document_title: Cargo (2017 film)

question_text: where is the movie cargo based out of

question_tokens: where is the movie cargo based out of

text: Cargo (2017 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: This section's plot summary may be too long or excessively detailed. Please help improve it by removing unnecessary details and making it more concise. (May 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: In a world overtaken by a virus that turns people into zombies within 48 hours, husband and wife, Andy and Kay, and their one-year-old daughter, Rosie, are living safely on a houseboat in rural Australia.

text: While relocating for the night, Andy spots two children playing on the shore of the river. He shouts out to them, but the father, noticing Andy, flashes a revolver in his belt. Kay mentions their food rations are starting to run out, but Andy debates her plans to go on land.

text: Andy spots an abandoned sailboat and proceeds to investigate it. He retrieves food, and, on his return, reassures her the sailboat he ransacked was safe, Kay decides to return by herself to try and collect more supplies, but is attacked by a zombie emerging from a cupboard.

text: Andy discovers Kay in the bathroom of the houseboat, trying to restrain the bloodflow from a bite on her knee. She is next seen investigating a pack that was previously acquired by Andy from the river. In it is contained a bracelet that measures the amount of time left for an infected, which Kay puts on, and a spring-loaded dagger that can be used on a zombie's temple to kill them. Andy and Kay discuss their plans, confirming her vulnerability. The family abandons the houseboat and drive to a hospital.

text: On a deserted stretch of road, Andy stops the car and Kay change Rosie's diaper. She collapses, convulsing and throwing up blood. Kay comes to her senses and checks her wound in the car to see it is oozing yellow slime. In a fit she exits the car and has a shouting match with Andy, angered he has been trying to keep her developments from her. He subdues her and convinces her to continue with him. Andy breaks the door handle to keep Kay from trying to escape again. On the road, Andy is distracted by a lone man and consequentially crashes the car into a tree, impaling Kay. Andy faints from shock, leaving Rosie strapped in her seat. He comes to hours later and tries to wake Kay, but realizes she has already converted, as evidenced by pus around her eyes and mouth. He takes Rosie out of the car, but is bitten by his wife during the process.He kills her and takes her bracelet and places it on himself instead, then begins travelling on foot with Rosie on his back. While resting, he spots the man that had caused their crash, but realizing he is a zombie, prepares to defend himself. An Aboriginal girl, Thoomi dissuades Andy from hurting the man, her father, and cuts her hand with a rock to draw blood and lead him away.

text: Andy arrives at the town he intended to reach, entering a school and meeting Etta, a retired teacher. She helps him clean his wounds, and informs him that all the Aboriginal people have returned to their ancestral homelands, including all of her former students. Andy steps outside and sees fires in the distance, started by the Aboriginals. A woman is seen calling for Thoomi. That night, in a hospital room, Andy has his first seizure. He awakens the next morning, going outside to meet Etta, who tells him to seek a man named Willie, Thoomi's father, to take care of Rosie. She explains the purpose of the fires, started by Aboriginal hunting parties that are cleansing the land by killing zombies they encounter. Etta warns Andy to stay out of their range. On his journey Andy is followed by a zombie. He finds a truck and attempts to hijack it, but is stopped by a man named Vic, who saves Andy from the zombie that had been after him. Vic is trapped under a tank and gives Andy the keys, making him promise to rescue him first, and then they can escape approaching zombies together. Vic takes Andy to his shelter, an outpost formerly part of a gas plant. He meets Vic's wife, Lorraine. Andy hides his infection from the couple. Vic encourages Andy to leave Rosie with Lorraine so the two men can go to work. Work is shooting groups of zombies and collecting their valuables, as Vic believes when the country returns to normal people will want riches again. Vic attracts the zombies by imprisoning live, healthy humans inside cages as bait. Andy is perturbed to see Thoomi trapped, along with an old man in a cage. At the shelter, Lorraine is taking care of Rosie. As the power goes out, Rosie becomes uncomfortable. Lorraine attempts to cheer her up, but discovers slime on her stomach.

text: Vic visits another cage with Andy. He uses entrails, a radio, and blood to lure zombies, all factors which make Andy question himself for a moment. The men return to the shelter, where Lorraine briefly mentions cleaning up Rosie. Andy plays with his daughter before setting her down in a makeshift crib, his hand starting to spasm. He leaves the shelter with a dagger, but cannot bring himself to use it. Lorraine comes upon him, confessing that she is not Vic's wife, and that Vic let her husband die along with other gas plant workers to save himself. Vic approaches them and knocks Andy out with the butt of his rifle out of suspicion, the latter awakening chained in the same cage as Thoomi. They agree to help each other escape by using the combined force of many zombies to open their cage, returning successfully to the shelter, rescuing Lorraine, Rosie, and the keys to both cages and chains. They don't get very far before Vic emerges from the shelter and shoots at them. Lorraine sacrifices herself for them to escape.

text: Thoomi leads Andy to the cage he visited earlier, but the man inside (who she tells him is her tribe’s “Clever Man” or shaman) is gone. They evade Vic tracking them down, and spend the night in a small gulch. After releasing each other of their chain, they are presumed to fall asleep, until later in the night Thoomi wakes up to heavy breathing and hides with Rosie while Andy rubs his face against blood on the wall. The following morning Andy and Thoomi have a conversation about her father's health, which results in Thoomi running off after Andy asserts her father will not get better. The same woman who has been seen calling for Thoomi (later revealed by Thoomi to Andy to be her mother and Willie’s wife) leaves Willie's jacket on a tree limb. Thoomi arrives to see her father has been straddled atop the tree, dead (as part of Aboriginal burial traditions). Andy arrives to comfort her, but leaves promptly when he cannot console Thoomi, as she irrationally blames him for delaying her (she believed the Clever Man could restore her father’s soul to his body, as she is unaware that the zombie phenomenon is biological rather than supernatural). He has another breakdown and begins to try and burrow his head into the ground. Thoomi remains at the tree grieving, but is able to hear Rosie's cry and goes to retrieve her. Andy is confronted by Thoomi after he rouses, who has decided to help him reach the river.

text: They travel by motorboat to the campsite where Andy last saw the family, inspecting the RV in which the family was staying. Andy leaves with Rosie to go find the family, while Thoomi stays in the RV. He meets the father, who has been bitten, and once again shows him his revolver. The father says it contains six bullets, and that Andy can have the remaining two once he uses them on himself and his family. Andy retreats as three gunshots are heard in the distance. The fourth is delayed while the father follows Andy, using it on himself and collapsing behind him. Andy collects the gun as intended and debates whether to shoot himself as well. Thoomi rushes to them, having removed her leaves and claiming she is ready to go home. They set off together towards the sight of smoke on a nearby hill.

text: As they pass through a train tunnel, they encounter Vic. Thoomi hides with Rosie inside a parked vehicle on the tracks, while Andy tries to distract Vic. The two men fight, and Andy shoots once, hitting Vic in the abdomen. During the struggle, Vic manages to obtain the revolver and also shoot Andy. Andy, briefly defeated, is unable to help Thoomi, who Vic pulls from the car, in the process hitting her head on the rails. She lies in pain, Vic grabbing hold of Rosie. Andy rises to check on Thoomi, who is still alive, and then Rosie, who Vic is cradling, lamenting the incidental death of Lorraine. He tearfully hands over Rosie so that Andy can renew his walk with a hurt Thoomi.

text: On the way Andy has another lapse, almost indulging in decayed meat. With little time left, Andy asks of Thoomi to promise to look after Rosie, with whom Andy shares a farewell before preparing himself for the finalization by placing a guard in his mouth, binding his wrists, and wrapping the meat from earlier on a stick. He then succumbs, his eyes crusted over.

text: The Aboriginal warriors have finished their raid, but Thoomi calls out to them with a whistle, drawing attention of the woman, her mother. Thoomi and Rosie are riding Andy, who is guided by the meat on the stick, and being perfectly harmless is detained by the warriors while Thoomi and Rosie are welcomed back by her mother. One of the warriors, the Clever Man who managed to escape his cage on his own, attempts to strike Andy with his spear, but Thoomi stops him. She takes out Kay's perfume bottle, and sprays it one last time, the smell pacifying Andy, for a moment returning his consciousness as he realizes Rosie is finally safe. Thoomi then allows the Clever Man to put Andy out of his misery.

text: The Aboriginal people are seen traveling to a refuge of many of their people where they are welcomed heartily. As Thoomi and her mother inspect Rosie, the words Thank You are read on her stomach, written in white paint which Thoomi and the warriors have used to disguise their scent from the zombies. The final shots of the movie are of Andy's plaid shirt and Rosie's fishing bait mobile hung on a tree.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Martin Freeman as Andy Rose
Anthony Hayes as Vic Carter
Caren Pistorius as Lorraine Cassidy
David Gulpilil as Daku - Cleverman
Susie Porter as Kay Caine
Kris McQuade as Etta
Bruce R. Carter as Willie
Natasha Wanganeen as Josie
Simone Landers as Thoomi

text: Release[edit]

text: The film was originally scheduled to be released on 8 June 2018.[4] However, it was later brought forward to 18 May 2018.[5][6][7][8] The film is dedicated in memory of Dr. G. Yunupingu, an Aboriginal Australian singer who died aged 46 on 26 July 2017.[9]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Cargo received positive reviews from critics, praising its emotional depth and Freeman's performance. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 84%, based on 57 reviews, and an average rating of 7.1/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Cargo takes a refreshingly character-driven approach to the zombie genre that's further distinguished by its Australian setting and Martin Freeman's terrific lead performance."[10] On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 65 out of 100, based on 12 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[11]

text:
The film has been described as a tribute to the 2009 film The Road.
[6][7] In a positive review, Brian Tallerico of RogerEbert.com stated he believed George A. Romero would have enjoyed the film.[12] Clark Collins of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a 'B', saying: "The Australian setting brings a fresh, and epic, quality to this now done-to-death genre".[13] However, Frank Scheck of The Hollywood Reporter criticized the film for being "unlikely to satisfy either viewers looking for serious-minded fare or horror fans looking for genuine frights", but praised Freeman's "quietly intense" performance.[14]


document_title: Rowell–Sirois Commission

question_text: what were the main recommendations of the rowell-sirois report

root

text: Rowell–Sirois Commission

text: The Rowell–Sirois Commission officially known as the Royal Commission on Dominion–Provincial Relations was a Canadian Royal Commission looking into the Canadian economy and federal–provincial relations. It was called in 1937 and reported in 1940.

tag: p

text: The Commission was chaired first by Newton Wesley Rowell and then by Joseph Sirois. James McGregor Stewart acted as chief counsel. It was called as a result of the Great Depression. The attempts to manage the Depression by the government illustrated grave flaws with the Canadian constitution. While the federal government had most of the revenue gathering powers, the provinces had unexpectedly greater expenditure responsibilities. The founders had given the provinces responsibility for health care, education, and welfare when these were only minor concerns; by 1937, however, these had all become massive expenditure areas.

text: The Commission recommended that the federal government take over control of unemployment insurance and pensions. It also recommended the creation of equalization payments and large transfers of money from the federal government to the province each year. Other recommendations were not adopted due to resistance from the provinces or the federal government.


document_title: Brothers in Arms (album)

question_text: what kind of guitar is on the cover of brothers in arms

text: Brothers in Arms (album)

text: Recording[edit]

text: Brothers in Arms was recorded from November 1984 to March 1985 at AIR Studios on the island of Montserrat, a British overseas territory in the Caribbean.[10] The album was produced by Mark Knopfler and Neil Dorfsman. Knopfler became aware of Dorfsman through his 1981 recording of the Wanderlust album by jazz vibraphonist Mike Mainieri. In 1982, Knopfler asked Dorfsman to work with him on the 1982 Dire Straits album, Love over Gold, and his 1983 soundtrack album Local Hero.[11] Brothers in Arms was one of the first albums to be recorded on a Sony 24-track digital tape machine. The decision to move to digital recording came from Knopfler's constant striving for better sound quality. "One of the things that I totally respected about him," Dorfsman observed, "was his interest in technology as a means of improving his music. He was always willing to spend on high-quality equipment."[11]

text: Before arriving at Montserrat, Knopfler had written all the songs and rehearsed them with the band. The studio lineup included Knopfler (guitar), John Illsley (bass), Terry Williams (drums), Alan Clark (piano and Hammond B3), and Guy Fletcher, who was new to the band, playing a synth rig that consisted of a huge new Yamaha DX1, a couple of Roland keyboards, and a Synclavier. The studio itself was small, with a 20-by-25-foot (6 m × 8 m) recording space that offered virtually no isolation. "It was a good-sounding studio," Dorfsman later recalled, "but the main room itself was nothing to write home about. The sound of that studio was the desk," referring to the Neve 8078 board.[11]

text: Knopfler and Dorfsman utilised the limited space to best effect, placing the drum kit in the far left corner, facing the control room, miked with Sennheiser MD421s on the toms, an Electro-Voice RE20 and AKG D12 on the kick drum, a Shure SM57 and AKG C451 with a 20 dB pad on the snare, 451s for overheads and the hi-hat, and Neumann U87s set back a little to capture "some kind of ambience".[11] They placed the piano in a tight booth in the far right corner of the studio, miked with AKG C414s. The Hammond B3 was placed nearby, with its Leslie speaker crammed into an airlock next to the control room. Illsley's bass amplifier was recorded inside a small vocal booth with a Neumann FET 47 and a DI unit. Knopfler's amplifiers were miked with 57s, 451s, and Neumann U67s. Fletcher's synths were placed in the control room.[11]

text: During the recording of "Money for Nothing", the signature sound of Knopfler's guitar may have been enhanced by a "happy accident" of microphone placement. Knopfler was using his Gibson Les Paul going through a Laney amplifier. While setting up the guitar amplifier microphones in an effort to get the "ZZ Top sound" that Knopfler was after, guitar tech Ron Eve, who was in the control room, heard the "amazing" sound before Dorfsman was finished arranging the mics. "One mic was pointing down at the floor," Dorfsman remembered, "another was not quite on the speaker, another was somewhere else, and it wasn't how I would want to set things up—it was probably just left from the night before, when I'd been preparing things for the next day and had not really finished the setup."[11] What they heard was exactly what ended up on the record; no additional processing or effects were used during the mix.[11]

text: According to a 2006 Sound on Sound magazine interview with the co-producer/engineer of the album, Neil Dorfsman, then-permanent drummer Terry Williams' performance was found to be unsuitable for the desired sound of the album during the first month of the recording sessions. He was therefore temporarily replaced by one of the most popular jazz session drummers of the time, Omar Hakim, who re-recorded the album's drum parts in two days and then left. Terry Williams' improvised crescendo at the beginning of "Money for Nothing" was used on the record. Williams would be back in the band for the music videos and the tour.[11]

text: Release[edit]

text: Brothers in Arms was one of the first albums to be directed at the CD market, and was a full digital recording (DDD) at a time when most popular music was recorded on analog equipment. It was also released on vinyl (abridged to fit on one LP) and cassette. It was listed as "DDD", producer Neil Dorfsman says the digital multitrack was mixed on an analog board with the resulting two track mix re-digitized via a Prism A/D converter and recorded on a DAT machine.

text: Brothers in Arms was the first album to sell one million copies in the CD format and to outsell its LP version. A Rykodisc employee would subsequently write, "[In 1985 we] were fighting to get our CDs manufactured because the entire worldwide manufacturing capacity was overwhelmed by demand for a single rock title (Dire Straits' Brothers in Arms)."[12]

text: It was remastered and released with the rest of the Dire Straits catalogue in 1996 for most of the world outside the United States and on 19 September 2000 in the United States. It was also released in XRCD2 format in 2000, then the 20th Anniversary Edition was issued in Super Audio CD format on 26 July 2005 (becoming the 3000th title for the SACD format) and DualDisc format with DVD-Audio 24 bit/96 kHz track on 16 August 2005, remixed in 5.1 by Chuck Ainlay[13] and winning a Grammy for Best Surround Sound Album at the 48th Grammy Awards ceremony.[14]

text: In 2006, a half-speed-mastered vinyl version of the album was issued. Mastered by Stan Ricker, this version consists of four sides on two 33 1/3 rpm discs, containing the full-length songs on vinyl for the first time.

text: In 2013, a hybrid SACD mastered from the original tapes was released by Mobile Fidelity Sound Lab.

text: In 2014, a new master was released in Japan on SHM-SACD - it's made from the original tapes and contains the original LP length of the album: 47:44 min.

text: In 2015, the album re-entered the UK Album Charts at #8 following the record being made available at a discounted price on digital music retailers. The album has spent a total of 356 weeks on the UK Album Charts.[15]

text: Composition[edit]

text: "Money for Nothing" was one of the most played music videos on MTV during the era. It is one of only two Dire Straits songs on a studio album to not be solely credited to Mark Knopfler – Sting was given a co-writing credit.

text: "Walk of Life" was a number 2 hit for the band in the UK in early 1986 and a number 7 hit in the United States later that year. The song was nearly left off the album, but was included after the band out-voted producer Neil Dorfsman.

text: On the second side of the album, three songs ("Ride Across the River", "The Man's Too Strong" and "Brothers in Arms") are lyrically focused on militarism.

text: "Ride Across the River" uses immersive Latin American imagery, accompanied by synthesized pan flute, a reggae-influenced drum part and eerie background noises. "The Man's Too Strong" depicts the character of an ancient soldier (or war criminal) and his fear of showing feelings as a weakness. "Brothers in Arms" deals with the senselessness of war.

text: Artwork[edit]

text: The guitar featured on the front of the album cover is Mark Knopfler's 1937 National Style 0 Resonator. The Style 0 line of guitars was introduced in 1930 and discontinued in 1941. The photographer was Deborah Feingold.[16] The back cover features a painting of the same guitar, by German artist Thomas Steyer. A similar image was also used, with a similar color scheme, for the 1989 album The Booze Brothers by Brewers Droop.

text: Critical reception[edit]

text:
Professional ratings

Review scores

Source
Rating

AllMusic
[1]

BBC
Positive[17]

Rolling Stone
Mixed[18]

text: Reviews[edit]

text: At the time, as well as retrospectively, Brothers in Arms received generally positive reviews. In his retrospective review for AllMusic, Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave the album four out of five stars, crediting the international success of the album not only to the clever computer-animated video for "Money for Nothing", but also to Knopfler's "increased sense of pop songcraft".[1] The "indelible guitar riff" on "Money for Nothing", the catchy up-tempo boogie of "Walk of Life", the melodies of "So Far Away" and the Everly Brothers-style "Why Worry", the jazzy "Your Latest Trick", and the flinty "Ride Across the River"—Dire Straits had "never been so concise or pop-oriented, and it wore well on them." Erlewine concluded that the album remains "one of their most focused and accomplished albums, and in its succinct pop sense, it's distinctive within their catalog."[1]

text: In her contemporary review for Rolling Stone magazine, Debby Bull gave the album a mixed review, praising the "carefully crafted" effort, writing, "The record is beautifully produced, with Mark Knopfler's terrific guitar work catching the best light."[18] Although she found the lyrics literate, Bull noted that the scenarios "aren't as interesting as they used to be on records like Making Movies".[18] Despite the production values and notable contributions from guest artists like drummer Omar Hakim and the Brecker Brothers, Bull concluded that "the music lacks the ache that made Knopfler's recent soundtracks for Comfort and Joy and Cal so powerful."[18]

text: Accolades[edit]

text: In 1986, Brothers in Arms won two Grammy Awards at the 28th Grammy Awards, and also won Best British Album at the 1987 Brit Awards.[7][8] In 2000, Q magazine placed the album at number 51 in its list of the 100 Greatest British Albums Ever.[9] In 2003, the album ranked number 351 on Rolling Stone magazine's list of the "500 Greatest Albums of All Time".[19]

text: In November 2006, the results of a national poll conducted by the public of Australia revealed their top 100 favourite albums. Brothers in Arms came in at number 64 (see "My Favourite Album"). Brothers in Arms is ranked number 3 in the best albums of 1985 and number 31 in the best albums of the 1980s.

text: As of June 2012, Brothers in Arms is the seventh-best-selling album of all-time in the UK, the third-best-selling album of all-time in Australia, the 18th-best-selling album of all-time in France and the 109th-best-selling album in the United States.[20] In the Netherlands, the album used to hold the record for longest run ever on the Dutch Album chart with 269 weeks (non-consecutive) but lost it to Adele's 21 in 2016.

text: British music journalist Robert Sandall wrote:

text: Looked at now with 20/20 vision of hindsight, the image on the sleeve of Brothers in Arms seems uncannily prophetic: that National steel guitar heading up into the clouds—a shiny 6 stringed rocket devoid of any obvious means of propulsion—describes, better than any words can, what happened to Dire Straits after the release of their 5th studio album. Up till the summer of 1985 success had, for them, come as a by-product of the music making process. They had never courted celebrity, chased fads, or played safe. Dire Straits had been loved and respected as one of the few bands to have maintained strong and credible links with the multifarious roots of rock and roll at a time—remember all the desperate pop posing of the early 80s?—when roots were emphatically not a fashionable place to be."[21]

text: Track listings[edit]

text: All songs were written by Mark Knopfler, except where indicated. The track lengths on the LP version differ from the lengths on the CD and cassette versions, due to the limitations of the vinyl medium. The full tracks would not all fit on a single disc.

text: CD and cassette[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Length

1.
"So Far Away"
5:12

2.
"Money for Nothing" (Mark Knopfler, Sting)
8:26

3.
"Walk of Life"
4:12

4.
"Your Latest Trick"
6:33

5.
"Why Worry"
8:31

6.
"Ride Across the River"
6:58

7.
"The Man's Too Strong"
4:40

8.
"One World"
3:40

9.
"Brothers in Arms"
7:00

Total length:
55:07

text: Single LP[edit]

text:
Side one

No.
Title
Length

1.
"So Far Away"
3:59

2.
"Money for Nothing" (Mark Knopfler, Sting)
7:04

3.
"Walk of Life"
4:12

4.
"Your Latest Trick"
4:46

5.
"Why Worry"
5:22

text:
Side two

No.
Title
Length

6.
"Ride Across the River"
6:58

7.
"The Man's Too Strong"
4:40

8.
"One World"
3:40

9.
"Brothers in Arms"
7:00

Total length:
47:21

text: Double LP[edit]

text:
Side one

No.
Title
Length

1.
"So Far Away"
5:12

2.
"Money for Nothing" (Mark Knopfler, Sting)
8:27

text:
Side two

No.
Title
Length

3.
"Walk of Life"
4:12

4.
"Your Latest Trick"
6:34

text:
Side three

No.
Title
Length

5.
"Why Worry"
8:31

6.
"Ride Across the River"
6:58

text:
Side four

No.
Title
Length

7.
"The Man's Too Strong"
4:40

8.
"One World"
3:40

9.
"Brothers in Arms"
7:00

text: Personnel[edit]

text:
Mark Knopfler – guitars, lead vocals and Synclavier
John Illsley – bass, backing vocals
Alan Clark – piano, organ, synthesizer
Guy Fletcher – synthesizers, Synclavier and backing vocals
Terry Williams – drums
Omar Hakim -- drums (credited as an official member)
Jack Sonni – guitar
Chris White - saxophone

tag: ul

text:
Michael Brecker – tenor saxophone
Randy Brecker – trumpet
Malcolm Duncan – tenor saxophone
Neil Jason – bass on "One World", "Your Latest Trick" and fretless bass on "Why Worry"
Tony Levin – bass
Jimmy Maelen – percussion
Michael Mainieri – vibraphone
Dave Plews – trumpet
Sting – backing vocals (2)

text:
Mark Knopfler – producer
Neil Dorfsman – producer, engineer
Steve Jackson – assistant engineer
Bruce Lampcov – assistant engineer
John Dent – mastering
Sutton Cooper – photography (sleeve)
Deborah Feingold – photography
Thomas Steyer – painting

text: Charts[edit]

text: Brothers in Arms was a major commercial success worldwide:

text:
In Australia, the album was the biggest selling album in 1985 and the second best selling album in 1986. It topped the albums chart for 34 weeks (non-consecutive), and is the album with the second most weeks at number-one in ARIA Albums Chart.
In the Netherlands, the album broke the all-time record for the longest chart history, with 269 weeks (non-consecutive).
In the UK, the album reached number one on the UK Albums Chart, and remained on the chart for 228 weeks.[22]
In the United States, the album reached number one on the Billboard 200 and remained there for nine weeks.
The album also topped the charts in Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hong Kong, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, and Yugoslavia.

text: Weekly charts[edit]

text:
Chart (1985)
Peak
position

Australian Albums (Kent Music Report)[23]
1

Austrian Albums (Ö3 Austria)[24]
1

Canadian Albums (RPM)[25]
1

Dutch Albums (MegaCharts)[26]
1

French Albums (SNEP)[27]
111

German Albums (Offizielle Top 100)[28]
1

Irish Albums (IRMA)[29]
1

Italian Albums (FIMI)[30]
91

New Zealand Albums (RMNZ)[31]
1

Norwegian Albums (VG-lista)[32]
1

Spanish Albums (PROMUSICAE)[33]
64

Swedish Albums (Sverigetopplistan)[34]
1

Swiss Albums (Schweizer Hitparade)[35]
1

UK Albums (OCC)[36]
1

US Billboard 200[37]
1

text: Singles[edit]

text:
Year
Song
US
US
Rock
Australia
Austria
Dutch
France
Italy
Norway
Sweden
Swiss
UK

1985
"Money for Nothing"
1
1
4
7
27
34
–
–
–
–
4

1985
"One World"
–
8
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–

1985
"So Far Away"
–
29
22
–
23
–
33
4
7
6
20

1985
"Brothers in Arms"
–
–
57
–
59
–
–
–
–
–
16

1986
"Walk of Life"
7
6
11
18
20
–
–
–
–
24
2

1986
"Ride Across the River"
–
21
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–

1986
"So Far Away"
19
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–

1986
"Your Latest Trick"
–
–
–
–
–
1A
–
–
–
–
26

text: A – reached No. 1 in France in 1993

text: Awards[edit]

text:
Year
Winner
Category

1985
Brothers in Arms
Best Engineered Recording, Non-Classical

1985
"Money for Nothing"
Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal

2006
Brothers in Arms
Best Surround Sound Album

text: Sales and certifications[edit]

text:
Region
Certification
Certified units/Sales

Argentina (CAPIF)[38]
Gold
30,000^

Australia (ARIA)[39]
17× Platinum
1,190,000^

Austria (IFPI Austria)[40]
4× Platinum
200,000*

Canada (Music Canada)[41]
Diamond
1,000,000^

Finland (Musiikkituottajat)[42]
2× Platinum
116,784[42]

France (SNEP)[43]
Diamond
1,995,300[44]

Germany (BVMI)[45]
Platinum
500,000^

Hong Kong (IFPI Hong Kong)[46]
Platinum
20,000*

New Zealand (RMNZ)[47]
24× Platinum
360,000^

Spain (PROMUSICAE)[48]
3× Platinum
300,000^

Sweden (GLF)[49]
Gold
50,000^

Switzerland (IFPI Switzerland)[50]
6× Platinum
350,000^

Switzerland (IFPI Switzerland)[50]
1996 release
Platinum

United Kingdom (BPI)[51]
14× Platinum
4,300,000[52]

United States (RIAA)[53]
9× Platinum
9,000,000^

*sales figures based on certification alone
^shipments figures based on certification alone


document_title: Chatham-Kent Airport

question_text: what is the closest airport to chatham ontario

text: Chatham-Kent Airport

text:
Chatham-Kent AirportChatham-Kent Municipal Airport
Map of the airport
IATA: XCMICAO: CYCKSummaryAirport type
PublicOwner/Operator
Municipality of Chatham–KentLocation
Chatham-Kent, OntarioTime zone
EST (UTC−05:00) • Summer (DST)
EDT (UTC−04:00)Elevation AMSL
645 ft / 197 mCoordinates
42°18′22″N 082°04′54″W / 42.30611°N 82.08167°W / 42.30611; -82.08167Coordinates: 42°18′22″N 082°04′54″W / 42.30611°N 82.08167°W / 42.30611; -82.08167Website
www.chatham-kent.ca/.../ChathamAirportMap
CYCKLocation in OntarioRunways

Direction

Length

Surface

ft

m

06/24

5,502

1,677

Asphalt

Source: Canada Flight Supplement[1]

text: Chatham-Kent Municipal Airport, (IATA: XCM[2], ICAO: CYCK), is located 6 nautical miles (11 km; 6.9 mi) southeast of Chatham-Kent, Ontario, Canada.

text: The Chatham-Kent Municipal Airport is owned and operated by the Municipality of Chatham–Kent. The airport is managed by Z3 Aviation. Several local pilots and businesses are tenants at the airport in the various hangars.

text: The airport is operational 9 hours per day, 7 days per week and is capable of supporting both VFR) and IFR operations down to 510 ft (160 m) and 1 1⁄2 mi (2.4 km) visibility non-precision approach limits and departures in visibility down to 1⁄2 mi (0.8 km).

text: Chatham-Kent Municipal Airport was previously identified as CNZ3. This change occurred on September 20, 2012.


document_title: Torah

question_text: what is the name of the 5 books in the torah

text: Torah

text: Meaning and names[edit]

text: The word "Torah" in Hebrew is derived from the root ירה, which in the hif'il conjugation means "to guide/teach" (cf. Lev 10:11). The meaning of the word is therefore "teaching", "doctrine", or "instruction"; the commonly accepted "law" gives a wrong impression.[12] Other translational contexts in the English language include custom, theory, guidance,[13] or system.[14]

text: The term "Torah" is used in the general sense to include both Rabbinic Judaism's written law and Oral Law, serving to encompass the entire spectrum of authoritative Jewish religious teachings throughout history, including the Mishnah, the Talmud, the Midrash and more, and the inaccurate rendering of "Torah" as "Law"[15] may be an obstacle to understanding the ideal that is summed up in the term talmud torah (תלמוד תורה, "study of Torah").[2]

text: The earliest name for the first part of the Bible seems to have been "The Torah of Moses". This title, however, is found neither in the Torah itself, nor in the works of the pre-Exilic literary prophets. It appears in Joshua (8:31–32; 23:6) and Kings (I Kings 2:3; II Kings 14:6; 23:25), but it cannot be said to refer there to the entire corpus (according to academic Bible criticism). In contrast, there is every likelihood that its use in the post-Exilic works (Mal. 3:22; Dan. 9:11, 13; Ezra 3:2; 7:6; Neh. 8:1; II Chron. 23:18; 30:16) was intended to be comprehensive. Other early titles were "The Book of Moses" (Ezra 6:18; Neh. 13:1; II Chron. 35:12; 25:4; cf. II Kings 14:6) and "The Book of the Torah" (Neh. 8:3), which seems to be a contraction of a fuller name, "The Book of the Torah of God" (Neh. 8:8, 18; 10:29–30; cf. 9:3).[16]

text: Alternative names[edit]

text: Christian scholars usually refer to the first five books of the Hebrew Bible as the "Pentateuch" (Greek: πεντάτευχος, "five scrolls"), a term first used in the Hellenistic Judaism of Alexandria,[17] meaning five books, or as the Law.

text: Contents[edit]

text:
Tanakh (Judaism)

Torah  (Instruction)[show]

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Wayiqra

Numbers
Bəmidbar

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Minor

Hosea
Joel
Amos
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Jonah
Micah
Nahum
Habakkuk
Zephaniah
Haggai
Zechariah
Malachi

Ketuvim  (Writings)[show]

Poetic

Psalms
Təhillîm

Proverbs
Mishlei

Job
Iyov

Five Megillot (Scrolls)

Song of Songs
Shir Hashirim

Ruth
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Lamentations
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Ecclesiastes
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Esther
Ester

Historical

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Daniyyel

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Chronicles
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Old Testament (Christianity)

Pentateuch[show]

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Exodus
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Historical[show]

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Wisdom
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Wisdom of Solomon
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Prayer of Manasseh
Psalm 151
3 Maccabees
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Bible portal

v
t
e

text:
Torah

Information

Religion
Judaism

Author
Multiple

Language
Tiberian Hebrew

Chapters
187

Verses
5,852

text: The Torah starts from the beginning of God's creating the world, through the beginnings of the people of Israel, their descent into Egypt, and the giving of the Torah at biblical Mount Sinai. It ends with the death of Moses, just before the people of Israel cross to the promised land of Canaan. Interspersed in the narrative are the specific teachings (religious obligations and civil laws) given explicitly (i.e. Ten Commandments) or implicitly embedded in the narrative (as in Exodus 12 and 13 laws of the celebration of Passover).

text: In Hebrew, the five books of the Torah are identified by the incipits in each book;[18] and the common English names for the books are derived from the Greek Septuagint and reflect the essential theme of each book:

text:
Bəreshit (בְּרֵאשִׁית, literally "In the beginning")—Genesis, from Γένεσις (Génesis, "Creation")
Shəmot (שְׁמוֹת, literally "Names")—Exodus, from Ἔξοδος (Éxodos, "Exit")
Vayikra (וַיִּקְרָא, literally "And He called")—Leviticus, from Λευιτικόν (Leutikón, "Relating to the Levites")
Bəmidbar (בְּמִדְבַּר, literally "In the desert [of]")—Numbers, from Ἀριθμοί (Arithmoí, "Numbers")
Dəvarim (דְּבָרִים, literally "Things" or "Words")—Deuteronomy, from Δευτερονόμιον (Deuteronómion, "Second-Law")

text: Bəreshit/Genesis[edit]

text: Genesis begins with the "primeval history" (Genesis 1–11), the story of the world's beginnings and the descent from Adam. This is followed by the story of the three patriarchs (Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob), Joseph (Genesis 12–50) and the four matriarchs (Sarah, Rebekah, Leah, and Rachel). God gives to the patriarchs a promise of the land of Canaan, but at the end of Genesis the sons of Jacob end up leaving Canaan for Egypt due to a regional famine. They had heard that there was a grain storage and distribution facility in Egypt.

text: Shəmot/Exodus[edit]

text: Exodus begins the story of God's revelation to his people of Israel through Moses, who leads them out of Egypt (Exodus 1–18) to Mount Sinai. There the people accept the covenant with God, agreeing to be his people and abide by his holy Law, in return for his agreeing to be their God, and protect and defend them from their enemies, and provide for and prosper them. Moses receives the Torah from God, and teaches His laws and Covenant (Exodus 19–24) to the people of Israel. It also talks about the first violation of the covenant when the Golden Calf was constructed (Exodus 32–34). Exodus includes the instructions on building the Tabernacle and concludes with its actual construction (Exodus 25–31; 35–40).

text: Vayikra/Leviticus[edit]

text: Leviticus begins with instructions to the Israelites on how to use the Tabernacle, which they had just built (Leviticus 1–10). This is followed by rules of clean and unclean (Leviticus 11–15), which includes the laws of slaughter and animals permissible to eat (see also: Kashrut), the Day of Atonement (Leviticus 16), and various moral and ritual laws sometimes called the Holiness Code (Leviticus 17–26). Leviticus 26 provides a detailed list of rewards for following God's commandments and a detailed list of punishments for not following them. Leviticus 17 establishes sacrifices at the Tabernacle as an everlasting ordinance, but this ordinance is altered in later books with the Temple being the only place in which sacrifices are allowed.

text: Bəmidbar/Numbers[edit]

text: Numbers tells how Israel consolidated itself as a community at Sinai (Numbers 1–9), set out from Sinai to move towards Canaan and spied out the land (Numbers 10–13). Because of unbelief at various points, but especially at Kadesh Barnea (Numbers 14), the Israelites were condemned to wander for forty years in the desert in the vicinity of Kadesh instead of immediately entering the Promised Land. Even Moses sins and is told he would not live to enter the land (Numbers 20). At the end of Numbers (Numbers 26–35) Israel moves from Kadesh to the plains of Moab opposite Jericho, ready to enter the Promised Land.

text: Dəvarim/Deuteronomy[edit]

text: Deuteronomy is a series of speeches by Moses on the plains of Moab opposite Jericho. Also referred to as Mishneh Torah in Hebrew (a repeat of the Torah) the essential gist of the entire book is a rebuke to the Children of Israel to not worship idolatry, to not follow in the ways of Cana'an, and to cleave to God. Moses proclaims the Law (Deuteronomy 12–26), gives instruction concerning covenant renewal at Shechem (Deuteronomy 27–28) and gives Israel new laws (the "Deuteronomic Code").[19] At the end of the book (Deuteronomy 34) Moses is allowed to see the promised land from a mountain, and then dies. The text emphasises that no one knows where Moses was finally buried (34:6). Knowing that he was nearing the end of his life, Moses had appointed Joshua his successor, bequeathing to him the mantle of leadership. Soon afterwards Israel begins the conquest of Canaan.

text: Authorship[edit]

text: The Talmud holds that the Torah was written by Moses, with the exception of the last eight verses of Deuteronomy, describing his death and burial, being written by Joshua.[20] Alternatively, Rashi quotes from the Talmud that "God spoke them, and Moses wrote them with tears."[21][22] The Mishnah includes the divine origin of the Torah as an essential tenet of Judaism.[23]

text: The modern scholarly consensus is that the Torah has multiple authors and that its composition took place over centuries.[24] This contemporary common hypothesis among biblical scholars states that the first major comprehensive draft of the Pentateuch was composed in the late 7th or the 6th century BC (the Jahwist source), and that this was later expanded by the addition of various narratives and laws (the Priestly source) into a work very like the one existing today.

text: "The consensus of scholarship is that the stories are taken from four different written sources and that these were brought together over the course of time to form the first five books of the Bible as a composite work. The sources are known as J, the Jahwist source (from the German transliteration of the Hebrew YHWH), E, the Elohist source, P, the priestly source, and D, the Deuteronomist source. ... Thus the Pentateuch (or Torah, as it is known by Jews) comprises material taken from six centuries of human history, which has been put together to give a comprehensive picture of the creation of the world and of God's dealings with his peoples, specifically with the people of Israel." (Professor John Riches of the University of Glasgow).[25]

text: Torah and Judaism[edit]

text:
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text: Rabbinic writings indicate that the Oral Torah was given to Moses at Mount Sinai, which, according to the tradition of Orthodox Judaism, occurred in 1312 BC. The Orthodox rabbinic tradition holds that the Written Torah was recorded during the following forty years,[26] though many non-Orthodox Jewish scholars affirm the modern scholarly consensus that the Written Torah has multiple authors and was written over centuries.[27]

text: The Talmud (Gittin 60a) presents two opinions as to how exactly the Torah was written down by Moses. One opinion holds that it was written by Moses gradually as it was dictated to him, and finished it close to his death, and the other opinion holds that Moses wrote the complete Torah in one writing close to his death, based on what was dictated to him over the years.

text: The Talmud (Menachot 30a) says that the last eight verses of the Torah that discuss the death and burial of Moses could not have been written by Moses, as writing it would have been a lie, and that they were written after his death by Joshua. Abraham ibn Ezra[28] and Joseph Bonfils observed[citation needed] that phrases in those verses present information that people should only have known after the time of Moses. Ibn Ezra hinted,[29] and Bonfils explicitly stated, that Joshua wrote these verses many years after the death of Moses. Other commentators[30] do not accept this position and maintain that although Moses did not write those eight verses it was nonetheless dictated to him and that Joshua wrote it based on instructions left by Moses, and that the Torah often describes future events, some of which have yet to occur.

text: All classical rabbinic views hold that the Torah was entirely Mosaic and of divine origin.[31] Present-day Reform and Liberal Jewish movements all reject Mosaic authorship, as do most shades of Conservative Judaism.[32]

text: Ritual use[edit]

text: Torah reading (Hebrew: קריאת התורה, K'riat HaTorah, "Reading [of] the Torah") is a Jewish religious ritual that involves the public reading of a set of passages from a Torah scroll. The term often refers to the entire ceremony of removing the Torah scroll (or scrolls) from the ark, chanting the appropriate excerpt with traditional cantillation, and returning the scroll(s) to the ark. It is distinct from academic Torah study.

text: Regular public reading of the Torah was introduced by Ezra the Scribe after the return of the Jewish people from the Babylonian captivity (c. 537 BCE), as described in the Book of Nehemiah.[33] In the modern era, adherents of Orthodox Judaism practice Torah reading according to a set procedure they believe has remained unchanged in the two thousand years since the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem (70 CE). In the 19th and 20th centuries CE, new movements such as Reform Judaism and Conservative Judaism have made adaptations to the practice of Torah reading, but the basic pattern of Torah reading has usually remained the same:

text: As a part of the morning prayer services on certain days of the week, fast days, and holidays, as well as part of the afternoon prayer services of Shabbat, Yom Kippur, and fast days, a section of the Pentateuch is read from a Torah scroll. On Shabbat (Saturday) mornings, a weekly section ("parashah") is read, selected so that the entire Pentateuch is read consecutively each year. The division of parashot found in the modern-day Torah scrolls of all Jewish communities (Ashkenazic, Sephardic, and Yemenite) is based upon the systematic list provided by Maimonides in Mishneh Torah, Laws of Tefillin, Mezuzah and Torah Scrolls, chapter 8. Maimonides based his division of the parashot for the Torah on the Aleppo Codex. Conservative and Reform synagogues may read parashot on a triennial rather than annual schedule,[34][35][36] On Saturday afternoons, Mondays, and Thursdays, the beginning of the following Saturday's portion is read. On Jewish holidays, the beginnings of each month, and fast days, special sections connected to the day are read.

text: Jews observe an annual holiday, Simchat Torah, to celebrate the completion and new start of the year's cycle of readings.

text: Torah scrolls are often dressed with a sash, a special Torah cover, various ornaments and a Keter (crown), although such customs vary among synagogues. Congregants traditionally stand in respect when the Torah is brought out of the ark to be read, while it is being carried, and lifted, and likewise while it is returned to the ark, although they may sit during the reading itself.

text: Biblical law[edit]

text: The Torah contains narratives, statements of law, and statements of ethics. Collectively these laws, usually called biblical law or commandments, are sometimes referred to as the Law of Moses (Torat Moshe תּוֹרַת־מֹשֶׁה), Mosaic Law, or Sinaitic Law.

text: The Oral Torah[edit]

text: Rabbinic tradition holds that Moses learned the whole Torah while he lived on Mount Sinai for 40 days and nights and both the oral and the written Torah were transmitted in parallel with each other. Where the Torah leaves words and concepts undefined, and mentions procedures without explanation or instructions, the reader is required to seek out the missing details from supplemental sources known as the oral law or oral Torah.[37] Some of the Torah's most prominent commandments needing further explanation are:

text:
Tefillin: As indicated in Deuteronomy 6:8 among other places, tefillin are to be placed on the arm and on the head between the eyes. However, there are no details provided regarding what tefillin are or how they are to be constructed.
Kashrut: As indicated in Exodus 23:19 among other places, a young goat may not be boiled in its mother's milk. In addition to numerous other problems with understanding the ambiguous nature of this law, there are no vowelization characters in the Torah; they are provided by the oral tradition. This is particularly relevant to this law, as the Hebrew word for milk (חלב) is identical to the word for animal fat when vowels are absent. Without the oral tradition, it is not known whether the violation is in mixing meat with milk or with fat.
Shabbat laws: With the severity of Sabbath violation, namely the death penalty, one would assume that direction would be provided as to how exactly such a serious and core commandment should be upheld. However, most information regarding the rules and traditions of Shabbat are dictated in the Talmud and other books deriving from Jewish oral law.

text: According to classical rabbinic texts this parallel set of material was originally transmitted to Moses at Sinai, and then from Moses to Israel. At that time it was forbidden to write and publish the oral law, as any writing would be incomplete and subject to misinterpretation and abuse.[38]

text: However, after exile, dispersion, and persecution, this tradition was lifted when it became apparent that in writing was the only way to ensure that the Oral Law could be preserved. After many years of effort by a great number of tannaim, the oral tradition was written down around 200 CE by Rabbi Judah haNasi, who took up the compilation of a nominally written version of the Oral Law, the Mishnah (Hebrew: משנה). Other oral traditions from the same time period not entered into the Mishnah were recorded as "Baraitot" (external teaching), and the Tosefta. Other traditions were written down as Midrashim.

text: After continued persecution more of the oral law was committed to writing. A great many more lessons, lectures and traditions only alluded to in the few hundred pages of Mishnah, became the thousands of pages now called the Gemara. Gemara is written in Aramaic, having been compiled in Babylon. The Mishnah and Gemara together are called the Talmud. The Rabbis in Israel also collected their traditions and compiled them into the Jerusalem Talmud. Since the greater number of Rabbis lived in Babylon, the Babylonian Talmud has precedence should the two be in conflict.

text: Orthodox and Conservative branches of Judaism accept these texts as the basis for all subsequent halakha and codes of Jewish law, which are held to be normative. Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism deny that these texts, or the Torah itself for that matter, may be used for determining normative law (laws accepted as binding) but accept them as the authentic and only Jewish version for understanding the Torah and its development throughout history.[citation needed] Humanistic Judaism holds that the Torah is a historical, political, and sociological text, but does not believe that every word of the Torah is true, or even morally correct. Humanistic Judaism is willing to question the Torah and to disagree with it, believing that the entire Jewish experience, not just the Torah, should be the source for Jewish behavior and ethics.[39]

text: Divine significance of letters, Jewish mysticism[edit]

text: Kabbalists hold that not only do the words of Torah give a divine message, but they also indicate a far greater message that extends beyond them. Thus they hold that even as small a mark as a kotzo shel yod (קוצו של יוד), the serif of the Hebrew letter yod (י), the smallest letter, or decorative markings, or repeated words, were put there by God to teach scores of lessons. This is regardless of whether that yod appears in the phrase "I am the Lord thy God" (אָנֹכִי יְהוָה אֱלֹהֶיךָ, Exodus 20:2) or whether it appears in "And God spoke unto Moses saying" (וַיְדַבֵּר אֱלֹהִים, אֶל-מֹשֶׁה; וַיֹּאמֶר אֵלָיו, אֲנִי יְהוָה. Exodus 6:2). In a similar vein, Rabbi Akiva (c. 50 – c. 135 CE), is said to have learned a new law from every et (את) in the Torah (Talmud, tractate Pesachim 22b); the particle et is meaningless by itself, and serves only to mark the direct object. In other words, the Orthodox belief is that even apparently contextual text "And God spoke unto Moses saying ..." is no less important than the actual statement.

text: One kabbalistic interpretation is that the Torah constitutes one long name of God, and that it was broken up into words so that human minds can understand it. While this is effective since it accords with our human reason, it is not the only way that the text can be broken up.[citation needed]

text: Production and use of a Torah scroll[edit]

text: Manuscript Torah scrolls are still scribed and used for ritual purposes (i.e., religious services); this is called a Sefer Torah ("Book [of] Torah"). They are written using a painstakingly careful methodology by highly qualified scribes. This has resulted in, according to B. Barry Levy, "The popular assumption that no changes were ever introduced into copies of the Bible during rabbinic times." However, he writes that this "simply does not accord with the facts."[40] It is believed that every word, or marking, has divine meaning, and that not one part may be inadvertently changed lest it lead to error. The fidelity of the Hebrew text of the Tanakh, and the Torah in particular, is considered paramount, down to the last letter: translations or transcriptions are frowned upon for formal service use, and transcribing is done with painstaking care. An error of a single letter, ornamentation, or symbol of the 304,805 stylized letters that make up the Hebrew Torah text renders a Torah scroll unfit for use, hence a special skill is required and a scroll takes considerable time to write and check.

text: According to Jewish law, a sefer Torah (plural: Sifrei Torah) is a copy of the formal Hebrew text handwritten on gevil or klaf (forms of parchment) by using a quill (or other permitted writing utensil) dipped in ink. Written entirely in Hebrew, a sefer Torah contains 304,805 letters, all of which must be duplicated precisely by a trained sofer ("scribe"), an effort that may take as long as approximately one and a half years. Most modern Sifrei Torah are written with forty-two lines of text per column (Yemenite Jews use fifty), and very strict rules about the position and appearance of the Hebrew letters are observed. See for example the Mishnah Berurah on the subject.[41] Any of several Hebrew scripts may be used, most of which are fairly ornate and exacting.

text: The completion of the sefer Torah is a cause for great celebration, and it is a mitzvah for every Jew to either write or have written for him a Sefer Torah. Torah scrolls are stored in the holiest part of the synagogue in the Ark known as the "Holy Ark" (אֲרוֹן הקֹדשׁ aron hakodesh in Hebrew.) Aron in Hebrew means "cupboard" or "closet", and kodesh is derived from "kadosh", or "holy".

text: Torah translations[edit]

text: Aramaic[edit]

text: The Book of Ezra refers to translations and commentaries of the Hebrew text into Aramaic, the more commonly understood language of the time. These translations would seem to date to the 6th century BCE. The Aramaic term for translation is Targum.[42] The Encyclopedia Judaica has:

text: At an early period, it was customary to translate the Hebrew text into the vernacular at the time of the reading (e.g., in Palestine and Babylon the translation was into Aramaic). The targum ("translation") was done by a special synagogue official, called the meturgeman ... Eventually, the practice of translating into the vernacular was discontinued.[43]

text: However, there is no suggestion that these translations had been written down as early as this. There are suggestions that the Targum was written down at an early date, although for private use only.

text: The official recognition of a written Targum and the final redaction of its text, however, belong to the post-Talmudic period, thus not earlier than the fifth century C.E.[44]

text: Greek[edit]

text: One of the earliest known translations of the first five books of Moses from the Hebrew into Greek was the Septuagint. This is a Koine Greek version of the Hebrew Bible that was used by Greek speakers. The Greek version's name in Latin is the Septuagint: Latin septem meaning seven, plus -gintā meaning "times ten". It was named Septuagint from the traditional number of its translators. This Greek version of the Hebrew Scriptures dates from the 3rd century BCE, originally associated with Hellenistic Judaism. It contains both a translation of the Hebrew and additional and variant material.[45]

text: Later translations into Greek include seven or more other versions. These do not survive, except as fragments, and include those by Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion.[46]

text: Latin[edit]

text: Early translations into Latin—the Vetus Latina—were ad hoc conversions of parts of the Septuagint. With Saint Jerome in the 4th century AD came the Vulgate Latin translation of the Hebrew Bible.

text: Arabic[edit]

text: From the eighth century AD, the cultural language of Jews living under Islamic rule became Arabic rather than Aramaic. "Around that time, both scholars and lay people started producing translations of the Bible into Judeo-Arabic using the Hebrew alphabet." Later, by the 10th century, it became essential for a standard version of the Bible in Judeo-Arabic. The best known was produced by Saadiah, and continues to be in use today, "in particular among Yemenite Jewry."[47]

text: Modern languages[edit]

text: Jewish translations[edit]

text: The Torah has been translated by Jewish scholars into most of the major European languages, including English, German, Russian, French, Spanish and others. The most well-known German-language translation was produced by Samson Raphael Hirsch. A number of Jewish English Bible translations have been published.

text: Christian translations[edit]

text: As a part of the Christian Biblical canon, the Torah has been translated into hundreds of languages.

text: In other religions[edit]

text: While Christianity includes the five books of Moses (the Pentateuch) among their sacred texts in its Old Testament, Islam states that only the original Torah was sent by God. In neither religion does the Torah retain the religious legal significance that it does in Orthodox Judaism.

text: Among early centers of Christianity the Septuagint was used by Greek speakers, while Aramaic Targums were used by Aramaic speakers such as the Syriac Orthodox Church. It was regarded as the standard form of the Old Testament in the early Greek Christian Church and is still considered canonical in the Eastern Orthodox Church.[48] Though different Christian denominations have slightly different versions of the Old Testament in their Bibles, the Torah as the "Five Books of Moses" (or "the Mosaic Law") is common among them all.

text: The Quran refers heavily to Moses to outline the truth of his existence and the religious guidelines that God had revealed to the Children of Israel. According to the Qur'an, Allah says "It is He Who has sent down the Book (the Qur'an) to you with truth, confirming what came before it. And He sent down the Taurat (Torah) and the Injeel (Gospel)." [3:3]

text: Muslims call the Torah the Tawrat and consider it the word of God given to Moses. However, Muslims also believe that this original revelation was corrupted (tahrif) (or simply altered by the passage of time and human fallibility) over time by Jewish scribes[49] and hence do not revere the present "Jewish version" Torah as much.7:144–144 The Torah in the Quran is always mentioned with respect in Islam. The Muslims' belief in the Torah, as well as the prophethood of Moses, is one of the fundamental tenets of Islam.

text: The Bahá’í position on the Torah was composed in 1906 by its official interpreter on all matters religious, Sir ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’ Abbas K.B.E.

text: "The Torah, held to be the most ancient of histories, existeth today in three separate versions: the Hebrew, considered authentic by the Jews and the Protestant clergy; the Greek Septuagint, which was used as authoritative in the Greek and other eastern churches; and the Samaritan Torah, the standard authority for that people. These three versions differ greatly, one from another, even with regard to the lifetimes of the most celebrated figures. In the Hebrew Torah, it is recorded that from Noah's flood until the birth of Abraham there was an interval of two hundred and ninety-two years. In the Greek, that time span is given as one thousand and seventy-two years, while the Samaritan, the recorded span is nine hundred and forty-two years. Refer to the commentary by Henry Westcott for tables are supplied therein which show the discrepancies among the three Torahs as to the birth dates of a number of the descendants of Shem, and thou wilt see how greatly the versions differ from one another. Moreover, according to the text of the Hebrew Torah, from the creation of Adam until Noah's flood the elapsed time is recorded as one thousand six hundred and fifty-six years, while in the Greek Torah the interval is given as two thousand two hundred and sixty-two years, and in the Samaritan text, the same period is said to have lasted one thousand three hundred and seven years. Reflect now over the discrepancies among these three Torahs. The case is indeed surprising. The Jews and Protestants belittle the Greek Torah, while to the Greeks the Hebrew version is spurious, and the Samaritans deny both the Hebrew and the Greek versions."

text: ‘Abdu’l Bahá’s elucidations above in 1906 are found in his letter to Ethel Jenner Rosenberg (1858–1930, without issue and no relation to the famous spies, Ethel and Julius Rosenberg) http://bahai-library.com/abdulbaha_tablet_wisdom_questions


question_text: what comes after captain in the air force

text: Current insignia[edit]

text:
US DoD Pay Grade
O-1
O-2
O-3
O-4
O-5
O-6
O-7
O-8
O-9
O-10
Special1

Insignia

Air Force Service Dress Uniform Insignia

Title
Second Lieutenant
First Lieutenant
Captain
Major
Lieutenant Colonel
Colonel
Brigadier General
Major General
Lieutenant General
General
General of the Air Force

Abbreviation
2d Lt
1st Lt
Capt
Maj
Lt Col
Col
Brig Gen
Maj Gen
Lt Gen
Gen
GAF

NATO Code
OF-1
OF-1
OF-2
OF-3
OF-4
OF-5
OF-6
OF-7
OF-8
OF-9
OF-10

No periods are used in actual grade abbreviation, only in press releases to conform with AP standards.[citation needed]
1 Honorary/War time rank.

text: This chart displays the United States Air Force officer rank insignia. The ranks are divided into three sections: company grade, field grade, and general officers. Company grade officers are those officers of grades O-1 to O-3. Field grade officers are those of grades O-4 to O-6. General officers are those of O-7 and above.

text: Currently, promotion from Second Lieutenant to First Lieutenant is virtually guaranteed after two years of satisfactory service. Promotion to Captain is virtually guaranteed after another two years of satisfactory service. Previously there was a Promotion Board to Captain, but that was discontinued in 2013.[1] An officer's record is reviewed by a selection board at the Air Force Personnel Center at Randolph Air Force Base in San Antonio, Texas. This process occurs approximately between the nine- and eleven-year mark, where a certain percentage of Captains will be selected for Major. This process will repeat at the 13-16 year mark for promotion to Lieutenant Colonel and then around the twenty-year mark for promotion to Colonel.

text: The five-star grade General of the Air Force has only been held by General of the Air Force Henry H. Arnold. Federal law currently contains no provisions to promote an officer to five-star grade.

text: Wearing of insignia[edit]

text: On the Air Force Mess Dress uniform, officer rank insignia are embroidered in silver or gold thread on detachable shoulder boards which are attached to the mess dress jacket. No rank insignia are worn on the mess dress shirt.

text: On the service dress uniform, metal rank insignia pins are worn on the epaulets of the Air Force Blue service dress jacket. Rank insignia are embroidered in silver or gold thread on Air Force Blue epaulets which slide onto the epaulet loops on the light blue shirt. The slide-on epaulet for field-grade officers' shirts has a single line of silver piping toward the outer edge of the epaulet. The slide-on epaulet for general officers' shirts has silver piping on both the inner and outer edges of the epaulets. These slide-on epaulets are also worn on the cardigan and pull-over uniform sweaters.

text: The Flight Duty Uniform (FDU) features subdued cloth rank insignia sewn onto the shoulders. The Air Force flight cap is worn with the FDU and service dress uniforms (the service cap may also be worn with the service uniform). The flight cap is solid Air Force Blue for enlisted personnel, but features a solid silver edge braid for general officers, and an edge braid in a silver and blue diamond pattern for other officers. Officers wear a bright metal rank insignia toward the front edge of the (wearer's) left side of the flight cap.

text: The Airman Battle Uniform (ABU) feature subdued cloth rank insignia worn on both sides of the collar. The ABU patrol cap features a rank insignia centered on the front of the cap, above the bill, which may be a subdued cloth insignia or subdued metal pin-on insignia. On the Operational Camouflage Pattern (OCP) uniform rank is worn as a velcro patch on the center of the chest. Subdued cloth rank is worn on the front of the OCP patrol cap, above the bill. [2] Air Force officers authorized to wear berets (Security Forces Officers, Special Tactics Officers, Combat Rescue Officers, and Combat Weather Officers) wear a bright metal rank insignia on the beret's flash.

text: Subdued rank insignia, as worn on the ABU, OCP, and FDU, are designed to reduce visibility of the wearer under field conditions. The subdued versions of silver insignia are embroidered in dark blue thread on an olive-drab backing. The subdued versions of gold insignia are embroidered in brown thread on an olive-drab backing. On ABU uniforms the backing is an ABU colored material. On Desert FDUs and OCP uniforms, OCP patterned backing (or tan for the FDU) replaces the olive-drab backing (with black thread in place of dark blue thread). Subdued metal insignia are black and brown in place of silver and gold, respectively. General officers wear black stars as subdued rank.[2]

text: Agents of the Air Force Office of Special Investigations normally do not wear uniforms while on duty, but even when in uniform they often do not wear rank insignia. However, when attending Professional Military Education courses, they do wear rank insignia.

text: Past insignia[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The current Air Force officer rank names and insignia were borrowed from the Army upon the establishment of the Air Force as a separate service in 1947. The insignia have been essentially unchanged since then, except for a brief period during the 1990s.

text: The Army origin explains why the color silver outranks gold in Air Force officer insignia. In the early 19th century, Army infantry colonels wore gold eagles, while all other Army colonels wore silver eagles. When the Army later decided to adopt a single color of eagles for all colonels, that single color was silver, apparently because more silver eagles than gold eagles were already in use. Lieutenant colonels received silver oak leaves next, to match the silver eagles of full colonels. Majors were then given gold oak leaves to distinguish them from lieutenant colonels. Once the precedent of silver outranking gold was set, it was followed when gold bars were later created for second lieutenants, who had no grade-specific insignia until the early 20th century.

text: During the 1990s, Air Force Chief of Staff General Merrill A. McPeak redesigned the service dress uniform to give it a more distinctive look. His redesign replaced the metal rank insignia for officers with silver braid on the sleeves, similar to the Navy's officer rank insignia and that of the United States Coast Guard. This was similar to the rank insignia of the British Royal Air Force, the Canadian Armed Forces and other Commonwealth air forces. The uniform reforms also introduced for the first time in the USAF slip-on shoulder marks on the other uniforms, using the traditional rank insignia. The "McPeak uniform" was very unpopular, drawing comparisons to the jackets worn by airline pilots, and the traditional rank insignia were reinstated within a week of General McPeak's retirement in 1994 on the shoulder boards, while the slip-on insignia stayed.


document_title: Seismometer

question_text: who developed the first procedure used to measure the local size of an earthquake

text: Seismometer

text: Basic principles[edit]

text: A simple seismometer, sensitive to up-down motions of the Earth, is like a weight hanging from a spring, both suspended from a frame that moves along with any motion detected. The relative motion between the weight (called the mass) and the frame provides a measurement of the vertical ground motion. A rotating drum is attached to the frame and a pen is attached to the weight, thus recording any ground motion in a seismogram.

text: Any movement of the ground moves the frame. The mass tends not to move because of its inertia, and by measuring the movement between the frame and the mass, the motion of the ground can be determined.

text: Early seismometers used optical levers or mechanical linkages to amplify the small motions involved, recording on soot-covered paper or photographic paper. Modern instruments use electronics. In some systems, the mass is held nearly motionless relative to the frame by an electronic negative feedback loop. The motion of the mass relative to the frame is measured, and the feedback loop applies a magnetic or electrostatic force to keep the mass nearly motionless. The voltage needed to produce this force is the output of the seismometer, which is recorded digitally.

text: In other systems the weight is allowed to move, and its motion produces an electrical charge in a coil attached to the mass which voltage moves through the magnetic field of a magnet attached to the frame. This design is often used in a geophone, which is used in exploration for oil and gas.

text: Seismic observatories usually have instruments measuring three axes: north-south (y-axis), east-west (x-axis), and vertical (z-axis). If only one axis is measured, it is usually the vertical because it is less noisy and gives better records of some seismic waves.[citation needed]

text: The foundation of a seismic station is critical.[2] A professional station is sometimes mounted on bedrock. The best mountings may be in deep boreholes, which avoid thermal effects, ground noise and tilting from weather and tides. Other instruments are often mounted in insulated enclosures on small buried piers of unreinforced concrete. Reinforcing rods and aggregates would distort the pier as the temperature changes. A site is always surveyed for ground noise with a temporary installation before pouring the pier and laying conduit. Originally, European seismographs were placed in a particular area after a destructive earthquake. Today, they are spread to provide appropriate coverage (in the case of weak-motion seismology) or concentrated in high-risk regions (strong-motion seismology).[3]

text: Nomenclature[edit]

text: The word derives from the Greek σεισμός, seismós, a shaking or quake, from the verb σείω, seíō, to shake; and μέτρον, métron, to measure, and was coined by David Milne-Home in 1841, to describe an instrument designed by Scottish physicist James David Forbes.[4]

text: Seismograph is another Greek term from seismós and γράφω, gráphō, to draw. It is often used to mean seismometer, though it is more applicable to the older instruments in which the measuring and recording of ground motion were combined, than to modern systems, in which these functions are separated. Both types provide a continuous record of ground motion; this record distinguishes them from seismoscopes, which merely indicate that motion has occurred, perhaps with some simple measure of how large it was.[5]

text: The technical discipline concerning such devices is called seismometry,[6] a branch of seismology.

text: The concept of measuring the "shaking" of something means that the word "seismograph" might be used in a more general sense. For example, a monitoring station that tracks changes in electromagnetic noise affecting amateur radio waves presents an rf seismograph.[7] And Helioseismology studies the "quakes" on the Sun.[8]

text: History[edit]

text: The first seismometer was made in China during the 2nd Century.[9] The first Western description of the device comes from the French physicist and priest Jean de Hautefeuille in 1703.[10]

text: The modern seismometer was developed in the 19th century.[3]

text: Ancient era[edit]

text: In AD 132, Zhang Heng of China's Han dynasty invented the first seismoscope (by the definition above), which was called Houfeng Didong Yi (translated as, "instrument for measuring the seasonal winds and the movements of the Earth"). The description we have, from the History of the Later Han Dynasty, says that it was a large bronze vessel, about 2 meters in diameter; at eight points around the top were dragon's heads holding bronze balls. When there was an earthquake, one of the mouths would open and drop its ball into a bronze toad at the base, making a sound and supposedly showing the direction of the earthquake. On at least one occasion, probably at the time of a large earthquake in Gansu in AD 143, the seismoscope indicated an earthquake even though one was not felt. The available text says that inside the vessel was a central column that could move along eight tracks; this is thought to refer to a pendulum, though it is not known exactly how this was linked to a mechanism that would open only one dragon's mouth. The first earthquake recorded by this seismoscope was supposedly "somewhere in the east." Days later, a rider from the east reported this earthquake.[9][11]

text: Modern designs[edit]

text: An early special-purpose seismometer consisted of a large, stationary pendulum, with a stylus on the bottom. As the earth started to move, the heavy mass of the pendulum had the inertia to stay still within the frame. The result is that the stylus scratched a pattern corresponding with the Earth's movement. This type of strong-motion seismometer recorded upon a smoked glass (glass with carbon soot). While not sensitive enough to detect distant earthquakes, this instrument could indicate the direction of the pressure waves and thus help find the epicenter of a local quake. Such instruments were useful in the analysis of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Further analysis was performed in the 1980s, using these early recordings, enabling a more precise determination of the initial fault break location in Marin county and its subsequent progression, mostly to the south.

text: By the 13th century, seismographic devices existed in the Maragheh observatory in Persia. French physicist and priest Jean de Hautefeuille built one in 1703.[10] After 1880, most seismometers were descended from those developed by the team of John Milne, James Alfred Ewing and Thomas Gray, who worked as foreign-government advisors in Japan from 1880 to 1895.[3] These seismometers used damped horizontal pendulums. After World War II, these were adapted into the widely used Press-Ewing seismometer.

text: Later, professional suites of instruments for the worldwide standard seismographic network had one set of instruments tuned to oscillate at fifteen seconds, and the other at ninety seconds, each set measuring in three directions. Amateurs or observatories with limited means tuned their smaller, less sensitive instruments to ten seconds. The basic damped horizontal pendulum seismometer swings like the gate of a fence. A heavy weight is mounted on the point of a long (from 10 cm to several meters) triangle, hinged at its vertical edge. As the ground moves, the weight stays unmoving, swinging the "gate" on the hinge.

text: The advantage of a horizontal pendulum is that it achieves very low frequencies of oscillation in a compact instrument. The "gate" is slightly tilted, so the weight tends to slowly return to a central position. The pendulum is adjusted (before the damping is installed) to oscillate once per three seconds, or once per thirty seconds. The general-purpose instruments of small stations or amateurs usually oscillate once per ten seconds. A pan of oil is placed under the arm, and a small sheet of metal mounted on the underside of the arm drags in the oil to damp oscillations. The level of oil, position on the arm, and angle and size of sheet is adjusted until the damping is "critical," that is, almost having oscillation. The hinge is very low friction, often torsion wires, so the only friction is the internal friction of the wire. Small seismographs with low proof masses are placed in a vacuum to reduce disturbances from air currents.

text: Zollner described torsionally suspended horizontal pendulums as early as 1869, but developed them for gravimetry rather than seismometry.

text: Early seismometers had an arrangement of levers on jeweled bearings, to scratch smoked glass or paper. Later, mirrors reflected a light beam to a direct-recording plate or roll of photographic paper. Briefly, some designs returned to mechanical movements to save money. In mid-twentieth-century systems, the light was reflected to a pair of differential electronic photosensors called a photomultiplier. The voltage generated in the photomultiplier was used to drive galvanometers which had a small mirror mounted on the axis. The moving reflected light beam would strike the surface of the turning drum, which was covered with photo-sensitive paper. The expense of developing photo sensitive paper caused many seismic observatories to switch to ink or thermal-sensitive paper.

text: Modern instruments[edit]

text: Modern instruments use electronic sensors, amplifiers, and recording devices. Most are broadband covering a wide range of frequencies. Some seismometers can measure motions with frequencies from 500 Hz to 0.00118 Hz (1/500 = 0.002 seconds per cycle, to 1/0.00118 = 850 seconds per cycle). The mechanical suspension for horizontal instruments remains the garden-gate described above. Vertical instruments use some kind of constant-force suspension, such as the LaCoste suspension. The LaCoste suspension uses a zero-length spring to provide a long period (high sensitivity).[12][13] Some modern instruments use a "triaxial" design, in which three identical motion sensors are set at the same angle to the vertical but 120 degrees apart on the horizontal. Vertical and horizontal motions can be computed from the outputs of the three sensors.

text: Seismometers unavoidably introduce some distortion into the signals they measure, but professionally designed systems have carefully characterized frequency transforms.

text: Modern sensitivities come in three broad ranges: geophones, 50 to 750 V/m; local geologic seismographs, about 1,500 V/m; and teleseismographs, used for world survey, about 20,000 V/m. Instruments come in three main varieties: short period, long period and broadband. The short and long period measure velocity and are very sensitive, however they 'clip' the signal or go off-scale for ground motion that is strong enough to be felt by people. A 24-bit analog-to-digital conversion channel is commonplace. Practical devices are linear to roughly one part per million.

text: Delivered seismometers come with two styles of output: analog and digital. Analog seismographs require analog recording equipment, possibly including an analog-to-digital converter. The output of a digital seismograph can be simply input to a computer. It presents the data in a standard digital format (often "SE2" over Ethernet).

text: Teleseismometers[edit]

text: The modern broadband seismograph can record a very broad range of frequencies. It consists of a small "proof mass", confined by electrical forces, driven by sophisticated electronics. As the earth moves, the electronics attempt to hold the mass steady through a feedback circuit. The amount of force necessary to achieve this is then recorded.

text: In most designs the electronics holds a mass motionless relative to the frame. This device is called a "force balance accelerometer". It measures acceleration instead of velocity of ground movement. Basically, the distance between the mass and some part of the frame is measured very precisely, by a linear variable differential transformer. Some instruments use a linear variable differential capacitor.

text: That measurement is then amplified by electronic amplifiers attached to parts of an electronic negative feedback loop. One of the amplified currents from the negative feedback loop drives a coil very like a loudspeaker, except that the coil is attached to the mass, and the magnet is mounted on the frame. The result is that the mass stays nearly motionless.

text: Most instruments measure directly the ground motion using the distance sensor. The voltage generated in a sense coil on the mass by the magnet directly measures the instantaneous velocity of the ground. The current to the drive coil provides a sensitive, accurate measurement of the force between the mass and frame, thus measuring directly the ground's acceleration (using f=ma where f=force, m=mass, a=acceleration).

text: One of the continuing problems with sensitive vertical seismographs is the buoyancy of their masses. The uneven changes in pressure caused by wind blowing on an open window can easily change the density of the air in a room enough to cause a vertical seismograph to show spurious signals. Therefore, most professional seismographs are sealed in rigid gas-tight enclosures. For example, this is why a common Streckeisen model has a thick glass base that must be glued to its pier without bubbles in the glue.

text: It might seem logical to make the heavy magnet serve as a mass, but that subjects the seismograph to errors when the Earth's magnetic field moves. This is also why seismograph's moving parts are constructed from a material that interacts minimally with magnetic fields. A seismograph is also sensitive to changes in temperature so many instruments are constructed from low expansion materials such as nonmagnetic invar.

text: The hinges on a seismograph are usually patented, and by the time the patent has expired, the design has been improved. The most successful public domain designs use thin foil hinges in a clamp.

text: Another issue is that the transfer function of a seismograph must be accurately characterized, so that its frequency response is known. This is often the crucial difference between professional and amateur instruments. Most instruments are characterized on a variable frequency shaking table.

text: Strong-motion seismometers[edit]

text: Another type of seismometer is a digital strong-motion seismometer, or accelerograph. The data from such an instrument is essential to understand how an earthquake affects man-made structures, through earthquake engineering. The recordings of such instruments are crucial for the assessment of seismic hazard, through engineering seismology.

text: A strong-motion seismometer measures acceleration. This can be mathematically integrated later to give velocity and position. Strong-motion seismometers are not as sensitive to ground motions as teleseismic instruments but they stay on scale during the strongest seismic shaking.

text: Strong motion sensors are used for intensity meter applications.

text: Other forms[edit]

text: Accelerographs and geophones are often heavy cylindrical magnets with a spring-mounted coil inside. As case moves, the coil tends to stay stationary, so the magnetic field cuts the wires, inducing current in the output wires. They receive frequencies from several hundred hertz down to 1 Hz. Some have electronic damping, a low-budget way to get some of the performance of the closed-loop wide-band geologic seismographs.

text: Strain-beam accelerometers constructed as integrated circuits are too insensitive for geologic seismographs (2002), but are widely used in geophones.

text: Some other sensitive designs measure the current generated by the flow of a non-corrosive ionic fluid through an electret sponge or a conductive fluid through a magnetic field.

text: Interconnected seismometers[edit]

text: Seismometers spaced in an array can also be used to precisely locate, in three dimensions, the source of an earthquake, using the time it takes for seismic waves to propagate away from the hypocenter, the initiating point of fault rupture (See also Earthquake location). Interconnected seismometers are also used, as part of the International Monitoring System to detect underground nuclear test explosions, as well as for Earthquake early warning systems. These seismometers are often used as part of a large scale governmental or scientific project, but some organizations such as the Quake-Catcher Network, can use residential size detectors built into computers to detect earthquakes as well.

text: In reflection seismology, an array of seismometers image sub-surface features. The data are reduced to images using algorithms similar to tomography. The data reduction methods resemble those of computer-aided tomographic medical imaging X-ray machines (CAT-scans), or imaging sonars.

text: A worldwide array of seismometers can actually image the interior of the Earth in wave-speed and transmissivity. This type of system uses events such as earthquakes, impact events or nuclear explosions as wave sources. The first efforts at this method used manual data reduction from paper seismograph charts. Modern digital seismograph records are better adapted to direct computer use. With inexpensive seismometer designs and internet access, amateurs and small institutions have even formed a "public seismograph network".[14]

text: Seismographic systems used for petroleum or other mineral exploration historically used an explosive and a wireline of geophones unrolled behind a truck. Now most short-range systems use "thumpers" that hit the ground, and some small commercial systems have such good digital signal processing that a few sledgehammer strikes provide enough signal for short-distance refractive surveys. Exotic cross or two-dimensional arrays of geophones are sometimes used to perform three-dimensional reflective imaging of subsurface features. Basic linear refractive geomapping software (once a black art) is available off-the-shelf, running on laptop computers, using strings as small as three geophones. Some systems now come in an 18" (0.5 m) plastic field case with a computer, display and printer in the cover.

text: Small seismic imaging systems are now sufficiently inexpensive to be used by civil engineers to survey foundation sites, locate bedrock, and find subsurface water.

text: Recording[edit]

text: Today, the most common recorder is a computer with an analog-to-digital converter, a disk drive and an internet connection; for amateurs, a PC with a sound card and associated software is adequate. Most systems record continuously, but some record only when a signal is detected, as shown by a short-term increase in the variation of the signal, compared to its long-term average (which can vary slowly because of changes in seismic noise)[citation needed], also known as a STA/LTA trigger.

text: Prior to the availability of digital processing of seismic data in the late 1970s, the records were done in a few different forms on different types of media. A "Helicorder" drum was a device used to record data into photographic paper or in the form of paper and ink. A "Develocorder" was a machine that record data from up to 20 channels into a 16-mm film. The recorded film can be viewed by a machine. The reading and measuring from these types of media can be done by hand. After the digital processing has been used, the archives of the seismic data were recorded in magnetic tapes. Due to the deterioration of older magnetic tape medias, large number of waveforms from the archives are not recoverable.[15][16]


document_title: Nitrogenous base

question_text: what type of bond joins the nitrogenous bases in dna

text: Nitrogenous base

text: A nitrogenous base, or nitrogen-containing   base, is an organic molecule with a nitrogen atom that has the chemical properties of a base. The main biological function of a nitrogenous base is to bond nucleic acids together. A nitrogenous base owes its basic properties to the lone pair of electrons of a nitrogen atom.

text: Nitrogenous bases are typically classified as the derivatives of two parent compounds, pyrimidine and purine.[1] They are non-polar and due to their aromaticity, planar. Both pyrimidines and purines resemble pyridine and are thus weak bases and relatively unreactive towards electrophilic aromatic substitution.[2]

text: Role in nucleic acids[edit]

text: In the biological sciences, nitrogenous bases are increasingly termed nucleobases because of their role in nucleic acids - their flat shape is particularly important when considering their roles as the building blocks of DNA and RNA. A set of five nitrogenous bases is used in the construction of nucleotides, which in turn build up nucleic acids like DNA and RNA. These nitrogenous bases are adenine (A), uracil (U), guanine (G), thymine (T), and cytosine (C). The nitrogenous bases form hydrogen bonds between opposing DNA strands to form the rungs of the "twisted ladder" or double helix of DNA or a biological catalyst that is found in the nucleotides. Adenine is always paired with thymine, and guanine is always paired with cytosine. These are known as base pairs. Uracil is only present in RNA, replacing thymine. Pyrimidines include thymine, cytosine, and uracil. They have a single ring structure. Purines include adenine and guanine. They have a double ring structure.[3]