7.5

text: Cumulative[edit]

text:
Top-10 cumulative energy-related CO2 emitters between 1850 and 2008[citation needed]

Country
% of world
total
Metric tonnes
CO2 per person

United States
28.5
1,132.7

China
9.36
85.4

Russian Federation
7.95
677.2

Germany
6.78
998.9

United Kingdom
5.73
1,127.8

Japan
3.88
367

France
2.73
514.9

India
2.52
26.7

Canada
2.17
789.2

Ukraine
2.13
556.4

text: Embedded emissions[edit]

text: One way of attributing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is to measure the embedded emissions (also referred to as "embodied emissions") of goods that are being consumed. Emissions are usually measured according to production, rather than consumption.[126] For example, in the main international treaty on climate change (the UNFCCC), countries report on emissions produced within their borders, e.g., the emissions produced from burning fossil fuels.[119]:179[127]:1 Under a production-based accounting of emissions, embedded emissions on imported goods are attributed to the exporting, rather than the importing, country. Under a consumption-based accounting of emissions, embedded emissions on imported goods are attributed to the importing country, rather than the exporting, country.

text: Davis and Caldeira (2010)[127]:4 found that a substantial proportion of CO2 emissions are traded internationally. The net effect of trade was to export emissions from China and other emerging markets to consumers in the US, Japan, and Western Europe. Based on annual emissions data from the year 2004, and on a per-capita consumption basis, the top-5 emitting countries were found to be (in tCO2 per person, per year): Luxembourg (34.7), the US (22.0), Singapore (20.2), Australia (16.7), and Canada (16.6).[127]:5 Carbon Trust research revealed that approximately 25% of all CO2 emissions from human activities 'flow' (i.e., are imported or exported) from one country to another. Major developed economies were found to be typically net importers of embodied carbon emissions — with UK consumption emissions 34% higher than production emissions, and Germany (29%), Japan (19%) and the USA (13%) also significant net importers of embodied emissions.[128]

text: Effect of policy[edit]

text: Governments have taken action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (climate change mitigation). Assessments of policy effectiveness have included work by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,[129] International Energy Agency,[130][131] and United Nations Environment Programme.[132] Policies implemented by governments have included[133][134][135] national and regional targets to reduce emissions, promoting energy efficiency, and support for renewable energy such as Solar energy as an effective use of renewable energy because solar uses energy from the sun and does not release pollutants into the air.

text: Countries and regions listed in Annex I of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (i.e., the OECD and former planned economies of the Soviet Union) are required to submit periodic assessments to the UNFCCC of actions they are taking to address climate change.[135]:3 Analysis by the UNFCCC (2011)[135]:8 suggested that policies and measures undertaken by Annex I Parties may have produced emission savings of 1.5 thousand Tg CO2-eq in the year 2010, with most savings made in the energy sector. The projected emissions saving of 1.5 thousand Tg CO2-eq is measured against a hypothetical "baseline" of Annex I emissions, i.e., projected Annex I emissions in the absence of policies and measures. The total projected Annex I saving of 1.5 thousand CO2-eq does not include emissions savings in seven of the Annex I Parties.[135]:8

text: Projections[edit]

text: A wide range of projections of future emissions have been produced.[136] Rogner et al. (2007)[137] assessed the scientific literature on greenhouse gas projections. Rogner et al. (2007)[104] concluded that unless energy policies changed substantially, the world would continue to depend on fossil fuels until 2025–2030. Projections suggest that more than 80% of the world's energy will come from fossil fuels. This conclusion was based on "much evidence" and "high agreement" in the literature.[104] Projected annual energy-related CO2 emissions in 2030 were 40–110% higher than in 2000, with two-thirds of the increase originating in developing countries.[104] Projected annual per capita emissions in developed country regions remained substantially lower (2.8–5.1 tonnes CO2) than those in developed country regions (9.6–15.1 tonnes CO2).[138] Projections consistently showed increase in annual world emissions of "Kyoto" gases,[139] measured in CO2-equivalent) of 25–90% by 2030, compared to 2000.[104]

text: Relative CO2 emission from various fuels[edit]

text: One liter of gasoline, when used as a fuel, produces 2.32 kg (about 1300 liters or 1.3 cubic meters) of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas. One US gallon produces 19.4 lb (1,291.5 gallons or 172.65 cubic feet)[140][141][142]

text:
Mass of carbon dioxide emitted per quantity of energy for various fuels[143]

Fuel name
CO2
emitted
(lbs/106 Btu)
CO2
emitted
(g/MJ)
CO2
emitted
(g/kWh)

Natural gas
117
50.30
181.08

Liquefied petroleum gas
139
59.76
215.14

Propane
139
59.76
215.14

Aviation gasoline
153
65.78
236.81

Automobile gasoline
156
67.07
241.45

Kerosene
159
68.36
246.10

Fuel oil
161
69.22
249.19

Tires/tire derived fuel
189
81.26
292.54

Wood and wood waste
195
83.83
301.79

Coal (bituminous)
205
88.13
317.27

Coal (sub-bituminous)
213
91.57
329.65

Coal (lignite)
215
92.43
332.75

Petroleum coke
225
96.73
348.23

Tar-sand Bitumen
[citation needed]
[citation needed]
[citation needed]

Coal (anthracite)
227
97.59
351.32

text: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources[edit]

text: A literature review of numerous energy sources CO2 emissions by the IPCC in 2011, found that, the CO2 emission value that fell within the 50th percentile of all total life cycle emissions studies conducted was as follows.[144]

text:
Lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions by electricity source.

Technology
Description
50th percentile
(g CO2/kWhe)

Hydroelectric
reservoir
4

Ocean Energy
wave and tidal
8

Wind
onshore
12

Nuclear
various generation II reactor types
16

Biomass
various
18

Solar thermal
parabolic trough
22

Geothermal
hot dry rock
45

Solar PV
Polycrystalline silicon
46

Natural gas
various combined cycle turbines without scrubbing
469

Coal
various generator types without scrubbing
1001

text: Removal from the atmosphere ("sinks")[edit]

text: Natural processes[edit]

text: Greenhouse gases can be removed from the atmosphere by various processes, as a consequence of:

text:
a physical change (condensation and precipitation remove water vapor from the atmosphere).
a chemical reaction within the atmosphere. For example, methane is oxidized by reaction with naturally occurring hydroxyl radical, OH· and degraded to CO2 and water vapor (CO2 from the oxidation of methane is not included in the methane Global warming potential). Other chemical reactions include solution and solid phase chemistry occurring in atmospheric aerosols.
a physical exchange between the atmosphere and the other compartments of the planet. An example is the mixing of atmospheric gases into the oceans.
a chemical change at the interface between the atmosphere and the other compartments of the planet. This is the case for CO2, which is reduced by photosynthesis of plants, and which, after dissolving in the oceans, reacts to form carbonic acid and bicarbonate and carbonate ions (see ocean acidification).
a photochemical change. Halocarbons are dissociated by UV light releasing Cl· and F· as free radicals in the stratosphere with harmful effects on ozone (halocarbons are generally too stable to disappear by chemical reaction in the atmosphere).

text: Negative emissions[edit]

text: A number of technologies remove greenhouse gases emissions from the atmosphere. Most widely analysed are those that remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, either to geologic formations such as bio-energy with carbon capture and storage[145][146][147] and carbon dioxide air capture,[147] or to the soil as in the case with biochar.[147] The IPCC has pointed out that many long-term climate scenario models require large-scale manmade negative emissions to avoid serious climate change.[148]

text: History of scientific research[edit]

text:
In the late 19th century scientists experimentally discovered that N
2 and O
2 do not absorb infrared radiation (called, at that time, "dark radiation"), while water (both as true vapor and condensed in the form of microscopic droplets suspended in clouds) and CO2 and other poly-atomic gaseous molecules do absorb infrared radiation. In the early 20th century researchers realized that greenhouse gases in the atmosphere made Earth's overall temperature higher than it would be without them. During the late 20th century, a scientific consensus evolved that increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere cause a substantial rise in global temperatures and changes to other parts of the climate system,[149] with consequences for the environment and for human health.


document_title: There's Something About Mary

question_text: who sings in there's something about mary

question_tokens: who sings in there 's something about mary

root

text: There's Something About Mary

text: Plot[edit]

text: In 1985, 16-year-old high school student Ted Stroehmann (Ben Stiller) is about to go on a prom date with his dream girl Mary Jensen (Cameron Diaz) when he gets his penis stuck in a zipper. He is hospitalized when it bleeds after being unzipped, which cancels their date. Ted subsequently loses contact with Mary.

tag: p

text: Thirteen years later, in 1998, 29-year-old Ted is still in love with Mary. On the advice of his best friend Dom Woganowski (Chris Elliott), he hires a private detective named Pat Healy (Matt Dillon) to track her down. Pat discovers that she is an orthopedic surgeon living in Miami with her friend, Magda, and instantly falls in love with Mary as well. He lies to Ted about her, saying she is overweight with four children and confined to a wheelchair, to discourage him from having any contact with her. Pat resorts to lying, cheating, stalking, and drugging Magda's dog to win Mary over, but is exposed by Mary's architect friend, Tucker (Lee Evans), who is heavily reliant on crutches and speaks with an English accent. Pat later feels guilty about lying to Mary and reveals his true self to her. Enraged after overhearing Tucker subsequently slander him as a murderer, Pat tails Tucker and discovers him to be a fraud himself: he is an able-bodied, entirely American pizza delivery boy named Norm Phipps who is also in love with Mary. For years, Norm has been driving away potential rivals through slander, including one oft-mentioned suitor referred to only as "Brett."

text: Meanwhile, Ted decides he still wants to reconnect with Mary and, assisted by Dom, drives down to Florida and discovers the truth about her. Ted seems to have won Mary's love, until an anonymous letter exposes his connection with Pat, and she breaks contact with him. Ted confronts Pat and Norm, and Mary is accosted by Dom, who is revealed to be her ex-boyfriend "Woogie" that she has a restraining order against. When Mary is finally together with all of her deceitful suitors, Ted realizes that the only one who did not resort to lying and manipulation to win Mary was Brett, who he learns is NFL quarterback Brett Favre. After reuniting Brett and Mary, Ted leaves tearfully until Mary catches up to Ted, saying that "I'd be happiest with you".

text: The film concludes with the two engaging in a kiss while a guitarist (Jonathan Richman), who has periodically narrated the story in song throughout the film, is accidentally shot by Magda's boyfriend, who was trying to shoot Ted so he could win over Mary.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Cameron Diaz as Mary Jensen/Matthews
Ben Stiller as Ted Stroehmann
Matt Dillon as Patrick "Pat" Healy
Chris Elliott as Dom "Woogie" Woganowski
Lee Evans as Tucker/Norm Phipps
Lin Shaye as Magda
Jeffrey Tambor as Sully
Markie Post as Sheila Jensen, Mary's mother
Keith David as Charlie, Mary's stepfather
W. Earl Brown as Warren Jensen, Mary's mentally disabled brother
Sarah Silverman as Brenda, Mary's sarcastic and obnoxious best friend
Khandi Alexander as Joanie
Willie Garson as Dr. Zit Face/high school pal Bob
Richard Tyson as Detective Krevoy
Rob Moran as Detective Stabler
Jonathan Richman as the singing narrator
Steve Sweeney as Policeman
Lenny Clarke as Fireman
Harland Williams (uncredited) as Hitchhiker
Richard Jenkins (uncredited) as Psychiatrist

tag: ul

text: Brett Favre plays himself in a cameo that was originally written-for and offered to NFL quarterback Steve Young, but he turned the role down due to the film's coarse nature and was replaced with Favre.[3] Bill Murray was considered for the role of Pat Healy, but the Farrelly brothers thought he was too old for the part.[4][5]

text: Production[edit]

text: The movie was filmed in Miami, Florida. The makeup effects and animatronic animal effects were the handiwork of Makeup Effects Designer Tony Gardner and Alterian, Inc.

text: Reception [edit]

text: This sleeper hit was the highest-grossing comedy of 1998 in North America as well as the fourth-highest-grossing film of the year. It also catapulted Diaz and Stiller into the limelight. The film made $369 million worldwide, including $176 million in the U.S. alone.[2]

text: The film received positive reviews from critics. Rotten Tomatoes gives it a score of 83% based on 83 reviews, and an average rating of 7/10, with the consensus: "There's Something About Mary proves that unrelentingly, unabashedly puerile humor doesn't necessarily come at the expense of a film's heart."[6] Metacritic gives the film a score of 69 out of 100 based on reviews from 29 critics.[7]

text: Roger Ebert gave it three out of four stars, stating "What a blessed relief is laughter. It flies in the face of manners, values, political correctness and decorum. It exposes us for what we are, the only animal with a sense of humor."[8]

text: Gene Siskel ranked the film No.9 on his 10 Best films of 1998 (the final "best of" list he did before passing away).

text: The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:

text:
2000: AFI's 100 Years...100 Laughs – #27[9]
2002: AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions – Nominated[10]
2007: AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) – Nominated[11]
2008: AFI's 10 Top 10 – Nominated Romantic Comedy Film[12]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text:
"There's Something About Mary" (Jonathan Richman) – 1:47
"How to Survive a Broken Heart" (Ben Lee) – 2:47
"Every Day Should Be a Holiday" (The Dandy Warhols) – 4:02
"Everything Shines" (The Push Stars) – 2:27
"This Is the Day" (Ivy) – 3:33
"Is She Really Going Out with Him?" (Joe Jackson) – 3:36
"True Love Is Not Nice" (Jonathan Richman) – 2:13
"History Repeating" (The Propellerheads feat. Shirley Bassey) – 4:04
"If I Could Talk I'd Tell You" (The Lemonheads) – 2:51
"Mary's Prayer" (Danny Wilson) – 3:54
"Margo's Waltz" (Lloyd Cole) – 4:01
"Speed Queen" (Zuba) – 3:44
"Let Her Go Into the Darkness" (Jonathan Richman) – 1:19
"Build Me Up Buttercup" (The Foundations) – 2:59[13]

tag: ol